1202 CE Quakes

Fig. 16. Map of intensity distribution for May 20, 1202 earthquake
(Ambraseys and Melville, 1988). Shaded zone is the most affected
region. (from Sbeinati et al, 2005)

AD 1202 May 20 Baalbek

A large earthquake occurred in the Middle East around daybreak on 20 May 1202. It was felt across an area of radius 500 km: from the Nile Delta in the south to Lesser Armenia in the north and from Cyprus in the west to the eastern parts of Syria. It caused widespread damage in Syria. In Tyre, everything, with the exception of three towers and some outlying fortifications, was destroyed. A third of Acre was probably destroyed, with considerable damage to the royal palace and the walls, although the Knights Templar complex in the southwest of the city was spared. At least some repairs took place in both cities. Inland, in Samaria (Shamrin) and Hauran, dam- age was equally severe. It was reported that Safa was partially destroyed, resulting in the deaths of all but the son of the garrison commander. Also Hunin (Chastel Neuf), Baniyas (Paneas) and Tibnin (Toron) were badly affected. The walls at Bait Jann collapsed. A landslide reportedly razed a village near Busra to the ground and Nablus was totally flattened, except for a few walls, and may have sustained further damage in an aftershock. Most of the towns of the Hauran were so badly damaged as to be rendered unidentifiable.

Jerusalem suffered relatively little, but further north Damascus was strongly shaken. Many houses apparently collapsed and major buildings near the citadel were damaged. The Ummayad mosque lost its eastern minaret and 16 crenellations on its north wall. One man died when the Jirun (eastern) gate fell and the lead dome split in two and one of the other minarets fissured. The adjacent Kallasa mosque was ruined, killing two people, and the nearby Nur ed Din Hospital was completely flattened. People fled to the safety of open spaces.

Further north, houses collapsed in Jubail (Gibelet), the battlements of the walls of Beirut had to be repaired and Batun was damaged, but this damage may have been due, at least partially, to military attacks. Rock falls on Mt Lebanon killed 200 people and nearby Baalbek was almost totally ruined. Damage to Tripoli was probably substantial, since it is said that there was loss of life. The castles of Arches (`Arqa) and Arsum (`Arima?) were almost destroyed, and Chastel Blanc (Safitha) was badly weakened, while the castles of Margat (Marqab), Krak (Hisn al-Akrad) and Barin suffered some damage but remained secure. Tarsus (Tortosa) largely escaped damage, however. At Hims (Homs, Emessa) the earthquake caused a castle watchtower to collapse. In Hamah there were two shocks, the first lasting for a long time, then a second, stronger shock, which destroyed the castle and many other buildings.

The earthquake was felt in Aleppo and other regional capitals, and less strongly in Antioch. It was perceptible at a few places further away, such as Mosul and in Mesopotamia, at Akhlat and from Qus on the Nile. In Egypt, the shock was felt in Alexandria and in Cairo woke sleepers and shook buildings, threatening the collapse of tall structures. In Cyprus the earthquake was felt, causing no damage, but it was felt strongly on the east coast of the island, where a seismic sea wave flooded the eastern coast of Cyprus and the coast of Syria. The death toll is uncertain bacause the earthquake coincided with famine and plague, but it must have been high, since it struck at daybreak when most people were still in bed.

Aftershocks lasting at least four days were reported in Hamah, Damascus and Cairo. For an attempt to locate a probable coseismic surface fault break the basis of exclusively on geomorphology, see Ellenblum et al. (1998) and Daeron et al. (2005) This earthquake has been examined by Ambraseys and Melville (1988). However, new data have been found, and the intensity has been re-evaluated using a modified version of the MSK intensity scale, which takes into account the high vulnerability of the building stock in the region, necessitating a review of the original conclusions. Also because of the importance of the event and for the sake of completeness, a summary and full translations of the most important sources are given here.

This was a major earthquake in the upper Jordan and Litani Valleys, responsible for tens of thousands of casualties in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Owing to the Crusader presence in the Levant, information on the effects of the earthquake is available from both Chritian and Muslim authors. Both sets of data naturally refer most particularly to the territory belonging to their respective sides, but they complement each other to a large degree. It is clear that most of the chronological confusion surrounding the event has been caused by the uncritical use of Muslim chronicles. It is also remarkable that hardly any use has been made of western sources, which are far more accessible to most European authors and unambiguously resolve the dating of the earthquake. These works, though largely ignored by earthquake cataloguers, are of course well known to the historians of the Crusades (e.g. Rehricht 1898).

The political context of the earthquake is briefly outlined in Mayer (1972; 1989; see also [1, 2]) and more fully in Cahen (1940), Runciman (1951; 1952; 1954; 1965) and Setton (1969), where detailed reference is made to the narrative sources available. The Crusader states had been greatly reduced by Saladin's campaign of 1187 and only partially reconstituted by the Third Crusade, most of their defenses being in a vulnerable state of repair. Regarding the non-Muslim accounts, it is unfortunate that the main political and military developments at this time were taking place outside the Levant, in preparation for the ill-fated Fourth Crusade. The focus is not, therefore, so clearly on events in the east, where the Crusader states were on the defensive and greatly reduced in terms of their sphere of operations. Most of the few places retained by the Christians are mentioned in European accounts, all in the truncated kingdom of Jerusalem and the county of Tripoli, on or near the coastal strip. No details of wider effects in the Syrian hinterland are given in Christian sources. Similarly, no details of the shock further north, in the principality of Antioch, are provided, beyond the indications that it was not severe there.

The two letters from the Hospitaller and Templar Grand Masters published in Mayer (1972) contain the fullest occidental accounts and refer particularly to the possessions of their respective Orders. Very few additional details are found in other sources (among them the references to Jubail in various texts of the Annales de Terre Sainte). As demonstrated by Mayer, the near contemporary account of Robert of Auxerre (died 1212) has many points of similarity with Philip du Plessis' description. Variations of date occur in the Christian sources, but not concerning the year. William of Nangis (died c. 1300) gives 30 May, three days before Ascension (which was in fact on 23 May in 1202). Felix Fabri (fl. 1480) has 30 March. The Barletta manuscript (Kohler 1901, 401) appears to read 3 March. Most of these sources are telegraphic, containing only general information.

Arabic sources from the Muslim areas surrounding the Christian states naturally offer a broader perspective and provide the most information. Just as both the contemporary European letters date the earthquake to Monday 20 May 1202, so do a comparable pair of Arabic letters from Hamah and Damascus. These were received by `Abd al-Latif b. al-Labbad al-Baghdadi, who was in Cairo at the time of the earthquake and wrote his account in Ramadan 600/May 1204, two years after the event. Both he and the letters he transcribes give the date as early on the morning of Monday 26 Sha'aban 598 hijri (Muslim calendar = 21 May 1202, which was a Tuesday) or 25 Pashon (Coptic calendar = Monday 20 May). A discrepancy of one day is common when converting from the Muslim calendar. As noted above, the latter date is confirmed by the contemporary European accounts. Abu Shama, quoting the testimony of al-'Izz Muhammad b. Taj al-Umana' (died a.H. 643/AD 1245), also had Monday 26 Sha'ban, 598 or 20 Ab (Syriac calendar = August (sic.) 1202).

There can thus be no doubt that the correct Muslim year is 598 a.H. which runs from 1 October 1201 to 19 September 1202. Unfortunately other later Arabic texts contain variations on the date of the earthquake and in some cases split its effects into accounts of separate events in different years. The most influential of these alternative texts is that of Ibn al-Athir of Mosul (died 1233), who has a general account of the earthquakes felt throughout Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria and elsewhere, dated Sha'ban 597 a.H. which is a year early. It is not clear whether he refers to the same event. His account is followed almost verbatim in the Syriac Chronicle of Bar Hebraeus (Abu 'l-Faraj, died 1286), and in greatly abbreviated form by Abu 'l-Fida (died 1331), under 597 a.H. Another early source, Abu 1-Fada'il of Hamah (c. 1233) has a brief notice of the shock under 597 a.H. It is of interest that he does not refer to the shock in Hamah, but mentions that it destroyed most of the towns belonging to the 'Franks'. Reconciling these accounts is no problem; it is simply that an error of one year has occurred.

A greater problem is introduced since Ibn al- Athir has another, shorter but similar, account of the (same) earthquake under the year 600 a.H. (10 September 1203 to 28 August 1204), without specifying the month. He says that the shock destroyed the walls of Tyre and also affected Sicily and Cyprus. This 'second' earthquake is once more reported by Bar Hebraeus and Abu 'l-Fida. A similar account, with the addition of new information that the shock was felt in Sabta (Ceuta), is given by Ibn Wasil (died 1298). Since Ibn Wasil was a native of Hamah, it is surprising that he does not have access to independent local information. Neither does he have any reference to the shock under 597 or 598 a.H. It is not clear why Ibn al-Athir should duplicate his account under the dates 597 and 600 a.H., but it is perhaps sufficient to note that this sort of duplication is not uncommon in both European and Islamic medieval chronicles. Within this repetition, there must be some echo of large aftershocks or a prolonged period of seismic activity.

Two separate notices are also found in the chronicle of Sibt b. al-Jauzi (died 1256), this time under 597 and 598 a.H. The first account, under Sha'ban 597 a.H. echoes that of `Abd al-Latif, while mentioning a few additional places. The date, however, is the one given by Ibn al-Athir. Sibt b. al-Jauzi supports this date by saying (480) that after these earthquakes in a.H. 597/AD 1201, both 'Imad al-Din (the historian whose work he had earlier quoted for an account of the famine in Egypt that year) and the author's own grandfather (the historian Ibn al-Jauzi) died. It is generally accepted that both men did indeed die in this year and thus 'before the earthquake'. This is awkward to explain, but the author is probably trying to rationalise two conflicting pieces of chronological data. He is not so much dating the deaths by reference to the earthquake as accommodating the false date that he has accepted for the earthquake within the sequence of other events that year. Under the correct year, 598 a.H. he has a much briefer account, describing damage to the castles at Hims and Hisn al-akrad. He says the shock extended to Cyprus and destroyed what was left of Nablus (i.e. after the first earthquake). This implies two shocks. On the other hand, Sibt b. al-Jauzi's second account is not unlike Ibn al-Athir's second account (under 600 a.H.), and may again simply be an attempt to accommodate the conflicting dates. It is significant that Sibt b. al-Jauzi has no report of an earthquake under 600 a.H. Abu Shama, who quotes Sibt b. al-Jauzi's accounts under 597 and 598 a.H. in turn, in both cases cites the additional testimony of al'Izz b. Taj al-umana', a descendant of Ibn `Asakir and continuator of the latter's Biographical History of Damascus (Cahen, 1940). It is clear that the first part of Sibt b. al-Jauzi's 597 a.H. account also follows al-'Izz. Under 598 a.H. al-'Izz records the effect of the shock in northern Syria and in Damascus, with some minor details in addition to those provided by `Abd al-Latif.

A1-Suyuti summarises the dating confusion found in his sources, by entering the earthquake under 597 a.H. (quoting al-Dhahabi, `Ibar and Sibt b. al-Jauzi), 598 a.H. (quoting Sibt b. al-Jauzi) and 600 a.H. (citing Ibn al-Athir). Later sources add no details. It is worth noting that the Aleppo author Ibn al-'Adim (died 1262) makes no reference to the earthquake under any of the years found elsewhere.

Despite the conspicuous duality of accounts in almost all Muslim sources, probably reflecting protracted aftershock activity, there remains no evidence of more than one principal but multiple earthquake. Apart from the silence of contemporary occidental and oriental authors, `Abd al-Latif was in a position to record separate earthquakes in both 597 and 600 a.H. had they occurred. The amalgamation of these several accounts therefore removes much of the mystery surrounding the a.H. 598/AD 1202 event, and allows a coherent identification of its effects and the area over which it was felt. Many sources speak of strong effects and significant damage along the Mediterranean littoral of Syria, affecting both the 'Franks' and the 'Saracens' (Abu 'l-Fada'il, fol. 113a-b; Hethum Gor'igos, 480, Ibn al- Furat, 240). Specifically, the two main Christian centres, Acre and Tyre, were severely damaged, with loss of life. Contemporary letters (Mayer 1972) speak of damage to walls and towers in both cities, including the palace at Acre. The house of the Templars in Acre (in the southwest of the city, see Enlart 1928, 23) was, however, fortunately spared. All but three towers and some outlying fortifications were destroyed in Tyre, together with churches and many houses. The English chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall (died 1228) says that most of Tyre and one third of Acre were overthrown (Cogg. 141-2). Muslim sources largely confirm this, `Abd al-Latif stating that the greatest part of Acre and one third of Tyre were destroyed. Intensities in Tyre may be assessed as having been higher than those in Acre, respectively about IX and VIII. Funds were made available for both cities to be reconstructed (L'Estoire de Eracles, 245; Sanuto ii, 203), though no specific indication of the extent of these repairs is available (Enlart 1928, 4, Deschamps 1939, 137).

Inland from the Christian territories, in Shamrin (Samaria) and Hauran, damage was equally serious. It was reported that Safad was partially ruined, with the loss of all but the son of the garrison commander; also Hunin (Chastel Neuf), Baniyas (Paneas) and Tibnin (Toron) were badly affected. At Bait Jann (Bedegene), not even the foundations of walls remained standing, everything having been 'swallowed up'. Two possibilities present themselves for the identification of Bait Jann out of the three noted by de Sacy in `Abd al-Latif (446), both being known to the Crusaders (see Dussaud 1927, 7, 391). The first is 10 km west of Safad and the second on the road between Damascus and Baniyas (see Ibn Jubayr (300), who described it as situated in between the mountains). The context in which Bait Jann is mentioned by `Abd al- Latif allows either alternative to be acceptable, but the second .is preferred here because the location was better known as marking the boundary between Muslims and Franks before the conquests of Saladin (cf. Deschamps 1939, 146). In Nablus there was total destruction except for some walls in the 'Street of the Samaritans', while in Hauran province most of the towns were so badly damaged that they could not be readily identified (`Abd al- Latif, 417, Sibt b. al-Jauzi, 478). It is said that one of the villages around Busra was completely destroyed, perhaps by landslides (Ibn al-Athir, xii, 112).

