1212 CE Quake

Textual Evidence

Text (with hotlink)	Original Language	Biographical Info	Religion	Date of Composition	Location Composed	Notes
Damage and Chronology Reports from Textual Sources	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a
Abu Shama	Arabic	Biography	Sunni Muslim	before 1268 CE	Damascus	States that on the night of 1 May 1212 CE [year assumed] there was a tremendous earthquake which destroyed many parts of old and new Cairo while adding that it also destroyed towers and houses at Al- Karak and Shubak and many women and children died in the ruins. Abu Shama also said that the most violent shock was at Aylat, on the coast and added that it was said that the earthquake was preceded by a black wind and many falling stars.
Ibn Kathir	Arabic	Biography	Muslim	Before 1373 CE	Damascus	States that there was a very violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed adding that the same thing happened at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some of its citadel towers were destroyed and many women and children died in the ruins.
al-Maqrizi	Arabic	Biography	Sunni Muslim Shafi‘i (Rabbat, 2003:9)	before 1442 CE	Cairo or Damascus	States that there was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed adding that there was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak and many people died in the ruins and a number of towers in its citadel were destroyed. States that smoke was seen coming down from heaven to earth in Damascus between dusk and evening.
as-Suyuti	Arabic	Biography	Sufi Muslim	15th c. CE	Cairo	States that in A.H. 608 (15 June 1211 - 2 June 1212 CE) there was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed adding that there was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some towers in its citadel were destroyed and many people died in the ruins. States that smoke was seen to come down from heaven to earth between dusk and evening at the tomb of Atika in the western part of Damascus..
Nectarius of Jerusalem	Greek	Biography	Greek Orthodox Christian	before 1680 CE	Jerusalem ?	Nectarius of Jerusalem wrote that Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai experienced two foreshocks at sunset and midnight on Monday 30 April 1212 CE and a damaging main shock at dawn of Tuesday 1 May 1212 CE. Rockfalls from the surrounding mountains were described and there was damage to the northern and eastern walls. Walls were so damaged that it was possible to pass a loaded animal through them. He also reported that two towers of the Monastery collapsed and some of the cells collapsed completely but in others only the roofs collapsed. Aftershocks were also described. Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13) reports that in another passage Nectarius related that six days after the earthquake a group of seven Christian builders arrived and repaired the Monastery walls and towers 'in the situation they can be found today' [quote from Nectarios]. Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13) added that the builders happened to arrive there for another reason, i.e., to renovate the Church at the Holly Summit of the Mountain since it suffered damage from past earthquakes. Although Nectarius provided a year of 1312 CE, this was typographic error either by him or his source. Other sources (Abu Shama and al-Suyuti) specify the year as 1212 CE and the day of the week and dates provided in Nectarius' narration are in agreement in 1212 CE but not in 1312 CE.
Text (with hotlink)	Original Language	Biographical Info	Religion	Date of Composition	Location Composed	Notes

Damage and Chronology Reports from Textual Sources

**Seismic Effects**
Effect	Sources	Notes
Violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed	Abu Shama, Ibn Kathir, al-Maqrizi, as-Suyuti	Abu Shama says it destroyed many parts of old and new Cairo but did not mention Egypt.
Earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak and many people died in the ruins of houses and a number of towers in its citadel were destroyed	Abu Shama, Ibn Kathir, al-Maqrizi, as-Suyuti
The most violent shock was at Aylat, on the coast	Abu Shama	Abu Shama
Smoke was seen coming down from heaven to earth between dusk and evening	Abu Shama, al-Maqrizi, as-Suyuti	Abu Shama said the [nighttime] earthquake was preceded by a black wind and many falling stars. as-Suyuti specifies that this was observed at the tomb of Atika in the western part of Damascus
Damage to Saint Catherine's monastery in the Sinai	Nectarius of Jerusalem
Foreshocks and Aftershocks	Nectarius of Jerusalem

**Date**
Date	Sources	Notes
1 May	Abu Shama and Nectarius of Jerusalem

**Time of Day**
Time	Sources	Notes
nighttime	Abu Shama
dawn	Nectarius of Jerusalem
preceded by foreshocks at sunset and midnight of the previous evening (Monday 30 April)	Nectarius of Jerusalem

Sequel to the Two Gardens by Abu Shama

Al-Dhayl 'ala 'l-Rawdatayn by Abu Shama

Aliases

Aliases	Arabic
Abu Shama
Abū Shāma Shihāb al-Dīn al-Maḳdisī
Abū Shāma Shihāb al-Dīn Abuʾl-Ḳāsim ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Ismāʿīl ibn Ibrāhīm ibn ʿUthmān ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Muḥammad al-Maḳdisī (or al-Maqdisī)
Shihāb al-Dīn Abuʾl-Ḳāsim ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Ismāʿīl al-Maḳdisī

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

During the night of 27 Dhul-qa'da (1 May), there was a tremendous earthquake which destroyed many parts of old and new Cairo; it also destroyed towers and houses at Al- Karak and Shubak. Many women and children died in the ruins. The most violent shock was at Aylat, on the coast. It was said that the earthquake was preceded by a black wind and many falling stars.

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
night of 1 May 1212 CE	night of 27 Dhu'l-Qa'da	none	Calculated using CHRONOS A.H. 608 is assumed 1 May 1212 CE fell on a Tuesday (calculated using CHRONOS)

Seismic Effects

destroyed many parts of old and new Cairo
destroyed towers and houses at Al-Karak and Shubak. Many women and children died in the ruins.
The most violent shock was at Aylat, on the coast.
It was said that the earthquake was preceded by a black wind and many falling stars.

Locations

Cairo
Al-Karak
Shubak
Aylat

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

The Beginning and the End by Ibn Kathir

Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya by ابن كثير

Aliases

Aliases	Arabic
Ibn Kathīr	ابن كثير
Abu al-Fiḍā ‘Imād Ad-Din Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr al-Qurashī Al-Damishqī	إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير القرشي الدمشقي أبو الفداء عماد
Abū l-Fidāʾ Ismāʿīl ibn ʿUmar ibn Kaṯīr	أبو الفداء إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير
Imād ad-Dīn	عماد الدين

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

There was a very violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. The same thing happened at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some of its citadel towers were destroyed. Many women and children died in the ruins.

Seismic Effects

violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed
The same thing happened at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some of its citadel towers were destroyed. Many women and children died in the ruins.

Locations

Egypt
Cairo
Al-Karak
Shubak

Sources

Sources and Dependants

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Exhortations and Instructions on the Districts and Antiquities & Admonitions of the Orthodox by al-Maqrizi

Khitat & Itti’az by المقريزي

Aliases

Aliases	Arabic
Al-Maqrīzī	المقريزي
Maḳrīzī
Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī	تقي الدين أحمد بن علي بن عبد القادر بن محمد المقريزي

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

There was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. There was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak and many people died in the ruins and a number of towers in its citadel were destroyed. And smoke was seen coming down from heaven to earth in Damascus between dusk and evening.

Seismic Effects

a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed
an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak and many people died in the ruins and a number of towers in its citadel were destroyed
smoke was seen coming down from heaven to earth in Damascus between dusk and evening.

Locations

Egypt
Cairo
Al-Karak
Shubak

Sources

Sources and Notes

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Clearing up the Description of Earthquakes by Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti

كتاب كشف الصلصلة عن وصف الزلزلة by عبد الرحمن بن كمال الدين أبي بكر بن محمد سابق الدين خضر الخضيري الأسيوطي

Aliases

Aliases	Arabic
Al-Suyuti
As-Suyuti
Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti
Abu 'l-Fadl 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr ibn Muhammad Djalal al_Din al-Khudayri

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

from Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

In the year 608 [H. = 1212-1213], there was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. There was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some towers in its citadel were destroyed and many people died in the ruins. Smoke was seen to come down from heaven to earth between dusk and evening at the tomb of Atika in the western part of Damascus.

English from Sprenger (1843)

from an abridged translation by Sprenger (1843:748)

A.H. 608. In Egypt and Cairo many persons lost their lives, and great smoke arose west of Damascus.

English from Sprenger (1843) - embedded

see top of page 748 starting with 608.
from an abridged translation by Sprenger (1843:748)
from archive.org

An Original Manuscript - Arabic

The Noor book courtesy of Najib Abou Karaki (personal correspondence, 2022)

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
15 June 1211 - 2 June 1212 CE	A.H. 608	none	Calculated using CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed
also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some towers in its citadel were destroyed and many people died in the ruins
Smoke was seen to come down from heaven to earth between dusk and evening at the tomb of Atika in the western part of Damascus.