To the south of this area, Jerusalem suffered lightly, according to the information available to `Abd al- Latif (415, 417). His account indicates that further north, however, Damascus was strongly shaken. A number of houses are reported to have collapsed and besides the destruction in town, major buildings near the citadel were damaged. The Umayyad mosque lost its eastern minaret and 16 ornamental battlements along its north wall. One man was killed in the collapse of the Jirun (eastern) gate of the mosque. The lead dome of the mosque was split in two and one other minaret fissured (cf. Le Strange 1890, 241). The adjacent Kallasa mosque was ruined, killing a North African and a Mamluk slave (Abu Shama, 29, quoting al-'Izz). This building had been founded in 1160 by Nur al-Din and restored by Saladin in 1189 after its destruction by fire (Elisseeff 1967, 294). West of the mosque, Nur ad Din's hospital was completely destroyed. People fled for the safety of open spaces. The shock in Damascus was of long duration and old men could not recall ever .having felt such a severe tremor (`Abd al-Latif, 416-417). Previous destructive earthquakes had occurred in 1157 and 1170. Another slight shock was felt early the following morning (Abu Shama, 29), and aftershocks continued for at least four days (`Abd al-Latif, 417). Further north, houses are said to have collapsed at Jubail (Gibelet), which had recently been recovered by the German Crusade (1197), restoring the land link between the Kingdom of Acre and the County of Tripoli (Annales de Terre Sainte, 435, Chronique de Terre Sainte, 16). The walls of Beirut, also regained in 1197, are said to have been repaired at about this time following earthquake damage (variant readings in L'Estoire de Eracles (244-245) incorrectly under 1200; likewise Ernoul, 338). The fact that the Prince of Batrun, a Pisan, granted his compatriots remission of taxation early in 1202 indicates that this town too suffered damage (Muralt 1871, 264). The extent of the destruction is not easy to assess in these places. The walls of Jubail were dismantled by Saladin in 1190 and were probably not rebuilt after the Christian takeover. Wilbrand of Oldenburg, who visited Jubail in 1211, found only a strong citadel, and a similar situation in Beirut and Batrun (166-167; cf. Rey 1871, 121). There is therefore the danger that the extensive military operations in the period before and during the Third Crusade are misreported as earthquake damage, and even if this is not the case, some of these castles may have been rendered more vulnerable by acts of warfare. Inland rock falls from Mt Lebanon, however, overwhelmed about 200 people from Baalbek who were gathering rhubarb. Baalbek itself was destroyed despite its strength and solidity (`Abd al-Latif, 416).

In the County of Tripoli, the Christian sources disagree slightly on the degree of damage to Tripoli itself, though both main accounts refer to heavy loss of life (Mayer 1972). Ibn al-Athir (xii, 112) also refers to the heavy damage there, suggesting intensities not less than VIII. Other strongholds were severely shaken. The castle of 'Arco (Arches) was ruined and deserted villages in the area were taken by Philip du Plessis to indicate heavy loss of life, but perhaps this simply implied the flight of the inhabitants, since famine and sickness were also rife. It may be noted that Rey (1871, 92) cites `Abd al-Latif and Robert of Auxerre concerning an earthquake in Sha'ban 597 (sic.)120 May 1202 that destroyed Jebel `Akkar and Chastel Blanc, falsely equating `Archas' with `Akkar, which the occidentals called Gibelcar. The destruction of `Arqa is also mentioned by Arab writers (`Abd al-Latif, 417, Abu Shama, 29). Philip du Plessis records the complete destruction of the castle at `Arsum', which is not satisfactorily identified but perhaps refers to `Arima. Mayer (1972, 304) is reluctant to identify Arsum but points to the possibility of Arsuf, near Caesarea. Support for this is found in the account of the pilgrimage of Wilbrand of Oldenburg, who in 1212 found the small ruined town of `Arsim' (Arsuf) on his way to Ramla (184). As Mayer mentions, however, the letter seems to refer rather to a place in Tripoli, and `Arima is suggested on the grounds (1) that it probably belonged to the Templars and (2) it was one of the few strongholds retained by the Christians in the truce that ended the Third Crusade (Setton 1969, i. 664). It is situated a few miles south-southwest of Chastel Blanc. Philip further reported that the greater part of the walls of the Templar stronghold Chastel Blanc (Safitha) had fallen and the keep had been weakened to such an extent that it would have been better had it collapsed completely. `Abd al-Latif (417) also mentions the destruction of the castle. The castle keep was probably rebuilt using existing materials (Deschamps 1977, 257-258). Tortosa (Tartus), however, its Templar citadel and notably the Cathedral of Notre Dame seem largely to have been spared (Berchem and Fatio 1914, 323; Enlart 1928, 397).

The Grand Master of the Hospitallers (Geoffrey of Donjon) wrote that their strongholds at Margat (Marqab) and Krak were badly damaged but could probably still hold their own in the event of attack. Damage to Krak (Hisn al-akrad) is also mentioned in the account of Sibt b. al-Jauzi (510). In the same vicinity, but in Muslim, hands, the castle of Barin (Montferrand), despite its compactness and fineness, was also damaged (`Abd al-Latif, 416).

There is little additional evidence to help assess the intensities indicated by these reports. Authors of studies of military architecture (e.g. Rey 1871, Deschamps 1934; 1977) on the whole use documentary evidence of earthquakes to support the chronology and identification of building phases at the castles, rather than documentary or archaeological evidence of rebuilding to indicate the extent of earthquake damage. Indeed, it is interesting that Deschamps, unaware of the reports of earthquake damage at Marqab in 1202, makes no reference to this specific period as being one of substantial building at the castle (Deschamps 1977, 282-284), whereas in the case of Krak, damage done by the earthquake is thought to have been responsible for some of the reconstruction work analysed (Deschamps 1934, 281). Even so, the fact that the knights of Krak were frequently on the offensive in the next few years after 1203, and were joined by the knights from Marqab, is thought to indicate that both castles Were 'already in a perfect state of defence'. These raids may rather suggest that attack was the best form of defence. Nevertheless, the circumstantial testimony by Geoffrey can be taken at face value and is supported by the fact that Marqab successfully resisted a counter-attack by al-Malik al-Zahir, amir of Aleppo, in a.H. 601/AD 1204-1205 (Ibn Wasil, iii. 165). Both Marqab and Krak were visited in 1211 by Wilbrand of Oldenburg and seemed to his probably unprofessional gaze to be very strong, the latter housing 2000 defendants (169-170). Few details are available about Barin, which was finally dismantled in 1238-39 (Deschamps 1977, 322). It seems unlikely that intensities exceeding VII coupled with a long duration of shaking were experienced at any of these strongholds.

In neighbouring Muslim territory, the shock was experienced at similar intensities in Hims (Hons, Emessa), where a watchtower of the castle was thrown down (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, 510), and Hamah, where the earthquake was experienced as two shocks, the first lasting 'an hour' and the second shorter but stronger. Despite its strength, the castle was destroyed, together with houses and other buildings. Two further shocks followed in the afternoon (`Abd al-Latif, 416). Considerable damage to houses in both towns is implied by Ibn al-Athir (xii, 112).

Further north, the earthquake is said to have been felt in Aleppo and other regional capitals (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, 478), and also in Antioch, though less strongly (Geoffrey of Donjon). It was also reported as being perceptible in Mosul and throughout the districts of Mesapotamia, as far as Iraq. Azerbaijan, Armenia, parts of Anatolia and the town of Akhlat are said to have experienced the earthquake (Ibn al-Athir, xii, 112; Sibt b. al-Jauzi, 478).

In the south, the shock was felt throughout Egypt from Qus to Alexandria. Sibt b. al-Jauzi (478, probably quoting al-'Izz) says that the shock came from al-Sa'id and extended into Syria, al-Sa'id being the region south of Fustat (Old Cairo) down to Aswan (Yaqut, iii, 392). In Cairo, the shock was of long duration and aroused sleepers, who jumped from their beds in fear. Three violent shocks were reported, shaking buildings, doors and roofs. Only tall or vulnerable buildings were particularly affected, and those on high ground, seemed on the verge of collapse (`Abd al-Latif, 414-415). The details provided indicate that Egypt experienced shaking of long duration, as is typical of other large earthquakes occurring at great epicentral distances away (Ambraseys 1991; 2001).

Another earthquake, probably of considerable magnitude, was felt at about midday the same morning, probably the one reported from Hamah at midday on Tuesday 27 Sha'ban (21 May). It should have been a large shock but its effects cannot be separated from those of the main shock.

The shocks were felt in Cyprus, which had been under Frankish rule since 1191, the earthquake causing some damage to churches, belfries and other buildings (Annales 5689, fol. 108b; `Abd al-Latif, 415; Ibn al-Athir, xii, 130). Damage to buildings is not, however, very well attested and it is noteworthy that most of the `cypriot chronicles' refer only to damage on the mainland. In the words of the Arabic authors, the sea between Cyprus and the coast 'parted and mountainous waves were piled up, throwing ships up onto the land'. It is said that the eastern parts of the island and of the Syrian coast were flooded and numbers of fish were left stranded (`Abd al-Latif, 415; Ibn Mankali in Taher 1979). The significance of this seismic sea wave is discussed below.

The loss of life caused by this earthquake and its aftershocks is difficult to estimate. A figure frequently quoted in Arab sources is 1 100 000 dead (e.g. al-Dhahabi, iv, 296, al-Suyuti, 47) for the year 597-598 a.H. (AD 1201-2). This specifically includes those dying of famine and the epidemic consequent on the failure of the Nile floods, graphically described by `Abd al-Latif, who notes 111 000 (sic.) deaths in Cairo alone between 596 and 598 a.H. (412). More realistically, the figure of 30 000 casualties is given, primarily, it would seem, in the Nablus area (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, 478). No reliance can be placed on such figures, but the fact that the main shock occurred at dawn, when most people were in bed, without noticeable foreshocks, probably contributed to a high death toll.

Aftershocks were reported from Hamah, Damascus and Cairo, for at least four days (`Abd al-Latif, 417; Abu Shama, 29), one of which, apparently felt in Cairo and Hamah, must have been a large event. There remains the possibility that the aftershock sequence was terminated with a destructive shock that totally destroyed what was left of Nablus, but it seems preferable to consider both reports by Sibt b. al-Jauzi as referring to the same shock. Whatever the exact sequence of events, the cumulative effects of the earthquake were clearly very serious. Most of the sites affected in the epicentral region must have needed total reconstruction or major repairs, although in most cases the evidence is circumstantial, not specific.

More information can be found in Abu Shama (Dhayl 18v, 29r), Alexandre (1990, 170), Rohricht (1893, 1114); Alb. Mil., Amadi, Fabri, Ibn al-Furat (k. 132), Het'um (Chron.), Ibn al-Dawadari, Katib Celebi, Mem. Edm. Abb.; Nuwairi (118v) and Sal. Ad. 23 (see below).

In contrast to authors of earlier studies, who assign to the event an excessive radius of perceptibility of over 1000 km, we find that in fact the area within which the earthquake was generally felt was confined to an area of radius only about 500 km.

To the south and close to the epicentral area Jerusalem suffered lightly. There is no evidence that the shock was felt west of Cyprus, that is on Crete, the Aegean Islands, or mainland Greece, and this during a period for which occidental and local sources from coastal areas are not lacking. Also the shaking reported in and around Constantinople on or after 1 March 1202 obviously was not from the earthquake of 20 May (Nicetas, 701 (19).

Moreover, no evidence for an earthquake has been recovered in the western Mediterranean area. The earthquake is said to have been felt as far away as Sicily (Ibn al-Athir, xii, 130) and Ceuta (Ibn Wasil, iii, 161), but this lacks confirmation in the annals of the Muslim west, which was dominated by the Almohads during this period.

The occurrence of a seismic sea wave between Cyprus and the Syrian coast, 50-100 km from the epicentral region, is difficult to understand. It may be explained by invoking the generation of a large-scale subaqueous slide from the continental margin of Syria by the earthquake. North of Acre the continental shelf narrows to a few kilometres and off the coast of Lebanon the continental slope steepens from near Acre northwards to an average of 10°. Under these circumstances, the principal cause of a seismic sea wave could be submarine sliding and slumping. The whole of that coast is certainly prone to slumping because of evaporites in the sedimentary section.

Its epicentral region, within which intensities were high, forms a narrow inland strip about 200 km long and 40 km wide extending from Nablus in the south to 'Arca in the north. The number of sites at which intensities can be assessed is obviously insufficient to allow the construction of a proper isoseismal map (but cf. Sieberg 1932b). However, it would appear that the maximum effects of the earthquake were experienced inland away from the coast, in the upper Jordan and Litani valleys, as well as the upper reaches of the Orontes river, in the vicinity of Baalbek. Several thousand people perhaps perished in this area. Without further details, it is difficult to indicate more precisely the exact location of the epicentral region. The vague details of severe damage in the Hauran district may suggest that the rupture zone was wide. Since most of the aftershocks were reported from the north (Hamah), it may be conjectured that the event nucleated in the south, near Nablus, and that it was completed by a second rupture that originated in the Tyre-Baalbek segment of the meizoseismal area. Apart from the statement that largescale landslides occurred on Mt Lebanon, there is no historical indication that this event was associated with faulting. However, field evidence suggests surface faulting that is perhaps associated with this and the earthquake of 1759 (Daeron et al. 2005).