Locations

Egypt
Cairo
Al-Karak
Shubak

Notes and Further Reading

References

Nectarius of Jerusalem

Aliases

Aliases	Greek
Nectarius of Jerusalem
Nectarios Kretas
Patriarch Nektarios
Nikolaos Pelopidis	Νεκτάριος Πελοπίδης

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Triantafyllou et al. (2022)

from Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13)
from Part Γ of Epitome in a Chapter titled "About the great earthquakes that happened in the same Monastery [of St. Catherine in the Sinai]"

On Monday [AD] 30 April of 1312 at sunset a small earthquake happened, and another one at midnight; at dawn of Tuesday 1 May another great and terrible earthquake occurred; and because of the rumble and the shaking of the Mountains and of the rocks throwing down from the Mountains, it looked like that the entire World would submerge. The northern and eastern walls as well as two towers of the Monastery pulled down; and some of the cells collapsed completely but in others only the roofs collapsed. The earthquakes did not finish, on the contrary they were coming one after the other. Then, the Monks got in fear and with cries and lamentations left to the wine-arbor, where the Cemetery is situated, for they were afraid of the complete ruination of the Monastery, since the walls were so much damaged as it was possible for a loaded animal to pass through.

Characterization in English from Ambraseys (2009)

from Ambraseys (2009:337), citing Nectarios Kretas (1768, 197; 1677, 198) and Eustratiades (1932, 1225) quoting an Arabic synaxarium written at the monastery [of St Catherine in Sinai] in February 1214

In the Sinai Peninsula, the shock caused severe damage to the monastery of St Catherine, destroying a major part of its fortifications and damaging the church. The northern wall of the monastery, with its northwest and northeast corners, collapsed. Of the cells, some were destroyed completely and others lost their roofs, apparently without loss of life. This was possibly due to the fact that the earthquake, which struck at dawn, had been preceded by a foreshock at sunset the previous evening (Monday 30 April), which might have served as a warning.

The shock triggered rock falls from the mountains behind the monastery, and was followed by aftershocks that continued for a year. The date of the earthquake was commemorated as a day for prayers and penitence.

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
foreshocks on Monday 30 April of 1212 at sunset and at midnight main shock on at dawn of Tuesday 1 May 1212 CE	foreshocks on Monday [AD] 30 April of 1312 at sunset and at midnight main shock on at dawn of Tuesday 1 May	year changed to 1212 CE - see notes for explanation	Days of the Week and Dates reported are off in 1312 CE and in agreement in 1212 CE Abu Shama dated the main shock to 1 May 1212 CE and al-Suyuti dated it to A.H. 608 (15 June 1211 - 2 June 1212 CE) Nectarios reported that the foreshocks occurred on Monday 30 April 1312 CE 30 April 1312 CE was on a Sunday (calculated with CHRONOS) 30 April 1212 CE was on a Monday (calculated with CHRONOS) Nectarios reported that the main shock occurred on Tuesday 1 May 1312 CE 1 May 1312 CE was on a Monday (calculated with CHRONOS) 1 May 1212 CE was on a Tuesday (calculated with CHRONOS) The Greek Orthodox Church of Nectarios has consistently used the Julian Calendar and still does Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13) also dated the earthquake to 1212 CE using similar reasoning Ambraseys (2009:338 n.2) wrote that the day for prayers, 1 May, is the definitive date of the [main] shock

Seismic Effects

Quotes from Patriarch Nectarius

foreshocks at sunset and midnight on Monday 30 April 1212 CE
main shock on of Tuesday 1 May 1212 CE
another great and terrible earthquake occurred
rumble and the shaking of the Mountains and of the rocks throwing down from the Mountains
The northern and eastern walls as well as two towers of the Monastery pulled down
some of the cells collapsed completely but in others only the roofs collapsed
aftershocks - The earthquakes did not finish, on the contrary they were coming one after the other
the walls were so much damaged as it was possible for a loaded animal to pass through

Characterizations by Ambraseys (2009:337)

severe damage to the monastery of St Catherine, destroying a major part of its fortifications and damaging the church
The northern wall of the monastery, with its northwest and northeast corners, collapsed
Of the cells, some were destroyed completely and others lost their roofs, apparently without loss of life.
preceded by a foreshock at sunset the previous evening (Monday 30 April)