The 20 May 1202 earthquake(s) may, however, be compared with the earthquake sequence between June 1759 and January 1760, which had almost exactly the same epicentral region. One important aspect of the 1759 earthquake, which is much better documented, is that it was associated with a 95-km-long fault break in the Bekaa, on the west side of the valley, many metres wide in places (Archives Nationales, 1759). It is not possible to assess the tectonic effects of the 1202 earthquake, which seems to have been multiple and comparable to the shock of 1759 in terms of location and the extent of faulting.

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

Figures 49 a & b from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)



(097) 1202 May 20 Western Syria Lebanon tsunami, landslides

• sources 1
  • Documents - Geoffrey of Donjon, Letter, June 1202 (in Mayer 1972, pp.306-8); Philip du Plessis, Letter, June 1202 (in Mayer 1972, pp.308-10); Marsilio Zorzi, Letter, October 1243, in Rohricht (1893, no.1114)
  • Annals and chronicles - Est. de Eracles, II, p.22; Ann. Terre Sainte, p.435; Chron. Terre Sainte, p.16; Rob. Aux., Chron., pp.261-2; Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi, Mukhtasar, pp.262-70; Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil, XII, pp.130, 180-1; Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi, Mir'at, VIII, p.331; al-qmad al-Isfahani, cit. in Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi, Mir'at, VIII, p.308, and in Abu Shama, al-Dhayl, fol.20; Ibn Munkala, al-Ahkam, fol.37; Ibn Wasil, Mufarraj, II, p.161; Ibn al-Wardi, Tatimmat, II, p.175; Abu '1-Fida, al- Mukhtasar, III, p.106; al-Suyuti, Kashf, pp.48-9
• sources 2 - Mich. Syr. Cont., 15.7, Chron., IV, p.586; Bar Hebr., Chron.; pp.406-7, 418; Chron. min. Arm., 11.2, p.61; Vita Innoc. pap. III, co1.503; Ralph Cogg., Chron., pp.141-2; Sicard, Chron., co1.619; Breviar. Patriar., p.401; Vinc. Beauv., Spec. hist., p.1209a; Ann. Utic.; Salimb. Adam, Cron., p.23; Milioli, Chron., p.654; Will. Nang., Chron., p.750; Sanudo "Elder", Liber, III, 11, p.1; Ernoul, Chron., XXXI; Pierozzi, Chron., p.104; Fabri Felix, Book, ad ann. 1202; Amadi, Chron., ad ann. 1202
• historiography - Rohricht (1898); Elisseeff (1967); Mayer (1972); Ducellier (1980)
• literature - Taher (1979); Ambraseys and Melville (1988); Guidoboni and Traina (1996); Ambraseys and Jackson (1998); Ellenblum et al. (1998)
• catalogues, d. - Manetti [1457]; Bonito (1691); von Hoff (1840); Perrey (1850); Mallet (1853); Sieberg (1932a); Grumel (1958); Step`anyan (1964); *Ben-Menahem (1979, 1991); *Ambraseys et al. (1994); Amiran et al. (1994)
• catalogues p. - Poirier and Taher (1980); al-Hakeem (1988); Bektur and Alpay (1988)
• catalogues Ts - Ambraseys (1962); Antonopoulos (1980); Soloviev et al. (2000)

This is one of the strongest and best documented seismic events in the Mediterranean area, the most advanced historical and seismological study of which has been provided by Ambraseys and Melville (1988). Their study includes important Latin and Arabic published sources. In the brief survey provided below, we have added Marsilio Zorzi's letter to the corpus of known sources.

Effects of the earthquake

At dawn on 20 May 1202 (about 02:40 UT), there was a very destructive earthquake affecting the oriental Mediterranean coast and hinterland of what are now Lebanon, Syria and Israel. Within the territories then ruled by the Crusaders, the most seriously damaged towns were Acre (now Akko) and Tyre (or Sur). At Acre, the town walls, royal palace and some towers were very badly damaged; a great many houses collapsed, but those belonging to the Knights Templars were unharmed. There were many deaths, but no numbers are given. At Tyre, all the walls collapsed, except for the outer barbicans, all but three of the towers, and also churches and houses. There was a very high death toll. Funds were allocated for reconstruction work in both towns. Inland, the towns of Baniyas and Safad (present-day Zefat) were partly destroyed. According to the sources, the only survivor at Safad was the governor's son. At Bayt Jinn, which stood on the road between Damascus and Baniyas, only the foundations of buildings remained; in many places, the town walls collapsed. There was also some destruction at Tibnin, as well as very extensive collapses in unidentified villages in the Hawran region (east of Lake Tiberias). One village was reduced to ruins near Busra ---- perhaps because of a landslide. Farther south, Nabulus (Nablus) completely collapsed, except for one district, and there was slight damage at Jerusalem.

The worst damage in the County of Tripoli (or Tarabulus) was at the castle of Archis, where the walls, as well as towers and houses, almost completely collapsed. There was serious damage at Gibelet (Jubayl) and many victims at Tripoli, but the sources are not in total agreement as to the extent of the damage there. At Baalbek, the citadel collapsed, in spite of its being a solid and stable construction. At Damascus, many houses collapsed, and there were many victims. The Umayyad mosque suffered damage in a number of places: the eastern minaret and 16 merlons collapsed, but the other minaret was simply damaged. The lead dome of the mausoleum of Nasr was damaged, and a large part of the Kallasa mosque collapsed, killing two people. The hospital of Nur al-Din also collapsed.

At Chastel Blanc (or Safita), most of the walls collapsed, and the main tower, although a well-built and solid structure, was seriously damaged and split open. The castle "Arsum" was also destroyed. It is difficult to ascribe a location to this castle, but Ambraseys and Melville (1988, p.191) suggest that it is to be identified with Arima (Qalat al-Uraymah), a few kilometres from Chastel Blanc. The castles of Crak des Chevaliers (or Hisn al-Akrad, present-day Qalat al-Hisn) and Margat (present-day Al- Marqab) were badly damaged, but remained capable of resisting any enemy attacks. The citadel at Hims was damaged, and its guard tower collapsed. The fortresses of Hamat and Ba`rin were damaged, in spite of their solid construction. The town of Tortosa (present-day Tartus) and its castle were slightly damaged. Three strong shocks were felt in Cairo. Buildings and doors shook, while ceilings, floors and anything unstable or in an elevated position collapsed. The inhabitants awoke in terror and fled screaming. Elsewhere in Egypt, the earthquake was felt at Damietta, Alexandria and Qus. The earthquake also struck the island of Cyprus, but the exact effects there are not known. The earthquake had a vast propagation zone. It was felt at Aleppo and Antioch, at Akhlat (now Ahlat) and its province, at Mosul, and in the regions of Mesopotamia, Iraq, Azerbaijan and part of Anatolia. There remain to be considered the puzzling references to Sicily and Sabta (i.e. Ceuta, a Moroccan town opposite Gibraltar), which appear in Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Wasil respectively. Ambraseys and Melville (1988) very cautiously include them amongst the localities and areas where the earthquake of 20 May 1202 was felt, pointing out that they are not mentioned anywhere else in western Arab sources, and that there are no other reports of effects at western Mediterranean locations. The problem is dealt with by Guidoboni and Traina (1996, pp.1216-9), who discuss the suggestion that, given their enormous distance from the epicentral area, the references to Sicily and Ceuta may concern separate earthquakes from that of 20 May 1202. The lack of other sources of information about effects in Sicily and Ceuta means that this problem remains unsolved. The major earthquake at dawn on 20 May was followed by other brief shocks towards noon on the same day which were slightly felt in Cairo. This may be the same earthquake recorded as having been felt by everyone at Hamat; but we are told that the earthquake at Hamat occurred at midday on Tuesday 21 May and was followed by another shock in the afternoon. Altogether, the shocks lasted for four days. The two Latin sources and the most important Arabic source to describe this earthquake agree as to the date. The letter from Geoffrey of Donjon and that from Philip du Plessis date it to Monday 20 May 1202; Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi and the two letters he quotes date it to Monday 26 Shdban in the year of the Hegira 598, which corresponds to 21 May 1202, but that day was a Tuesday. This discrepancy of a day is something one sometimes finds in the conversion of dates from the Muslim calendar, but it proves to be negligible since Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi himself also gives the date as 25 Bashansh [Pachons] in the Coptic calendar, a date which corresponds to 20 May. These two different traditions also agree in recording that the earthquake occurred at dawn or shortly before.

Environmental effects

Amongst the environmental effects of the earthquake, the sources mention a tsunami and substantial landslides and slips on the Lebanese mountains.

Earthquake on 20 May 1202: number and languages of the sources analysed no.32

1. Latin 17 (54%)
2. Arabic 9 (28%)
3. Vulgar French 3 (9%)
4. Vulgar Italian 1 (3%)
5. Syriac 1 (3%)
6. Armenian 1 (3%)

Tsunami

Gigantic waves rose up in the sea between Cyprus and the coast of Syria. The sea withdrew from the coast, ships were hurled on to the eastern coast of Cyprus, fish were thrown on to the shore, and lighthouses were damaged (see below Ibn al-Lubad al- Bagdadi, al-qmad al-Isfahani and Ibn Munkala).

Landslides

About 200 people from Baalbek, who had gone out to gather wild fruit, were killed in landslides from two mountains in the Lebanese range between the Bekaa valley and the Mediterranean coast (see below Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi). One village was reduced to ruins near Busra (now Busra ash Sham] perhaps because of a landslide.

Historical sources: an overall view

The earthquake occurred in the period between the Third and Fourth Crusades. As in the case of the earthquake of 29 June 1170, the Latin and Arabic sources which are the two main and independent traditions concerned deal almost exclusively with the lands under their respective control, each adding to the information provided by the other. Much briefer reports also appear in Vulgar French, Syriac and Armenian sources, which largely reflect those in Latin and Arabic. Of the Latin sources, the most important are of two letters written respectively by Geoffrey of Donjon, Grand Master of the Order of Knights Hospitallers, to king Sancho VII of Navarre (1194-1234), and by Philip du Plessis, Grand Master of the Knights Templars, to Arnold I, abbot of Citeaux. Both letters were written in June 1202, that is to say shortly after the earthquake, and have been published in Mayer (1972, pp.306-8, 308-10). There may also be some information of the 1202 earthquake in a letter dating to 1243 (Rohricht 1893, no.1114), from Marsilio Zorzi, Venetian ambassador (bailo) for Syria, in which he refers to a group of properties in the city of Tyre, some of which had been destroyed in an earthquake. The report in the Chronicon of Robert of Auxerre, a contemporary monk and writer who died in 1212, derives in large part from the letter from Philip du Plessis, as Mayer (1972) has shown. The other Latin sources are much briefer than the above and are expressed in more general terms, so we list only those which date to the mid or late 13th century (sources 2):

• Annales Uticenses from the abbey of St.Evroult d'Ouche, which were compiled by various hands from 1098 onwards (the earthquake is wrongly dated to 1203)
• chronicle of Ralph of Coggeshall, a Cistercian monk who died in 1228
• Speculum Maius of Vincent of Beauvais
• Cronica of Salimbene de Adam
• Cronica Imperatorum of Alberto Milioli
• Chronicon of William of Nangis

Of the Vulgar French sources, the 13th century Estorie de Eracles Empereur states that part of the funds collected for the Fourth Crusade could be used for rebuilding the walls of Acre and Tyre. The Annales de Terre Sainte and the early 14th century Chronique de Terre Sainte, though providing information in very summary form, mention Gibelet, which is not named by any of the other sources. As far as Arabic sources are concerned, the most informative is Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi. What he tells us is particularly important, because he not only records effects at Cairo, in Egypt generally and elsewhere, but also transcribes two letters from Hamat and Damascus, thereby providing a reliable and detailed picture of the earthquake. When the earthquake struck, he was in Cairo, and his work was written two years later, in May 1204. In other contemporary Arabic sources (the Mosul historian Ibn al-Athir and Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi, who lived at Damascus), or later 13th and 14th century sources (the Damascene historian and textual scholar Abu Shama, the historian Ibn Wasil, and the Syrian historians Abu 'l-Fida and Ibn al-Wardi, who are briefer than Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi), the earthquake is dated to the month of Shdban in the year 597 of the Hegira, which corresponds to the period 7 May - 4 June 1201. In some cases these writers record earthquakes in the year 598 of the Hegira, or even 600 (Ibn al-Athir). However, as Ambraseys and Melville (1988, pp.185-7) have suggested in their discussion of the sources and problems of chronology involved in the study of the earthquake, since the more reliable Latin and Arabic sources only refer to one earthquake, it is reasonable to suppose that the other datings in the Arabic sources are all duplications of an earthquake which actually occurred on 20 May 1202.

Latin sources

ARCHIVAL DOCUMENTS

The letter from Geoffrey of Donjon (June 1202) provides the most detailed information:

While all things lay in silence and the night proceeded on its course', on the twentieth day of May, to which is given the name of the moon [i.e. Monday], at the hour when sleep caresses tired eyes, shortly before dawn, the wrath of God rose up against us and `there was a great earthquake'. Of the towns and castles in the East, whether belonging to pagans or Christians, some were annihilated, some destroyed and some risked being reduced to ruins because of the damage inflicted by the strong earthquake. The city of Acre, which is a very convenient port, has suffered incredible and devastating damage to its towers, to the royal palace and to the walls with which it was protected, while countless houses have been reduced to ruins, and the death of rich and poor is unbearable to speak of. Alas! Tyre, the city of strength', the refuge of Christianity, which ever 'freed the oppressed from the hands of the enemy', has suffered such damage to its walls, towers, churches and houses, that no man alive today can hope to see their restoration complete during his lifetime. What can we write about the death of the people of this town, for death has taken them without number in the ruins of their homes. This affliction, this catastrophe to be wept over above all others, and this dreadful event have added terror to our fear. The city of Tripoli, resplendent with its walls and houses, has been gravely weakened by the great number of victims, and yet it has suffered less damage than other towns. At Archis, towers, walls, houses and town walls have been reduced to ruins, and places which have been left deserted because their inhabitants have been killed, look as though they had never been inhabited. Our castles of Cratum [Crak des Chevaliers] and Margat have suffered much damage, but nevertheless still have little to fear from enemy attacks, if they are spared greater shaking by the will of God. Antioch and the lands of Armenia, although struck by the earthquake, have not suffered too serious damage amidst all these dreadful events. Pagan towns and their people bemoan the incurable wounds that they have suffered through the blows of implacable fate. And while our hearts are afflicted by this deep grief, the great lack of food and a deadly pestilence which has struck animals cause further suffering for those Christians who have survived. We have decided to report to the charitable ears of Your Majesty that when our crops were still young, we had the expectation of an abundant harvest. But as the ears were sprouting, there came on the day of St.George a fog which rendered vain all our hopes of gathering in the crop, because it made everything rot, with the result that the desolate earth is now trodden by a mass of the poor and a crowd of beggars. And so, 0 'Lord of Virtues', most excellent sovereign,.may the Earth, which saw the Birth of our Lord but now lies grief and poverty stricken, desolated and almost annihilated by this disaster, breathe again thanks to your clemency, and be consoled by your advice.

Dum medium silentium tenerent omnia et nox in suo cursu iter perageret, vicesimo die stantis maii, cui nomen lune est impositum, in hora, qua defessis sopor blanditur oculis, paulum ante diluculum ira dei in nos est asperata, `terremotus factus est magnus'. Civitatum et castrorum Orientis tam paganismi quam christianitatis pars est eversa, pars destructs, pars propter nimie excussionis lesionem adhuc minatur riunam. Civitas Aconensis, que portus est oportunitatis, in parte turrium, regalis etiam palatii et murorum, quibus fuit palliata, in ruina domorum innumerabili, in morte divitum et pauperum ineffabili miram et exitialem passa est lesionem. 0 dolenda res! Tirus, `urbs fortitudinis, refugium christianitatis, que semper oppressos 'de manu inimicorum liberavie, in muris et turribus, ecclesiis et domibus tantam passa est eversionem, ut nullus hominum iam vivens eius possit expectare vivendo restauracionem. Quid de morte hominum eiusdem civitatis scriberemus, cum in ruina domorum mors eos sine numero apprehendisset. Hic dolor, hoc exitium pre ceteris gemebundum et hic eventus infortunatus timori nostro tremorem sociarunt. Tripolitana civitas splendidissima in muris et domibus, in morte populi graviter corrupta, minorem ceteris passa est lesionem. Archay turres, muri, domus et menia funditus eversa, populi interempti loca deserta testantur numquam se habuisse habitatorem. Castra nostra Cratum et Margatum plurima gravata insultus tamen hostium. adhuc .parvipendunt, si sine maiore conserventur divinitus quassacione. Antiochia et partes Armenie terremotu concusse non multam, non lamentabilem in tantis lugendis passe sunt corrupcionem. Paganismi civitates et populi inmemorate sortis dispendio insanabilia se recepisse vulnera conqueruntur. Presertim cum in plerisque doloribus corda nostra sint afflicta, caritas inmensa victualium, letalis pestis animalium residue christianitati universaliter dolor est specialis. Sane tamen caritatis dominacionis vestre auribus duximus disserendam, dum messis nostra fuisset in herba, frugum ubertatem nobis se monstrabat reddituram. Set postmodum spiels pullulantibus in festo beati Georgii supervenit nebula, qua spes nostra in metendis segetibus pro earum corrupcione penitus fuit exinanita, unde pauperum nimietas, mendicorum affluentia terram premit desolatam. Igitur elomine virtutum', rex excellentissime, Terra Dominice Nativitatis sedens in dolore et miseriis, iam fere kalamitatibus extincta, vestra respiret dementia, vestro consilio consoletur desolata.

In his letter (June 1202) to Arnold I, abbot of Citeaux, Philip du Plessis recalls two earlier "scourges", in the form of military encounters in the Tripoli area and the adverse weather conditions which had severely affected the grain harvest, and he then goes on to describe the disastrous effects of the earthquake; and he ends by pointing out that a third of those who survived the earthquake died in an epidemic:

To the venerable father and dearest friend by the grace of God abbot of Citeaux and of the whole Order [...]. The third scourge proved more catastrophic and terrible than the others; for on the twentieth day of May, at dawn, a terrifying voice was heard from heaven and dreadful rumblings rose from the earth, and there were earthquakes such as had not been seen since the creation of the world; and they razed most of the walls and houses at Acre to the ground, crushing a great many people to death in the ruins. But divine mercy willed that our houses should remain undamaged. At the city of Tyre, all but three of its towers were destroyed, and all the city walls except for the outer barbicans, and all the houses with their inhabitants, except for a few survivors. Most of the city of Tripoli was destroyed, along with a large proportion of the townspeople. The castle of Archis has been reduced to ruins, including all its houses, walls and towers, and the castle of Arsum [Arima] has been razed to the ground. At Chastel Blanc, most of the walls collapsed, and the main tower, which we thought to have been built with out.. standing strength and solidity, was so badly cracked and damaged that it would have been better for us if it had completely collapsed instead of being left standing in such state. Divine mercy spared the town of Tortosa and its castle, the walls, the inhabitants, and everything else. The fourth scourge with which we are afflicted is that, in addition to the disasters we have mentioned, the corruption of the air has caused such high mortality that almost a third of those who survived the earthquake have died, and those who were able to rise from their beds after such prolonged enfeeblement were barely alive. And since we are weighed down by all these disasters and calamities, we need your prayers to overcome them, and we firmly trust in God that we shall obtain them".

Venerabili patri et amico karissimo dei gratia Cisterciensi abbati totique conventui ordinis Tertia vero ceteris flebilior et horribilior talis fuit, quod vicesima die maii summo diluculo audita est vox terribilis de coelo, mugitus horribilis de terra, et terremotus, quales non fuerunt ab initio mundi, facti sunt, ita quod partem maximam Accaron in muris et domibus ad terram prostraverunt et gentem innumerabilem occupatam occiderunt. Domus autem nostras divina misericordia nobis integras resevavit. Civitatis vero Tyri omnes turris exceptis tribus et muri excepta exteriora barbacana et omnes domus cum plebe sua paucis reservatis in terram corruerunt. Civitatis vero Trypolis maxima pars cecidit et magnam plebem occupavit. Castrum vero Archados cum omnibus domibus suis et muris et turribus in terram prostratum est castrum Arsum funditus corruit. Castri autem Albi maxima pars murorum cecidit, turris autem maior, qua nullam credimus fortuis vel firmius aedificatam, in hoc rimis et quassaturis debilitata est, quod melius nobis esset, si funditus corrueret, quam ita stans permaneret. Civitatem vero Tortose et castrum cum turribus et muris et plebe et omnibus divina misericordia reservavit. Quarta autem pestilentia fuit, quod tanta mortalitas ex corruptione aeris pestes priores secuta est, quod fere tertia pars eorum, qui de terremotu evaserunt, defuncta est et vix invenitur vivus, qui longi languoris lectum evadere potuisset. Et quum tantis miseriis et calamitatibus opprimamur, necesse est nobis, ut vestris orationibus, de quibus plurimum in domino confidimus, de miseriis predictis resurgamus.

It is reasonable to suppose that there is a reference to damage caused by the 1202 earthquake in a letter written in October 1243 by Marsilio Zorzi, who was the Venetian ambassador for Syria (in Rohricht 1893, no.1114). After recounting how he and other noblemen in Syria had gained control of the city of Tyre, Zorzi enumerates the benefits and privileges enjoyed by the Venetians in the city, including the estates of the church of St.Mark, consisting of a series of properties in Tyre and its surroundings. Of some of these all inside the city he says that they had been destroyed in an earthquake, which he does not identify. He mentions three bakeries, an unspecified number of houses and a tower house:

[...] another bakery, which belonged to the Veneto community, but has now been destroyed in an earthquake; another bakery of that community, now destroyed in the earthquake; and another bakery, situated on the public street towards the east, also destroyed in the earthquake; a piece of land, whose houses have now been destroyed the earthquake, towards the north, by the city walls; and a house, similar in form to tower, which stood on the street, but has now been destroyed in the earthquake".

[...] alter furnus, qui fuit communis Venetorum sed nunc terrae motus destructus iacet; alius furnus communis terrae motus destructus; alius furnus, terrae motus destructus, qui firmat in orientem in via publica; petia terae, cuius domus nunc terrae motus destructae firmant versus septentrionem in murum civitatis; domus quasi turris, quae est super viam, sed nunc terrae motus destructa est.

Two more houses, a warehouse and a mill are mentioned in the same letter as having been destroyed (destructi), but the cause of the damage is not specified. We have not set out the text of Robert of Auxerre, because it depends largely on the letter from Philip du Plessis as already pointed out.

Vulgar French sources

ANNALS AND CHRONICLES

The Estorie de Eracles Empereur tells how Fulk of Neuilly (d. 1202), a country parish priest from near Paris and preacher of the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), had been making use of the Order of Cistercians since 1198 to gather funds for the new crusade to the Holy Land, on the instructions of pope Innocent III (1198-1216). In particular, we are told that:

the funds entrusted to Citeaux [the mother house of the Cistercians], were taken to the Holy Land, and there was never a better arrangement than that made by master Fulk at Citeaux, for there had been earthquakes [in the Holy Land]; if the walls of Tyre and Acre were rebuilt, it should be done with some of those funds".

Li avoirs, qui fu comande a Cisteaus, fu portez Outre mer, ne onques avoir ne vint a si bon point come celui qui maistre Foque avoit a Cisteaus, car li crolles avoit este en la terre; si estoient fondu li mur de Sur et d'Acre que l'en refist toz d'une partie de cel avoir.

In the Annales de Terre Sainte, we read:

In the year 1202, there was an earthquake which destroyed Acre, Tyre, Gibelet and Archis, and part of Tripoli; and many Christian and Saracen towns were reduced to ruins.

A. mil et CC et II, fu le crosle qui abati Acre, Sur, Gibelet et Arces et une partie de Triples; et chairent plusieurs chites des Crestiens et des Saracins.

Very similar words are to be found in the Chronique de Terre Sainte.

Arabic sources

CHRONICLES

In Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi's long text, we read as follows:

At dawn on Monday 26 Shdban, which corresponds to 25 bashansh [Pachons in the Coptic calendar], there was a tremendous earthquake; people leapt from their beds in panic, screaming in terror and calling on God to help them. The earthquake lasted for a long time: its movement was like that of a sieve or the beating of a bird's wings. There were three violent shocks, which caused buildings and doors to shake, while ceilings, floors and anything unstable or in an elevated position collapsed. The shocks started again at midday, but few people were aware of them because they were weak and brief. That night, the cold was so intense that it was necessary to cover oneself, but the next day the hot samun wind blew so much that the air became unbreathable. Rarely had there been such strong earthquakes in Egypt. Later on, news spread that the same earthquake had struck distant regions at the same time as here. I learned that the earth had shaken at Qus, Damietta and Alexandria. Many places were destroyed so completely that no trace of them was left, and there were many victims I heard of one town in as strong a position as Jerusalem, and yet it suffered unexpected damage. However, the damage suffered by the Franks in the earthquake was greater than that in Muslim lands. We learned that the earthquake reached as far as the town of Akhlat and its province on the one hand and the island of Cyprus on the other. The sea became extremely wild, causing serious damage to lighthouses. In certain places, the waters divided and waves rose up like mountains, hurling boats on to the land, and throwing fish on to the shore. Then messages came from Syria about the earthquake. Set out below are two letters, from Damascus and Hamat. Letter from Hamat: `On Monday 26 Shdban the earth began to shake as though it were beginning to walk; the mountains swayed, and everyone thought the day of Judgement had come. There were two shocks: the first lasted for about an hour, whereas the second was briefer but stronger. Some fortresses felt the effects of the earthquake, especially the fortress of Hamat, in spite of the good quality of its construction, and then that of Ba`rin, in spite of its solid architecture, and that of Balabak [Baalbek], in spite of its solidity. We have not heard any details of more distant regions and fortresses. On Tuesday 27, at the time of midday prayer, there was a violent earthquake which was felt by everybody, whether they were awake or asleep, and whether they were standing or sitting down. On the same day, there was [another shock] at the time of afternoon prayer. News came from Damascus that the earthquake had destroyed the eastern minaret of the [Umayyad] mosque, a large part of the Kallasa and the whole hospital [of Nur al-Din]; many houses collapsed on top of their inhabitants, killing large numbers of them.

Letter from Damascus:

Your servant reports on the earthquake which occurred on Monday 26 Shdban at dawn, and lasted for a long time. Some witnesses say it lasted as long as it takes to read the sura of The Cave; some other elderly people of Damascus maintain that they have never seen anything like it in their lives. The damage includes the collapse of sixteen merlons and a minaret (the other was only damaged) at the [Umayyad] mosque, and of the lead dome of the mausoleum of Nasr. The Kallasa collapsed, killing two men. There was another victim at Bab Jayrun. Furthermore, the [Umayyad] mosque was damaged in many places, and a large number of houses have collapsed everywhere. In Muslim regions, they say that Baniyas has partly collapsed, and also Safad, where the only survivor is the son of the governor. There has been destruction at Tibnin, and at Nabulus, where not a single wall has remained standing, except in the Samra district. According to reports, Jerusalem has been left undamaged, thanks be to God. At Bayt Jinn, foundations and walls are left, although the latter have collapsed in many places. Similar collapses have occurred in the region of Hawran, to the extent that it is impossible to make out the old form of its villages. They also say that most of Acre has collapsed, and that a third of Tyre has been destroyed. Araqa and Safita are also in ruins. On the mountains of Lebanon, a group of people had gone out to collect wild fruit and two mountains closed over them, killing about two hundred.