Locations

Monastery of St Catherine in the Sinai

Sources

Notes and Further Reading

References

Notes from Ambraseys (2009)

Ambraseys (2009:338) states

[2] Nectarios Kretas (1768, 197; 1677, 198) and Eustratiades (1932, 1225) quote an Arabic synaxarium written at the monastery in February 1214. The day for prayers, 1 May, is the definitive date of the shock; Muslim sources all give 27 Dhul-Qada, which is 2 May [JW: 27 Dhu l-Qa'da A.H. 608 = 1 May 2012 CE] .

[3] This information is recorded by Nectarios, a Sinaite archbishop writing in 1658. He gives the date as 1312 or 1212, whereas Papamichalopoulos (1912, 29) places the earthquake on 1 May 1608 on the authority of Iosaph, which is not consistent with the other chronological elements in the account. These two sources have misled Ben-Menahem (1979, 258), who has 1312 (or 1608): the date should read 1212 (608 a.H.). See Melville (1984, 99).

Notes from Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13)

from Triantafyllou et al. (2022:13-14)

4.5 AD 1 May 1312 or 1212: Sinai seismic sequence

In Part Γ of Epitome there is a chapter titled “About the great earthquakes that happened in the same Monastery”. Then, the earthquakes and the significant damage caused are nar rated as follows: “On Monday [AD] 30 April of 1312 at sunset a small earthquake hap pened, and another one at midnight; at dawn of Tuesday 1 May another great and terrible earthquake occurred; and because of the rumble and the shaking of the Mountains and of the rocks throwing down from the Mountains, it looked like that the entire World would submerge. The northern and eastern walls as well as two towers of the Monastery pulled down; and some of the cells collapsed completely but in others only the roofs collapsed. The earthquakes did not finish, on the contrary they were coming one after the other. Then, the Monks got in fear and with cries and lamentations left to the wine-arbor, where the Cemetery is situated, for they were afraid of the complete ruination of the Monastery, since the walls were so much damaged as it was possible for a loaded animal to pass through”. From Nektarios’ narration we also learn that six days after the earthquake a group of seven Christian builders arrived and repaired the Monastery walls and towers “in the situation they can be found today”. The builders happened to arrive there for another reason, i.e., to renovate the Church at the Holly Summit of the Mountain since it suffered damage from past earthquakes. However, no further information is provided for those earthquakes.

The earthquake activity of AD 1312 is a puzzling episode from the dating point of view. Ben-Menahem (1979), based only “upon private communication with Dr D. Neev, Israel Geological Survey”, listed an earthquake event that occurred either in AD 1312 or AD 1608, but without quoting relevant documentary source(s). Amiran et al. (1994) just copied Ben-Menahem (1979). The earthquake catalogues by Poirier and Taher (1980), Guidoboni and Comastri (2005) and Ambraseys (2009) do not list an earthquake on 1 May 1312. However, Guidoboni and Comastri (2005), who did not include Epitome in their sources, report on an earthquake that occurred in the Gulf of Aqaba on 1 May 1212 and caused significant damage in Eilat and as far as Cairo. However, the sources used by Guidoboni and Comastri (2005) did not mention the Sinai Monastery as one of the places damaged by the earthquake. Muslim sources used by Ambraseys (2009) dated the AD 1212 earth quake on 2 May. Ambraseys (2009), however, was based on an earlier version of Epitome and supported that Nektarios gives the date as AD 1312 or AD 1212, which is not correct since Nektarios gives only AD 1312. By considering the days mentioned by Nektarios, i.e., Monday for 30 April and Tuesday for 1 May, we found that they correspond to the year AD 1212. This implies that Nektarios was writing 1312 instead of 1212, which likely is the correct date of the earthquake given that for AD 1212 the 30th April was Monday.

It is noteworthy that Kagan et al. (2011) correlated historical records of large earth quakes with dates of seismites sedimentary layers deposited at the Ein Feshkha Nature Reserve outcrop located at the northern part of the Dead Sea basin. One of the seismites was dated around AD 1312 and correlated with several candidate earthquakes, all having occurred to the north of the basin with the exception of the AD 1312 one, for the histori cal documentation of which Kagan et al. (2011) quoted Amiran et al. (1994). However, the southward diminishing abundance of seismites may reflect the observation that the historic earthquakes from the 12th and 14th centuries, including the ΑD 1312 one, ruptured north of the Jordan Valley (Agnon 2014). Τhis observation removes the Sinai AD 1312 earth quake from the list of candidate earthquakes.