In reporting what happened, some have exaggerated the number of victims. The earthquake lasted for four days. Then our prayers were answered by God, our protector and saviour'. The other 13th century or later Arabic sources are much briefer, and only in a few cases do they add information to what we find in Ibn al-Lubad al-Bagdadi. As we have already pointed out, moreover, some of these authors pre- or post-date the earthquake, or else create a doublet. Ibn al-Athir records two earthquakes in Egypt and Syria, dating them to the years 597 and 600 of the Hegira; but we are in fact almost certainly dealing with a single event which other Arabic sources date to the year 598 of the Hegira (= 1202):

In the month of Shdban in that year [597 H. = 7 May - 4 June 1201], the earth shook at Mawsil, everywhere in Mesopotamia, in Syria, in Egypt and elsewhere. In Syria, the effects were dreadful: many houses were destroyed at Damascus, Hims and Hamat, and a village near Busra was swallowed up by the earth. There was also massive damage along the Syrian coast: the citadels of Tripoli, Sur, Acre and Nabulus were destroyed. The earthquake also reached Byzantine territory. In Iraq, the damage was slight.

The second reference reads:

In that year [600 a terrible earthquake struck a large part of the territories of Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia and Byzantium. It reached Sicily, Cyprus, Mawsil and Iraq. The walls of the city of Tyre were destroyed, and the earthquake caused damage throughout Syria.

Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi's narrative is as follows:

In the month of Shdban, there was a violent earthquake which caused destruction in the citadel at Hims and the collapse of its guard tower; Hisn al-Akrad was destroyed. The earthquake also struck the island of Cyprus, and reached as far as Nabulus, destroying that region. This tremendous earthquake caused destruction in all the northern Muslim countries. At Damascus, it caused the collapse of the tops of the minarets in the mosque [the Great Umayyad Mosque], as well as some merlons on the north side. A man from the Maghreb was killed at the Kallasa lime kilns; and a Turk also died: the slave of a money changer who lived in the Sumaysat district. It happened at dawn on Monday 26 Shdban, which corresponds to 20 Ab [August in the Syriac calendar]. The next morning there was a weak shock.

Abu Shama, al-Dhayl `ala al-Rawdatayn, fol. 20] reports that:

In the month of Shdban, there was a tremendous earthquake [which came?] from Upper Egypt. For an hour, the ground was like the sea; the towns of Baniyan, in Egypt, and Nabulus were destroyed, and many people perished in the ruins. Then the earthquake reached Syria and its coast; at Nabulus not so much as a wall was left standing, except in the Samra district, and there were 30,000 victims. Acre and Sur were destroyed, aE well as all the citadels along the coast. The earthquake reached Damascus: part of the east minaret of the [Great Umayyad] mosque collapsed. There was massive damage to the lime kilns (al-Kallasa), the Nur al-Din hospital, and nearly all the houses in the city. The inhabitants ran out into the squares. Sixteen balconies fell from the [Umayyad] mosque, and the Nasr mausoleum split open. Banyas was destroyed. People from Ba'alabik who had gone out to pick wild fruit were crushed to death when two mountains collapsed on top of each other. The citadel of Ba'alabik was destroyed, in spite of the fact that it was a strong building made of solid stone. The earthquake reached Hims, Hamat, Aleppo and other towns. The sea withdrew from the coast as far as Cyprus. There were very high waves which smashed boats on the shore. Then the earthquake spread towards Akhlat, and into Armenia, Adharbayjan and Mesopotamia. About 1,100,000 victims were counted. The initial violence of the earthquake abated in the time it takes to read the sura of The Cave; but the shocks continued for days.

The historian Ibn Wasil records that in 600 H. [= 1203-1204]:

There was a violent earthquake which affected most regions of Egypt and Syria, Gazira [the Arabian peninsula], Bilad al-Rum [Byzantine territories], Sicily, Cyprus, Mosul, and Iraq; and they say it reached Sibtat [Ceuta] on the far side of the Maghreb [in Morocco].

According to Ibn Munkala:

Amongst the extraordinary things which happened in Cyprus, there was an earthquake in the year 597 which was felt from Syria to Mesopotamia, Byzantine territory and Iraq. The sea withdrew from the coast as far as Cyprus, throwing ships on to the island, and ending up on its eastern shores. God only knows how many earthquake victims there were.

The historian Ibn al-Wardi records that in the year 600 H. [= 1203-1204]:

There was an earthquake which affected Egypt, Syria, Gazira [the Arabian peninsula], Bilad al-Rum [Byzantine territories], Sicily, Cyprus and Iraq. And Sur [Tyre] was destroyed.

Abu 'l-Fida gives the same date as Ibn al-Athir. He maintains that in the year of the Hegira 597 [=1200-1201]

There was a violent earthquake in the regions of Gazira [the Arabian peninsula] and Syria and along the coast, and many towns were destroyed.

For the year 600 H. 1203-1204], however, he writes that:

There was a violent earthquake which spread across Egypt, Syria, Gazira, Bilad al-Rum, Sicily, Cyprus, Iraq and other regions. And the town walls at Sur [Tyre] were destroyed.

References

Guidoboni, E. and A. Comastri (2005). Catalogue of Earthquakes and Tsunamis in the Mediterranean Area from the 11th to the 15th Century, INGV.

Fig. 16. Map of intensity distribution for May 20, 1202 earthquake
(Ambraseys and Melville, 1985). Shaded zone is the most affected
region. (from Sbeinati et al, 2005)

〈086〉 1202 May 20, early morning

• Mount Lebanon: IX
• Baalbak: IX
• Tyre: IX
• Nablus: VIII
• Beit Jin: IX
• Banyas: VIII+
• Al-Samyra: VIII+
• Damascus: VIII
• Safita: VII
• Akka: VII
• Hauran:VIII
• Hama: VIII
• Tripoli: VIII
• Safad: VII
• Al-Quds: VI
• Bosra: VII-VIII
• Al-Batron: VII
• Jbeil: VII
• Beirut: VII
• Marqab and Hosn Al-Akrad: VII
• Barin: VII
• Homs: VII
• Tartus: VI
• Aleppo: V
• Antioch: V
• Al-Mousel: IV-V
• Mesopotamia: IV
• Cairo: IV
• Alexandria: IV
• Dimyat: IV
• Qus: IV
• Iraq: IV
• Cyprus: VII?
• Lesser Armenia: IV
• Sicily: IV
• Khlat: IV
• Ceuta: III?
• Constantinople: IV

• Tsunami
• landslide
• aftershocks

Parametric catalogues

• Plassard and Kogoj (1981): 1201 June and July, I=X, there was an earthquake that caused a destruction in Tyre, Beirut, Damascus, Baalbak, Palestine (Nablus, Acre and Safad), and Homs in Syria, with tsunami in Cyprus (Al-Suyuti; Ernoul; Perrey).
• Ben-Menahem (1979): 1201 July-August, 34.5N, 36.8E, I₀= XI, M_L= 7.3, felt in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Upper Egypt, Cyprus. Destructive in Tripoli, Sur, Acre, Nablus. Many monuments and temples at Baalbak collapse. Many victims (Al-Sinawi et al.; Amiran; Ergin et al.; Plassard and Kogoj; Seiberg; Willis).
• Ben-Menahem (1979): 1202, May 20, at dawn, 32.5N, 35.5E, near Bissan, I₀= X-XI, M_L= 6.8, destruction in Central Palestine. Nablus destroyed. Safad, Bissan and Banyas experienced MM = IX. It was felt in Syria, Cyprus, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Jerusalem MM = V. Acre MM = VIII. Tiberias MM = IX, damage to the city walls (Al-Sinawi and Ghalib; Amiran; Plassard and Kogoj; Sieberg).

Seismological compilations

• Ambraseys et al. (1994): 1202 May 20, 33.5N-36.0E, VI ≤ I ≤ VII, tsunami and faulting. A major earthquake in the upper Jordan and Litani Valleys was responsible for tens of thousands of casualties in the Eastern Mediterranean region, it was felt throughout Egypt, causing great concern but little damage (Abd Al-Latif). The main shock was felt from Sicily to Azerbaijan in NW Iran, and from Constantinople to Aswan (Ambraseys and Melville).
• Sieberg (1932): 1202 May 20, a strong earthquake at Samaria and Galilia, causing a large number of victims and destroying Nablus. Akka and Safad were suffered. There was a large sea wave along the Syrian coast destroying many ships and settlements. In 1202, a destructive earthquake destroyed Baalbak. There was destruction in Homs and Crac des Chevaliers. It was felt in Mesopotamia and Cyprus.

Monographs

Ambraseys and Melville (1988)

A shallow, large magnitude multiple earthquake was widely felt in the Middle East around daybreak on the morning of 20 May 1202. The main shock was felt from Lesser Armenia, parts of Anatolia and northwest Iran to Qus in upper Egypt, and from Sicily in the west to Iraq and Mesopotamia in the east (radius of 1200 km). It was associated with tsunamis. This event caused serious damage in Syria and to a lesser extent in Cyprus, with great loss of life. The epicenter was evaluated to be 34.1N and 36.1E, with estimated magnitude M_S= 7.5.

Both Acre and Tyre were severely damaged with heavy loss of life. Contemporary letters (Mayer, 1972) speak of damage to walls and towers in both cities, including the palace at Acre. The house of the Temperas in Acre was spared. All but 3 towers and some outlying fortifications were destroyed in Tyre, along with churches and many houses. Intensities in Tyre may be assessed higher than those in Acre, respectively around IX and VIII. In Shamrin (Samaria) and Houran, damage was equally severe (VIII). Safad was partially destroyed, with the loss of all (VIII).

At Bait Jann, not even the foundations of walls remained standing, everything having been swallowed up (IX). In Nablus, there was total destruction (IX). In Houran province, most of the towns were so badly damage (Abd Al-Latif; Sibt Al-Jwazi). One of the villages around Busra is said to have been completely destroyed, perhaps by landslides (Ibn Al-Athir). Jerusalem suffered relatively lightly (Abd Al-Latif) at intensities not exceeding VI. Damascus was strongly shaken (VIII): a large number of houses collapsed, major buildings near the citadel were damaged, the Umayyad mosque lost its eastern minaret and 16 ornamental battlements along its north wall, one man was killed in the collapse of the Jirun gate of the mosque, the lead dome of the mosque was split in two and one other minaret fissured (Le Strange), the Kallasa mosque was ruined, killing a North African and a Mamluk slave (Abu Sha The shock in Damascus was of long duration. Another slight shock was felt early on the following morning (Abu Shama), and aftershocks continued for at least four days (‘Abd Al-Latif). In Jubail, houses are said to have collapsed (VII). The walls of Beirut are said to have been repaired around this time following earthquake damage (VII).

Rockfalls in Mount Lebanon overwhelmed about 200 people from Baalbak. Baalbak itself was destroyed (‘Abd AlLatif) (IX). In Tripoli, there was heavy loss of life (Mayer) and heavy damage (Ibn Al-Athir) (VIII). Tartus and the Templar citadel seem largely to have been spared (Berchem and Fatio; Enlart) (VI). The strongholds at Marqab and Krak (Hosn Al-Akrad) were badly damaged (Geoffrey of Donjon; Sibt Al-Jawzi) (VII). Castle of Barin was also damaged (Abd Al-Latif) (VII). In Homs, the shock was experienced at similar intensities (VII), where a watchtower of the castle was thrown down (Sibt Ibn Al-Jwazi). The earthquake in Hama was experienced as two shocks, destroying its castle, along with many houses (Ibn Al-Athir) (VIII). In and around Aleppo, the earthquake is said to have been felt (Sibt Ibn Al-Jawzi) (V), and also in Antioch (V).

This event was reported also in Al-Mousel (IV-V) and throughout the districts of Mesopotamia (IV), as far as Iraq, though without destruction of houses. Azarbaijan, Armenia, parts of Anatolia are said to have experienced the earthquake (Ibn Al-Athir; Sibt Ibn Al-Jawzi). The shock was felt throughout Egypt from Qus to Alexandria: in Cairo, the shock caused arousing sleepers who jumped from their beds in fear (V). Three violent shocks were reported, shaking buildings, doors and roofs (Abd Al-Latif). In Cyprus, the earthquake damaged churches and other buildings and was strongly felt (Abd Al-Latif; Annales 5689; Ibn Al-Athir) (VII?).

The sea between Cyprus and the coast parted and mountainous waves were piled up, throwing ships up onto the land (Arabic authors). Eastern parts of the island were flooded and numbers of fish were left stranded (Abd Al-Latif; Ibn Mankali in Taher). The earthquake is said to have been felt as far as Sicily (Ibn Al-Athir) (IV) and Ceuta (Ibn Wasil) (III?). It is very likely that the shaking reported on or after 1 March 1202 felt in and around Constantinople was from the earthquake of 20 May (Nicetas) (IV).

The loss of life caused by this earthquake and its aftershocks is high. A figure frequently quoted in Arab sources is 1100000 dead (Al-Dhahabi; Al-Suyuti) for the year 597-598 A.H. (1201-1202). This includes those dying of famine and the epidemic consequent on the failure of the Nile floods, graphically described by Abd Al-Latif, who noted 111000 deaths in Cairo along between 596 and 598 A.H. Aftershocks were reported from Hama, Damascus and Cairo, for at least four days (Abd Al-Latif).

References

Sbeinati, M. R., R. Darawcheh, and M. Monty (2005). "The historical earthquakes of Syria: An analysis of large and moderate earthquakes from 1365 B.C. to 1900 A.D.", Ann. Geophys. 48(3): 347-435.

Fig. 4. Intensity distribution determined by Ambraseys (2009) for the 1202 earthquake.
Circles indicate locations at which intensity values can be estimated from available
historical sources. (from Hough and Avni, 2011)

Hough and Avni, 2011 estimated M7.6 for the 1202 CE earthquake using an attenuation relationship developed from the 1927 Jericho Quake and site specific Intensity estimates which were curated (generally downgraded to lower values) from Ambraseys (2009).

References

Hough, S. E., and R. Avni (2011). "The 1170 and 1202 Dead Sea Rift earthquakes and long term magnitude distribution on the Dead Sea fault zone." Isr. J. Earth Sci. 57.

1202 05 20 02:40 UT:

Severe tsunami on Levant coast and Cyprus

Many authors have reported this tsunami, describing it as a considerable event. Shalem (1956) mentions a tsunami on the Syrian coast and at Akko; Ambraseys (1962) notes the coasts of Syria, Cyprus, and Egypt that were affected; Amiran et al. (1994) describes a severe tsunami on the Levant coast and serious damage at Akko; Soloviev et al. (2000) list a tsunami near the coast of Syria. This is also mentioned by Ambraseys and Barazangi (1989) and Ambraseys and Melville (1995).

Recent works of Guidoboni and Comastri (2005) and Ambraseys (2009) point to a tsunami along the coast of historic Syria (present day Syria, Lebanon, and northern Israel), and Cyprus. Guidoboni and Comastri (2005) summarize the impression of the original sources: Gigantic waves rose up in the sea between Cyprus and the coast of Syria. The sea withdrew from the coast, ships were hurled on to the eastern coast of Cyprus, fish were thrown on to the shore, and lighthouses were damaged.

The tsunami followed a destructive earthquake that affected the oriental Mediterranean coast and hinterland of what are now Lebanon, Syria, and Israel (Ambraseys and Melville, 1988; Ambraseys et al., 1994; Guidoboni and Comastri, 2005; Ambraseys, 2009). Surface rupture along the Yammouneh fault (Daeron et al., 2004, 2005; Nemer et al., 2008) and the Jordan Gorge segment of the DST (Marco et al., 1997, 2005; Ellenblum et al., 1998) indicate that this was an on-land earthquake. It is therefore possible to assume that one or more seismogenically-triggered sub-marine landslides offshore of the Levant coast generated the tsunami. An estimated magnitude of this event was given by Ambraseys and Barazangi (1989) as Ms = 7.5, Ambraseys and Jackson (1998) determined this as a large event, and Ambraseys (2006) gave an estimate of Ms = 7.2.

References

Salamon, A., et al. (2011). "A critical evaluation of tsunami records reported for the Levant Coast from the second millennium bce to the present." Isr. J. Earth Sci. 58: 327-354.

Fig. 2.11 1202 May 20, Dead Sea (from Ambraseys et al, 1994)

1202 May 20 Monday 26 Sha'ban 598 Dead Sea

A major earthquake in the upper Jordan and Litani Valleys was responsible for tens of thousands of casualties in the eastern Mediterranean region (see Figure 2.11). The shock occurred early in the morning and was felt throughout Egypt, causing great concern but little damage. In Cairo, the shock was of long duration and aroused sleepers. Three violent shocks were reported, but only tall or vulnerable buildings were particularly affected, along with those on high ground, which threatened to collapse. A lesser shock was felt about midday the same morning.¹

The main shock was felt from Sicily to Azarbaijan in N.W. Iran, and from Constantinople to Aswan.²

References

Ambraseys, N. N., et al. (1994). The seismicity of Egypt, Arabia, and the Red Sea : a historical review. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Ambraseys and Melville (1988:190) discussed destruction in Damascus

A large number of houses are reported to have collapsed and beside the destruction in town, major buildings near the citadel were damaged. The Umayyad mosque lost its eastern minaret and 16 ornamental battlements along its north wall. One man was killed in the collapse of the Jirun (eastern) gate of the mosque. The lead dome of the mosque was split in two and one other minaret fissured (cf. Le Strange, 1890, p. 241). The adjacent Kallasa mosque was ruined, killing a North African and a Mamluk slave (Abu Shama, p. 29, quoting al-'Izz). This building had been founded in 1160 by Nur al-Din and restored by Saladin in 1189 after its destruction by fire (Elisseeff, 1967, p. 294). West of the mosque, Nur al-Din's hospital was completely destroyed. People fled for the open spaces. The shock in Damascus was of long duration and old men could not recall such a severe one having occurred before ('Abd al-Latif, p. 416-417). Previous destructive earthquakes had occurred in 1157 and 1170. A nother slight shock was felt early the following morning (Abu Shama, p. 29), and aftershocks continued for at least four days ('Abd al-Latif [aka al-Baghdadi], p. 417).

Ambraseys and Melville (1988:190-193) discussed destruction elsewhere [JW: some textual interpretations are presented below - consult original accounts when in doubt]

Further north, houses are said to have collapsed at Jubail (Gibelet), recently recovered by the German Crusade (1197) which restored the landlink between the Kingdom of Acre and the County of Tripoli (Annales de Terre Sainte, p. 435, Chronique de Terre Sainte, p. 16). The walls of Beirut, also regained in 1197, are said to have been repaired around this time following earthquake damage (variant readings in L'Estoire d'Eracle (p. 244-5) incorrectly under A.D. 1200; likewise Ernoul, p.'338). The fact that the Prince of Batrun, a Pisan, granted his compatriots remission of taxation early in 1202 indicates that this town too suffered damage (Muralt, 1871, p. 264). The extent of the destruction is not easy to assess in these places. The walls of Jubail were dismantled by Saladin in 1190 and were probably not rebuilt a fter the Christian takeover. Wilbrand of Oldenborg who visited Jubail in 1211 found only a strong citadel, and a similar situation in Beirut and Batrun (p. 166-7; cf. Rey, 1871, p. 121). There is therefore the danger that damage from the extensive military operations in the period before and during the Third Crusade is misreported as earthquake damage, and even if not, some of these castles may have been rendered more vulnerable by acts of warfare. Inland, however, rockfalls in Mount Lebanon overwhelmed about 200 people from Baalbek who were gathering rhubarb; Baalbek itself was destroyed despite its strength and solidity ('Abd al-Latif, p. 416).

In the County of Tripoli, the Christian sources disagree slightly on the degree of damage to Tripoli itself, though both main accounts refer to heavy loss of life (Mayer, 1972). Ibn al-Athir (xii, 112) also refers to the heavy damage there, suggesting intensities not less than VIII. Other strongholds were severely shaken: the castle of 'Arqa (Arches) was completely ruined and deserted villages in the area were taken to indicate heavy loss of life (Philip du Plessis: but perhaps simply the flight of the inhabitants, since famine and sickness were also rife). It may be noted that Rey (1871, p. 92) cites 'Abd al-Latif and Robert of Auxerre concerning an earthquake in Sha'ban 597 (sic.)/20 May 1202 which destroyed Jebel 'Akkar and Chastel Blanc, falsely equating "Archas" with 'Akkar, which the occidentals called Gibelcar. The destruction of 'Arqa is also mentioned by Arab writers ('Abd al-Latif, p. 417, Abu Shama, p. 29). Philip du Plessis records the complete destruction of the castle at "Arsum", which is not satisfactorily identified but perhaps refers to 'Arima. Mayer (1972, p. 304) is reluctant to identify Arsum but points to the possibility of Arsuf, near Caesarea. Support for this is found in the account of the pilgrimage of Wilbrand of Oldenborg, who in 1212 found the small ruined town of "Arsim" (Arsuf) on his way to Ramla (p. 184). As Mayer mentions, however, the letter seems to refer rather to a place in Tripoli, and 'Arima is suggested on the grounds: 1) that it probably belonged to the Templars; and 2) it was one of the few strongholds retained by the Christians in the truce that ended the Third Crusade (Setton, 1969, i, 664). It is situated a few miles SSW of Chastel Blanc. Philip further reported that the greater part of the walls of the Templar stronghold Chastel Blanc (Safitha) had fallen and the keep weakened to such an extent that it would have been better had it collapsed completely. 'Abd al-Latif (p. 417) also mentions the destruction of the castle. The castle keep was probably rebuilt using existing materials (Deschamps, 1977, pp. 257-258). Tortosa (Tartus) however and the Templar citadel there seem largely to have been spared, notably the Cathedral of Notre Dame (Berchem and Fatio, 1914, p. 323, Enlart, 1928, p. 397).

The Grand Master of the Hospitallers (Geoffrey of Donjon) wrote that their strongholds at Margat (Marqab) and Krak were badly damaged but could probably still hold their own in the event of attack. Damage to Krak (Hisn ai-akrad) is also mentioned in the account of Sibt b. al-Jauzi (p. 510). In the same vicinity, but in Muslim hands, the castle of Barin (Montferrand), despite its compactness and fineness, was also damaged ('Abd al-Latif, p. 416).

There is little additional evidence to help assess the intensities indicated by these reports. Studies of military architecture (e.g. Rey, 1871, Deschamps, 1934, 1977) on the whole use documentary evidence of earthquakes to support the chronology and identification of building phases at the castles, rather than documentary or archaeological evidence of rebuilding to indicate the extent of earthquake damage. Indeed, it is interesting that Deschamps, unaware of the reports of earthquake damage at Marqab in 1202, makes no reference to this specific period as being one of substantial building at the castle (Deschamps, 1977, p. 282-284), whereas in the case of Krak damage done by the earthquake is thought to have been responsible for some of the reconstruction work analysed (Deschamps, 1934, p. 281). Even so, the fact that the knights of Krak were frequently on the offensive in the next few years after 1203, and were joined by the knights from Marqab, is thought to indicate that both castles were "already in a perfect state of defense". These raids may rather suggest that attack was the best form of defense. Nevertheless, the circumstantial testimony by Geoffrey can be taken at face value and is supported by the fact that Marqab successfully resisted a counter-attack by al-Malik al-Zahir, Amir of Aleppo, in 601/1204-1205 (Ibn Wasil, iii, 165). Both Marqab and Krak were visited in 1211 by Wilbrand of Oldenborg and seemed to his probably unprofessional gaze to be very strong, the latter housing 2000 defendants (p. 169-170). Few details are available about Barin, which was finally dismantled in 1238-1239 (Deschamps, 1977, p. 322). It seems unlikely that intensities exceeding VII were experienced at any of these strongholds.

In neighboring Muslim territory, the shock was experienced at similar intensities in Hims (Horns, Emessa), where a watchtower of the castle was thrown down (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, p. 510) and Hamah, where the earthquake was experienced a s two shocks, the first lasting "an hour" and the second shorter but stronger. Despite its strength, the castle was destroyed, along with many houses and other buildings. Two further shocks were felt the following afternoon ('Abd al-Latif, p. 416). Considerable damage to houses in both towns is implied by Ibn al-Athir (xii, 112).

Further north, the earthquake is said to have been felt in Aleppo and other regional capitals (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, p. 478), and also in Antioch, though less strongly (Geoffrey of Donjon). It was also reported in Mosul and throughout the districts of Mesopotamia, as far as Iraq, though without destruction of houses. Azarbaijan, Armenia, parts of Anatolia and the town of Akhlat are said to have experienced the earthquake (Ibn al-Athir and Sibt b. al-Jauzi, toe. cit.).

In the south, the shock was felt throughout Egypt from Qus to Alexandria. Sibt b. al-Jauzi (p. 478, probably quoting al-'Izz) says that the shock came from al-Sa'id and extended into Syria; al-Sa'id being the region south of Fustat (Old Cairo) down to Aswan (Yaqut, iii, 392). In Cairo, the shock was of long duration and aroused sleepers, who jumped from their beds in fear. Three violent shocks were reported, shaking buildings, doors and roofs. Only tall or vulnerable buildings were particularly affected, and those on high ground, which threatened collapse ('Abd al-Latif, p. 414-5). Such a strong shock was considered unusual for Egypt and must have been at least intensity V. The details provided indicate that Egypt experienced long-period shaking at a large epicentral distance. A lesser shock was felt at about midday the same morning, probably the one reported from Hamah at midday on Tuesday 27 Sha'ban (21 May).

In Cyprus, under Frankish rule since 1191, the earthquake damaged churches and other buildings and was strongly felt (Annales 5689, fol. 108b; 'Abd al-Latif, p. 415; Ibn al-Athir, xii, 130). Damage to buildings is not however very well attested and it is noteworthy that most of the "Cypriot Chronicles" refer only to damage on the mainland. In the words of the Arabic authors, the sea between Cyprus and the coast parted and mountainous waves were piled up, throwing ships up onto the land. Eastern parts of the island were flooded and numbers of fish were left stranded ('Abd al-Latif, p. 415; Ibn Mankali in Taher, 1979). The significance of this seismic sea-wave is discussed below.

The earthquake is said to have been felt as far as Sicily (Ibn al-Athir, xii, 130) and Ceuta (Ibn Wasil, iii, 161), but this still lacks confirmation in the annals of the Muslim west, dominated at this period by the Almohads. No details have been recovered of the shock in the western Mediterranean area. It is very likely that the shaking reported on or after 1 March 1202 felt in and around Constantinople was from the earthquake of 20 May (Nicetas, p. 701).