It is noticeable that according to Tsolakidis (2001) an earthquake dated on 1 May 1201 is reported to have caused damage in St. Catherine’s Monastery, which look like the damage caused by the AD 1212 or 1312 earthquake: “The memory of this event comes from the Sinai Codex 1097, and it is said that it happened on [AD] 1201 when many cells and towers were perished”. Although we do not rule out that an earthquake in fact damaged the Monastery in 1201, one possibility is that the 1201 earthquake was mentioned with errone ous date in the calendars of Orthodox Church events. An alternative is the erroneous read ing of AD 1212 in the Sinai Codex 1097 or by Tsolakidis (2001).

Summarizing, what we learn from Epitome is that at the sunset and again at midnight of AD 30 April 1212, Monday, foreshocks were felt in the Sinai Monastery. At the dawn of AD 1 May 1212, Tuesday, a very strong main shock occurred. The earth shaking was pow erful enough and caused rock falls from the Mountain. The Monastery building was seri ously damaged given that the walls at the eastern and northern sides collapsed. The same happened in two of the Monastery’s towers. Moreover, some cells collapsed in total, while in others only the roofs fell. Many aftershocks followed the next days. The Monastery was repaired by a team of builders who happened to arrive there six days later.

Archaeoseismic Evidence

Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes
Jericho - Introduction	n/a	n/a	n/a
Jericho - Hisham's Palace	probable	≥ 8 9-10	Later Earthquake - Alfonsi et al (2013) dated the causitive earthquake for the major seismic destruction at Hisham's Palace to the earthquake of 1033 CE unlike previous researchers who dated it to one of the Sabbatical Year earthquakes. Their discussion is reproduced below: The archaeological data testify to an uninterrupted occupancy from eighth century until 1000 A.D. of the Hisham palace (Whitcomb, 1988). Therefore, if earthquakes occurred in this time period, the effects should not have implied a total destruction with consequent occupancy contraction or abandonment. Toppled walls and columns in the central court cover debris containing 750-850 A.D. old ceramic shards (Whitcomb, 1988). Recently unearthed collapses north of the court confirm a widespread destruction after the eighth century (Jericho Mafjar Project - The Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago). These elements support the action of a destructive shaking event at the site later than the 749 A.D. earthquake. The two well-constrained, major historical earthquakes recognized in the southern Jordan Valley are the 749 and 1033 A.D. (Table 1; Marco et al (2003); Guidoboni and Comastri, 2005). We assign an IX—X intensity degree to the here-recorded Hisham damage, whereas a VII degree has been attributed to the 749 A.D. earthquake at the site (Marco et al, 2003). Furthermore, Whitcomb (1988) defines an increment of occupation of the palace between 900 and 1000 A.D. followed by a successive occupation in the 1200-1400 A.D. time span. On the basis of the above, and because no pottery remains are instead associated with the 1000-1200 A.D. period at Hisham palace (Whitcomb, 1988), we suggest a temporary, significant contraction or abandonment of the site as consequence of a severe destruction in the eleventh century.
Petra - Introduction	n/a	n/a	n/a
Petra - Jabal Harun	possible	≥ 8	Phase 12 destruction event - not well dated - Mikkola et al (2008) noted that in this destruction event all remaining roof structures collapsed and there was a layer of stone tumble. Hard-packed, clayey soil directly under the lowermost deposits of stone tumble [...] contained relatively few finds apparently making it difficult to date. Also found in the stone tumble were the remains of two fallen arches, a row of voussoirs, some drums fallen from a column, and many other architectural elements found throughout the complex.
Petra - Petra Church	possible	≥ 8	Fiema et al (2001) characterized structural destruction of the church in Phase X as likely caused by an earthquake with a date that is not easy to determine. A very general terminus post quem of the early 7th century CE was provided. Destruction due to a second earthquake was identified in Phase XIIA which was dated from late Umayyad to early Ottoman. Taken together this suggests that the first earthquake struck in the 7th or 8th century CE and the second struck between the 8th and 16th or 17th century CE.