The loss of life caused by this earthquake and its aftershocks is difficult to estimate. A figure frequently quoted in Arab sources is 1,100,000 dead (e.g., al-Dhahabi, iv, 296; al-Suyuti, p. 47) for the year 597-598 H. (A.D. 1201-1202). This specifically includes those dying of famine and the epidemic consequent on the failure of the Nile floods, graphically described by 'Abd al-Latif, who notes 111,000 !sic.] deaths in Cairo alone between 596 and 598 H. (p. 412). More realistically, the figure of 30,000 casualties is given, primarily, it would seem, in the Nablus area (Sibt b. al-Jauzi, p. 478). No reliance can be placed on such figures, but the fact that the main shock occurred at dawn, when most people were in bed, without noticeable foreshocks, probably contributed to a high death toll.

Aftershocks were reported from Hamah, Damascus, and Cairo, for at least four days ('Abd al-Latif, p. 417, Abu Shama, p. 29), one of which, apparently felt in Cairo and Hamah, must have been a large event. There remains the possibility that the aftershock sequence was terminated with a destructive shock that totally destroyed what was left of Nablus, but it seems preferable to consider both reports by Sibt b. al-Jauzi as referring to the same one shock. Whatever the exact sequence of events, the cumulative effects of the earthquake were clearly catastrophic. Most of the sites affected in the epicentral region (see Figure 2) must have needed total reconstruction or major repairs (cf. Table 1), although in most cases the evidence is circumstantial, not specific.

Ambraseys and Melville (1988:193) discussed their seismic interpretation

From the foregoing it appears that the 1202 earthquake was a shallow, large magnitude multiple event. This is attested by:

1. the large area over which the shock was felt
2. the long-period effects observed at large epicentral distances
3. the fact that the main shock was followed by aftershocks at least one of which was very widely felt
4. by a seismic sea-wave generated between Cyprus and the Syrian coast
5. by the observation that in the epicentral region the earthquake was experienced as more than one shock.

References

Ambraseys, N. N., and Melville, C.P. (1988). An analysis of the eastern Mediterranean earthquake of 20 May 1202. History of seismography and earthquakes of the world. W. K. H. Lee, et al. San Diego, Academic Press: 181–200.

* JUNE 2, 1201 A.D., 26 CHABANE 597 A.H.

Event continuing in the year 598 A.H. (1202 A.D.)

NAJA: We will see that a simple printing error in a reference, could lead to 2 doublets... It should be noted that all the dates that we give, according to the various authors, should be reduced to two, (in 1201 and 1202 AD). The rest represent errors, of the type I and II and printing!

• (578 AD), North of Palestine, Urfa, and Nablus (Will).
• (579 AD), Antioch and Daphne (Will).
• (1182 AD), Syria, southern part of the West Bank, several ruined towns. (Will).
• (1183 AD), Syria, Antioch, Damascus, Tripoli partially destroyed (Will ).
• (1201 AD), Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia; a violent shock which also extended to Cyprus. (Will).
• 1202 (AD), Event similar to the previous one, probably occurring in the same area, and repeating itself for several months (Will).
• 1203 AD J.C, Syria (Will).
• 1204 AD AD, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Cyprus and Sicily, Destruction of the walls of Tyre. Very strong in Aleppo, probably vertical (Will).

NAJA: In fact, there were only two important events that took place in 1201 and 1202 AD. J.C. Here is the explanation of this error:

The diversity of sources to which (Will) referred has, paradoxically, contributed to accentuating the confusion, the first two dates presented, i.e. 578 and 579, should be Muslim calendar dates and not A.D. dates. Their direct transformation resulted in the years 1182 and 1183; so far, the type error I is clear and has resulted in the production of two doublets; But that is not all : these years 578 and 579 are indeed in the original Arabic, "598 A.H. and the following"; a printing error, in Sprenger's translation, 1843 transformed 598 into 578 (see AMBR1), date taken over unchanged by (Will) and certainly by others, who have not made an additional error of type I, and have transformed these two dates in 1182 and 1183 AD. J.C., also listed by (Will). The remaining dates (1201, 1202) are the dates correctly processed; as for the other two (1203 and 1204), they could have resulted from a bad conversion (Type II error). The sequel will confirm these suppositions. Let us briefly highlight how "this set of events" has been quantified in the catalog of (BM1)

A - (1182 AD), 32°,.6N, 36°,7N, Jabal Ed-Druz, Io = IX-X, ML = 6.7 (BM1)
B - (1183 AD), 34°,7N 32°,5E, Cyprus area, h=n, Io=VIII-*IX, ML=6.0 (BM1).
A'- (1201 AD), 34°,5N 36°,8E, Io = XI, ML = 7.3 (BM1).
B'- (1202 AD), 32°,5N 35°,5E , Io = X - XI, ML = 6.7 (BM1).

NAJA: It being understood that event A is strictly the same as A' and event B is strictly the same as B', we can only note the need to relativize the meaning of this type of quantifications, always considering that the resulting results can only be approximations, more or less coarse, we will come back to this.

There remains a very important anomaly about these events; indeed, the following description (AMBR1) can lead to an overestimation of the importance of these earthquakes.

- In the meantime (OCT. 12. 1200, SEP. 1201), Year 597 apr. H, an earthquake felt almost over the whole earth, particularly in Upper Egypt'; this earthquake caused great destruction; it spread to Syria and to the sea, in Mesopotamia, the Greek Empire and Iraq; it was particularly destructive in Syria, and was also felt in Armenia, Azerbaijan. It has been calculated that through this earthquake, 11n0.000 (one million one hundred thousand) victims perished, the first shock lasted only a moment but, after that, it lasted several days and it seems that this earthquake came from Mesopotamia. (AMBR1).

NAJA: a very large part in (TAHA) and (TAHF) is devoted to these events going in a direction that confirms the spirit of the remarks of the previous contribution. The number of victims mentioned above seems quite real. Nevertheless, this figure covers the effects of a series of earthquakes which followed one another in 1201 and 1202, as well as the effect of an epidemic which broke out during this time: it is the plague, which is likely to largely explain the number of victims put forward. We can also conclude by analyzing the contribution of (TAHA pp. 124 to 136) "that the earthquake came from Upper Egypt... and that at the same time the city of Nablus was completely destroyed, no wall remained standing except the district of the Samaritans; in this city there were 30,000 dead... A witness gave a description origin of the movements of the earth during the earthquake:

It was like the movement of wheat through a sieve or like the flapping of the wings of birds" so it is a sinusoidal movement. This last observation could correspond to the "visible waves of earthquakes: slow, long period, short lengths of waves observed in the epicentral zones of large earthquakes. - See Aki et al. (1980), Volume 1, Page 532 and Lommitz (1970)

- June 2, 1201 AD. J.C., Baalbek (X-XI) Damascus (IX), Acre (VIII-IX), Jerusalem (VII-VIII),..., Cairo (V-VI) (PTAH).

- 1202 a.d. J.C. Homs (VIII) (PTAH).

The city of Nablus should have been listed with I = IX at least. It should also be noted that the term "Upper Egypt" designates its southern part.

One last contribution.

- 1183, the city of Tripoli (in Libya) is destroyed: 20,000 victims.

It is likely that the earthquake of 1183 can be compared in terms of its magnitude to the earthquake of APRIL 15 1935 (ML = and, as for this last earthquake, its focus is related to the Misurata - Maamoun ditch (1976) p. 95.

NAJA

1. Confusion' between Tripoli (Lebanon) and Tripoli (Libya)?
2. The Misurata earthquake took place on April 19, not the 15.

French

* 2 JUIN 1201 apr. J.C.,' 26 CHABANE 597 apr. H.

Evénement se poursuivant en l'année 598 apr. H. (1202 apr. J.C.)

NAJA : Nous allons voir qu'une simple erreur d'impression dans une référence, a pu aboutir à 2 doublets... Il faut remarquer que toute les dates que nous donnons, d'après les différents auteurs, devraient se ramener à deux, (en 1201 et en 1202 apr. J.C.). Le reste repré¬sente des erreurs, du type I et II et d'impression !

• (578 apr. J.C), Au Nord de la Palestine, Urfa, et Naplouse (Will).
• (579 apr. J.C.), Antioche et Daphne (Will).
• (1182 apr. J.C), Syrie, partie méridionale de la Cis-jordanie, plusieurs villes ruinées. (Will).
• (1183 apr. J.C), Syrie, Antioche, Damas, Tripoli partiellement détruites (Will ).
• (1201 apr. J.C), Syrie, Palestine et Mésopotamie ; un choc violent qui s'est également étendu à Chypre. (Will).
• 1202 (apr. J.C), Evéneinent similaire au précédent, probablement se produisant dans la même zone, et se 'répétant durant plusieurs mois (Will).
• 1203 apr. J.C, Syrie (Will).
• 1204 apr. J.C, Egypte, Syrie, Mésopotamie, Asie mineure, Chypre et la Sicile, Destruction des murs de Tyr. Très fort à Alep, probablement vertical (Will).

NAJA : En fait, il n'y a eu que deux événements impor¬tants qui ont eu lieu en 1201 et 1202 apr. J.C. Voici l'explication de cette erreur :

La diversité des sources auxquelles s'est référé (Will) a, paradoxalement, contribué à accentuer la confusion, les deux premières dates présentées, à savoir 578 et 579, devraient être ides dates de calendrier musulman et non apr. J.C. Leur transformation directe a abouti aux années 1182 et 1183 ; jusque là, l'erreur du type I est claire et elle a, eu,comme conséquence, la production de deux doublets ; mais cela n'est pas tout : ces années 578 et 579 sont en effet dans l'original Arabe, "598 apr. H et la suivante" ; une erreur d'impression, dans la traduction de Sprenger, 1843 a transformé 598 en 578 (voir AMBR1), date reprise tel quel par (Will) et certainement par d'autres, qui n'ont pas fait d'ereu7r: supplé¬mentaire du type I, ét ont transforméceÉ deux dates en 1182 et 1183 apr. J.C., également listées par (Will). Les dates restantes (1201, 1202) sont les dates correctement transformées ; quant' aux deux autres (1203 et 1204), elles pourraient avoir résulté d'une mauvaise conversion (erreur du type II). La suite confirmera ces suppositions. Soulignons brièvement, la façon dont "cet ensemble d'évé¬nements" a été quantifiée dans le catalogue de (BM1)

A - (1182 apr. J.C.), 32°,.6N, 36°,7N, Jabal Ed-Druz, Io = IX-X, ML = 6,7 (BM1)
B - (1183 apr. J.C.), 34°,7N 32°,5E, zone de Chypre, h = n, Io = VIII -*IX, ML = 6,0 (BM1).
A'- (1201 apr. J.C.), 34°,5N 36°,8E, Io = XI, ML = 7,3 (BM1).
B'- (1202 apr. J.C), 32°,5N 35°,5E , Io = X - XI, ML = 6,7 (BM1).

NAJA : Etant bien entendu que l'événement A est stric-tement le même que A' et l'événement B est strictement le même que B', nousne pouvons que constater la nécessité de relativiser la signification de ce type de quantifications, en considérant toujours que les résultats qui en découlent ne peuvent qu'être des approximations, plus ou moins grossières, nous y reviendrons.

Il reste une très importante anomalie à propos de ces événements ; en effet, la description suivant (AMBR1) peut conduire à une' surestimation de l'importance de ces séismes.

- Dans l'intervalle (12 OCT.. 1200, SEP. 1201), Année 597 apr. H, un séisme ressenti presque sur toute la terre, particulièrement en Haute-Egypte' ; ce séisme a causé des grandes destructions ; il s'est étendu en Syrie et à la mer, en Mésopotamie, à l'empire grec et à l'Irak ; il était particulièrement destructeur en Syrie, et a été également ressenti en Arménie, en Azer-baidjan. Il a été calculé qu'à travers ce tremblement de terre, 11n0.000 (un million cent mille) victimes ont péri, le premier choc n'a duré qu'un moment mais, après cela, il a duré plusieurs jours et il semble que ce séisme est venu de la Mésopotamie. (AMBR1).

NAJA : une très large partie dans (TAHA) et (TAHF) est consacrée à ces événements allant dans un sens qui confirme l'esprit des propos de la contribution précédente. Le nombre des victimes mentionné ci-dessus semble bien réel. Néanmoins ce chiffre couvre les effets d'un ensemble de séismes qui se sont succédés en 1201 et 1202, ainsi que l'effet d'une épidémie qui s'est déclarée pendant ce temps : il s'agit'de la peste, ce qui est de nature à expliquer largement le nombre de victimes avancé. On peut également conclure par l'analyse de la contribu¬tion de (TAHA pp. 124 à 136) "que le séisme est venu de la Haute-Egypte... et qu'en même temps, la ville de Naplouse a été entièrement détruite, aucun mur n'est resté debout sauf le quartier des samaritains ; dans cette ville il y a eu 30.000 Morts... Un témoin a donné une description originale des mouvements de la terre pendant le séisme :

Cela fut comme le mouvement du blé dans un tamis ou comme les battements des ailes d'oiseaux" donc il s'agit d'un mouvement sinusoïdal. Cette dernière observation pourrait correspondre aux "ondes visibles des tremblements de terre : lentes, longue période, courte longueurs d'ondes observées dans les zones épicentrales des grands séismes. - Voir Akiet al. (1980), Tome 1, Page 532 et Lommitz (1970)

- 2 juin 1201 apr. J.C., Baalbek (X-XI) Damas (IX), Acre (VIII-IX), Jérusalem (VII-VIII),..., le Caire (V-VI) (PTAH).

- 1202 apr. J.C. Homs (VIII) (PTAH).

La ville de Naplouse aurait dû figurer avec I = IX au moins. Il faut remarquer d'autre part que le terme "la Haute-Egypte", désigne sa partie méridionale.

Une dernière contribution.

- 1183, La ville de Tripoli (en Lybie) est détruite: 20.000 victimes.

Il est probable que le séisme de 1183 peut être comparé au point de vue de sa magnitude au séisme du 15 AVRIL 1935 (ML = et, comme pour ce dernier séisme, son foyer est en relation avec le fossé de Misurata - Maamoun (1976) p. 95.

NAJA

1. Confusion' entre Tripoli (Liban) et Tripoli (Lybie) ?
2. Le séisme de Misurata a eu lieu le 19 Avril et non le 15.

References

Abou-Karaki, N. (1987). Synthèse et carte sismotectonique des pays de la bordure Orientale de la Méditerranée: sismicité du système de foilles du Jourdain – Mer Morte, University of Strasbourg, France. Ph.D. Diss.

1. THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1201

a. Sources

This was a high-magnitude earthquake which was reportedly felt throughout the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. Ibn al-Athir describes the affected area as follows:

There was an earthquake in the land of Mawsil and the whole of Mesopotamia and Syria and elsewhere ... It was felt in Byzantium ... and in Iraq". (Al-Kamil, vol. XII, p. 171).

According to Ibn al-Imad

this mighty earthquake extended over most of the world" (Shadarat al-Dhaba, vol. IV, p. 328)

On the effects, Ibn al-Athir writes:

Its worst marks were left upon Syria. Many houses were destroyed in Damascus, Hims and Hamat. One village in the vicinity of Busra (ancient Botsra in the Hauran) was swallowed up by the land. It greatly affected (also) the (Syrian-Palestinian) coast: destruction was caused to Tripoli; Tyre, Acre, Nablus and other fortresses. (Al-Kamil, vol. XII, p. 171)

Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi gives a more detailed account of the effects:

It "began in Upper Egypt and extended all over the world in one hour. It destroyed the city of Nablus and the buildings of Cairo ... then it extended over Syria and the (Syrian-Palestinian) coast, totally destroyed Nablus - in which not even one wall remained erect save for the Samaritan quarter. 30,000 people died under the debris. Acre, Tyre and all the coastal fortresses were destroyed. Extending to Damascus (the earthquakes) destroyed ... most of the houses of the city ... The villages of Banias, Hunin and Tibrin (Tibrin ?) were ruined ... The fortress of Ba'al Bek, although it had been firmly built with huge stones, was thrown down. The earthquake extended to Hims (Emessa), Hamat, Halab (Aleppo) and the fortresses of the Byzantine border. It cut through the sea of Cyprus and the sea parted and became like lofty mountains, casting boats to the shore where they broke to pieces. The victims numbered approximately 1,100,000 human beings". The duration of the earthquake was about 40-45 minutes, "the length of time that iI takes to read the Chapter cf the Cave (Surat al-Kahf)", but "its tremors (probably after-shocks and/or other earthquakes) continued for several days" ... (Mir'at al-Zaman, vol. VIII/2, p. 478).

b. Estimate of intensities and epicenter location

Very conservative estimates of the seismic intensities of the reputed earthquake of 1201 are summed up in the following table. Relevant intensity values (covering only Syria) are plotted on Figure 3.

Table 3: The 1201 Earthquake

Site	Damage	Est. Imax	Remarks
Nablus	"It totally destroyed Nablus, in which not even one wall remained erect, save the Samaritan quarter. 30,000 people died under the debris" (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IX-X	Seems exaggerated (the number of population was less than 30,000)
Cairo	"It destroyed the buildings of Cairo" (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IX?
Damascus	"It caused the collapse of ... most of the houses of the city" (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IX?	probably caused by another earthquake
Safed	"Of all the inhabitants only one escaped death" (Dhahabi)	IX
Banias	Ruined (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Hunin	Ruined (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Tibrin	Ruined (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Acre	Ruined (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Tyre	Ruined (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Syrian Coast	All the coastal fortresses were destroyed (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Ba'al Bek	The fortress collapsed (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VIII
Cyprus	Heavy tsunamis (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)
Emessa	felt (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IV
Hamat	felt (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IV
Aleppo	felt (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IV
Byzantine border	felt (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	IV

The pattern of intensity distribution suggests a combination of two or more earthquakes, one of them offshore (which affected Cyprus). Considering the effects in Syria it seems that the epicenter location should be in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley - probably somewhere between the Dead Sea and Lake Kinneret. Nablus was undoubtedly the most affected city, probably followed by Safed and Damascus. The reported destruction of Acre, Tyre and all the coastal fortresses is dubious, since there is no report of any particular damage (similar to that of Nablus, Safed, Damascus, Ba'al Bek etc.)

The maximal probable seismic intensity at the NP-1 site, suggested from the intensity distribution, could not exceed VIII (MMS) - which is the assumed maximal seismic intensity along the Syrian coast.

2. THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1202 (MAY-JUNE)

The affected area of this earthquake (from- Syria to Cyprus) was similar to that of 1201. (As mentioned, there is a possibility of only one earthquake). However, it had lower seismic intensities. The earthquake effects are summed up in the following table:

Table 4: The 1202 Earthquake

Site	Damage	Est. Imax
Hims (Emessa)	"It cracked the fortress of Hims" (Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi)	VII-VIII
Damascus	"Threw down the Belvedere of the citadel" (Ibid)	VII-VIII
Nablus	"It demolished whatever had escaped (the earthquake of the previous year)" (Ibid)	VIII
Cyprus	"The earthquake moved over to the Island of Cyprus" (Ibid)

The highest seismic intensity - VIII - attained at Nablus, suggests an epicenter location in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley. However, Cyprus was certainly affected by another earthquake. Even if the effects were restricted only to Nablus, Damascus and Hims, it is unexplained why the earthquake did not affect other nearby localities (Safed, Acre, Ramleh etc.). Data are in- sufficient for preparing an isoseismal map.

Since there were not reports on damage along the Syrian-Palestine coast, it is assumed that the maximal probable seismic intensity at the NP-1 site could hardly exceed VII.

4. THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1203-4

a. Sources

The accounts of this earthquake are vague and are probably a repetition of the effects of the 1201-2 earthquakes or of earthquakes outside our region.

A typical description of this earthquake runs as follows:

In this year (10th September 1203 - 28th August 1204) there was a great earthquake which struck most of Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, the Byzantine Empire, Sicily, Cyprus, and reached as far as Mawsil, Iraq and elsewhere. The city wall of Tyre was demolished and many places in Syria were affected by it" (Ibn al- Athir: Al-Kamil, vol. XII, p. 198).

b. Estimate of Intensities

The described effects of the reputed. 1203-4 earthquake are vague but the pattern of intensity distribution seems similar to those of the 1201 earthquake. It seems that the earthquake originated in the vicinity of Syria and affected mainly Tyre (probable intensity VIII 'MMS) and several other Syrian towns.

The Muslim historians (like Ibn al-Athir), probably combined then:- effects with those of other contemporary earthquakes and "created" a major earthquake. (see above.)

The available data do not justify the preparation of an isoseismal map. Considering the effects on Syria, the maximal probable seismic intensity at the NP-1 site should be negligible, and certainly should not exceed VII (MMS).

References

Arieh, E. (1977). An Evaluation of Six Significant Historical Earthquakes, Jerusalem, Israel: Report for the Seismological Section of the Geologic Survey of Israel.


Figure 3

• from Taher (1996)

597/1200 : Ibn al-Athîr¹²² writes: “In the month of sha`bân , the earth trembles in Syria, in Jazira , in Egypt, and in the land of Rûm . » It is the Syrian coast which is the most affected; destruction ruins Tripoli, Tyre, Acre, Nablus; destruction as far as Damascus, Homs, Hamâ ; the town of Busra is ruined. The minimum damage area is in Iraq. Sibt b. al-Djawzi¹²³ adds Cyprus where there are very high waves and boats are propelled on the coast. He also adds Akhlât , Armenia, and Adharbaydjân . Many victims are buried under the rubble.

598/1201: Monday 26 Sha`bân - 20 âb (August) an earthquake occurs and Homs is destroyed with its citadel, as well as Hisn al-Akrâd . The earthquake spread from Cyprus to Nablus and neighboring regions. Damage in three cities of the Sâhil : Tyre, Tripoli, ` Arqa , and numerous devastations in the Muslim countries of the North¹²⁴. Al-Baghdâdî lived in Egypt; he witnessed the earthquake. He gives information from his friends in Châm , messages ¬announcing the earthquake in Hamâ and Damascus which he transcribes word for word¹²⁵.

599/1202 : at the beginning of Muharram¹²⁶ (September 20), on Saturday night, we see shooting stars in the sky, from east to west. We have never seen such a phenomenon, except at the birth of the Prophet, or in 241 and 600.

600/1203 : earthquake¹²⁷ in most countries: in Syria especially, in the country of Rûm , Sicily, Cyprus, Egypt, Djafira ; it is felt in Mosul, Iraq, and other countries; major damage to the walls of Tyre, most of Syria was affected. The earthquake spread to Ceuta, in the Maghreb, with the same effects.

Agnon, A., et al. (2006). "Intraclast breccias in laminated sequences reviewed: Recorders of paleo-earthquakes." Geological Society of America Special Papers 401: 195-214.

Ambraseys, N. N., and Melville, C.P. (1988). An analysis of the eastern Mediterranean earthquake of 20 May 1202. History of seismography and earthquakes of the world. W. K. H. Lee, et al. San Diego, Academic Press: 181–200.

Ambraseys and Jackson (1998). "Faulting associated with historical and recent earthquakes in the Eastern Mediterranean region." Geophysical Journal International 133(2): 390-406.

Daeron, M., et al. (2005). "Sources of the large A.D. 1202 and 1759 Near East earthquakes." Geology 33(7): 529-532.

Ellenblum, R., et al. (1998). "Crusader castle torn apart by earthquake at dawn, 20 May 1202." Geology 26(4): 303-306.

Hough, S. E., and R. Avni (2009). "The 1170 and 1202 Dead Sea Rift earthquakes and long‐term magnitude distribution on the Dead Sea fault zone." Isr. J. Earth Sci. 58(3-4): 295-308.

Kázmér, M., et al. (2010). Distinguishing damages from two earthquakes—Archaeoseismology of a Crusader castle (Al-Marqab citadel, Syria). Ancient Earthquakes, Geological Society of America. 471: 0.

Kázmér, M. and B. Major (2015). "Sāfitā castle and rockfalls in the ‘dead villages’ of coastal Syria – an archaeoseismological study." Comptes Rendus Geoscience 347(4): 181-190.

Le Strange, G. (1890). "Palestine under the Moslems A description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500."

Ancient Texts (partial list)


Beugnot, A. A. L'Estoire de Eracles, empereur, et la conqueste de la terre d'Outre-mer, c'est la translation et l'estoire de Guillaume, arcevesque de Sur.

Chronique de Terre Sainte and Annales de Terre Sainte 435 inside of Raynaud, G. and G. de Monrtal (1887). Les gestes des Chiprois. Recueil de chroniques françaises écrites en Orient au 13e & 14e siècles (Philippe de Navarre & Gérard de Montréal publié pour la première fois pour la Société de l'Orient latin".

Les gestes des Chiprois. Recueil de chroniques françaises écrites en Orient au 13e & 14e siècles (Philippe de Navarre & Gérard de Montréal publié pour la première fois pour la Société de l'Orient latin" Mayer, H. E. (1972), 'Two unpublished letters on the Syrian earthquake of 1202', in S. A. Hanna (ed.), Medieval and Middle Eastern Studies



Ancient Arabic Texts (partial list)


Ibn al-Athir, 'Izz al-Din, (Kitab) al-Kamil fil-tarikh, ed. C. J. Tornberg, Leiden, 1851-76; (C) RHC Hist.Orient., Paris, 1872; 12 volumes, ed. Tornberg, Leiden, 1851-1876.

Abu al-Fida Ismail Ibn Hamwi . The Concise History of Humanity or Chronicles (Arabic: 'Tarikhu 'al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (History of Abu al-Fida).

Ibn al-Furat, Tarikh al-duwal wal-muluk, vols. iv/1âv, ed. Hassan al-Shamma, Basra, 1967; also vol. vii, ed. C. K. Zurayk and N. Izzedin, Beirut, 1936-42.

Bar Hebraeus, see Abu'l-Faraj, Girgis.

al-Dawadari, I. Kanz al-durar wa-jei mi` al-ghurar. Dar al-kutub al misriyya ms. 2578 ta'rikh. Cairo.

al-Dawadari, I. Kanz al-durar wa-jei mi` al-ghurar. Dar al-kutub al misriyya ms. 2578 ta'rikh. Cairo.

Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Al-Gawzi, S. I. and S. S. Hajjar (1982). Mir'at al-Zaman i tarih al-a'yan, S. Sayde Hajjar.

Al-Gawzi, S. I. and S. S. Hajjar (1982). Mir'at al-Zaman i tarih al-a'yan, S. Sayde Hajjar

Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature Vol. 2

Ibn al Hambali, I. a. I. a.-H. (931-32). Shadharat al-dhabab. Cairo.

Abd al-Latif, Kitab al-ifada, trans. S. de Sacy, Reation d'Egypte, Paris, 1810.

ABU SHAMA, Dhailâala al-raudatain fi akbar al-daulatayn, edited by M. ZAHID AL-KAUTHARI, Cairo 1947.

ABUSHAMA, Kitab al-Raudatayn fi akbar al-daulatayn, edited by M. HILMI, 2 vols., Cairo 1956-1962.

ABUSHAMA, Opus dictum Kitab er-Raudhaten, sub titulo Le Livre deux jardins ou Histoire de deux Rgnes auctore Abou Chamach, edited and translated by A.C. BARBIER DEMEYNERD, RHC Hist. Or., vol. 4, Paris 1896.