Petra - Blue Chapel and the Ridge Church	possible		Later undated earthquake(s)- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70) noted that from the 8th c. A.D. on, the abandoned structures suffered extensive damage from repeated earthquakes.
Saint Catherine's Monastery In Sinai	no evidence		There is no archaeoseismic evidence that I am aware of although there is Textual evidence
Shivta	possible	≥ 8	Post Abandonment Earthquake(s) - 8th - 15th centuries CE - On the western perimeter of Shivta in Building 121, Erickson-Gini (2013) found evidence of earthquake induced collapse of the ceilings and parts of the walls which she dated to possibly in the Middle Islamic period after the site was abandoned at the end of the Early Islamic period. Collapsed arches were also found. The arches appear to be in a crescent pattern. Erickson-Gini (2013) discussed dating of the structure is as follows: The excavation revealed that the structure was built and occupied in the Late Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE) and continued to be occupied as late as the Early Islamic period (eighth century CE). The structure appears to have collapsed sometime after its abandonment, possibly in the Middle Islamic period. Dateable artifacts in Room 2 came from the Late Byzantine period and the Early Islamic period (eighth century CE). The terminus ante quem for this earthquake is not well established. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) report that a site effect is not likely at this location.
el-Lejjun	possible	≥ 8	4th Earthquake - ~600 CE - 1918 CE - Groot et al (2006:183) report discovery of a nearly complete Umayyad Lamp in Square 4 of Area B (Barracks - B.6.038) in the Post Stratum Gap - above and later than the 3rd earthquake layer. Above the Ummayyad lamp was a 0.7 m thick layer of tumble containing some roof beams and many wall blocks (Groot et al, 2006:183). They note that the basalt roof beams found embedded in the lowest tumble level (B.6.032) suggests initial massive destruction rather than gradual decay over time. The wall blocks, found in the upper layer of tumble, contained one late Islamic (1174-1918 CE) and one Ayyubid/Mamluk (1174-1516 CE) sherd indicating a significant amount of time may have passed between the possibly seismically induced roof collapse and the wall collapse which was not characterized as necessarily having a seismic origin. This opens up the possibility that one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes or a later earthquake may have also caused damage at el-Lejjun. deVries et al (2006:196) suggests that Umayyad abandonment of the northwest tower was probably triggered by further major collapse. In the North Gate, deVries et al (2006:207) found evidence of full scale destruction in layers above 3rd earthquake debris and post-earthquake occupation layers which contained Late Byzantine/Umayyad and Umayyad sherds. Subsoil/tumble was found in C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell) bear ample witness to the destruction of the rooms, perhaps in the Umayyad period. Although Late Byzantine sherds were found in Post Stratum layers in the North Gate, if one assumes that the 3rd earthquake was the Inscription at Aeropolis Quake which struck before 597 CE - probably within a decade of 597 CE, one can establish an approximate and fairly conservative terminus post quem for this earthquake of ~600 CE. While the terminus ante quem is the end of the post stratum III gap (1918 CE), it is probable that that the earthquake struck much earlier.
Castellum of Qasr Bshir	possible	≥ 8	Later Earthquake(s) - Above what was presumed to be a Late Umayyad collapse layer Clark (1987:490) found another collapse layer in H.2 A period of abandonment followed [the Late Umayyad collapse], punctuated by a squatter occupation of the room, during which a fire was lit in the corner. There followed a major collapse of masonry, after which no further occupation of the room took place.
Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes

Jericho and environs - Introduction

Jericho and environs - Hisham's Palace at the Khirbet el-Mefjer site

Petra - Introduction

Petra - The Petra Church

Petra - The Ridge Church and the Blue Chapel

Saint Catherine's Monastery In Sinai

Castellum of Qasr Bshir

Landslide Evidence

Tsunamogenic Evidence

¹ PGA to Intensity conversions use Wald et al (1999).
Location (with hotlink)	Status	Minimum PGA (g)	Likely PGA (g)	Likely Intensity¹	Comments
Gulf of Aqaba	possible	n/a	n/a		Turbidites in R/V Thuwal Cores 17 and 18 in the northern part of the Gulf - ~1200-~1300 CE (1σ) Bektaş et al. (2024:13) report that turbidites were identified in R/V Thuwal cores 17 and 18 in the northern part of the Gulf of Aqaba where the turbidite in core 18 is thicker and better preserved with its laminated internal structure. Based on Probability Density Functions (PDFs) presented in Fig. 8 of their paper, the turbidites in cores 17 and 18 should have been deposited between ~1200 and ~1300 CE (1σ). Bektaş et al. (2024:13) suggested that the 1212 CE earthquake was responsible for these turbidites. Since only two cores recorded the event, Bektaş et al. (2024:13) concluded that the CE 1212 earthquake was likely significantly smaller than the CE 1068 and CE 1588 events while noting that the exact location of this event north of the gulf remains uncertain, but it might have caused a discontinuous rupture on fault segments of the Wadi Arabah Fault system. This reasoning was based on the probable presence of the 1212 CE earthquake as Event E2 in the Qatar Trench, its supposed absence in the Elat Sabhka Trenches, and its supposed absence in the imprecisely dated Shehoret, Roded, and Avrona Alluvial Fan Trenches. It should be noted however that Kanari et al. (2020) listed the 1212 CE earthquake and the 1068 CE earthquake(s) as a possible cause of a dewatering structure (aka liquefaction fluid escape structure) in Trench T1 of the Elat Sabhka Trenches and that [opinion by JW] while Events 7, 8, and 9 in Trench T-18 in the Shehoret, Roded, and Avrona Alluvial Fan Trenches have a wide spread of ages, taken together, the evidence suggests that the 1212 CE earthquake, the 1068 CE earthquake(s), and one earlier earthquake, perhaps between ~500 CE and 1000 CE, struck the area. Bektaş et al. (2024:13) characterizes the Shehoret, Roded, and Avrona Alluvial Fan Trenches and Elat Sabhka Trenches researchers (Zilberman et al., 2005 and Kanari et al., 2020 respectively) as claiming that the CE 1212 earthquake was likely generated by a secondary fault on the eastern edge of the Eilat depression, rather than by the Wadi Arabah Fault. Bektaş et al. (2024:13) also noted that there are no turbidites in cores 14 and 15 around [the] 1200s and that a turbidite from the 1200s may be present in core 13. Event B in R/V Mediterranean Explorer core P27 - ~1293 CE 7 cm. thick Mass Transport Deposit Event B was identified in R/V Mediterranean Explorer Canyon Core P27 by Kanari et al (2015) and Ash-Mor et al. (2017). Ash-Mor et al. (2017) provided an unmodeled ¹⁴C date of ~1292 CE (658 ± 34 cal years BP) for the sediments below the mass transport deposit which Kanari et al (2015) associated with the 1458 CE earthquake although other events might also fit this approximate unmodeled date - e.g. the 1068 CE Earthquake, 1212 CE Earthquake, and the 1588 CE Earthquakes. Kanari et al (2015) based their date assignment of 1458 CE at least partly on their work in the nearby Elat Sabhka Trenches where Kanari et al. (2020) dated Event E2 in Trench T3 to after 1294 CE and listed earthquakes of 1458 CE and 1588 CE as likely candidates. Kanari et al. (2020) also identified liquefaction sand blows SB1 and SB2 in the same Elat Sabhka Trench (T3) which they dated to between 1287 and 1635 CE or 1287-1550 CE¹. Kanari et al. (2020) surmised that the data for liquefaction sand blows SB1 and SB2 tend to support an interpretation of 1458 CE, but are inconclusive.
Location (with hotlink)	Status	Minimum PGA (g)	Likely PGA (g)	Likely Intensity¹	Comments

Paleoseismic Evidence

Location (with hotlink)

Status

Intensity

Notes

Jordan Valley - Tell Saidiyeh and Ghor Kabed Trenches

possible

≥ 7

Dead Sea - Seismite Types

n/a

Dead Sea - En Feshka

possible to probable

8.1 - 8.9 (12 cm.)

8.0 - 8.8 (28 cm.)

8.1 - 8.9 (40 cm.)

Kagan et. al. (2011) identified several seismites from around this time.

Depth (cm.)	Thickness (cm.)	Seismite Type	Modeled Age (± 1σ)	Modeled Age (± 2σ)	Quake Assignment (Kagan)	Quake Assignment (Williams)
12	7	4	1277 CE ± 17	1303 CE ± 64	1293 CE Quake	1293 CE Quake
28	2	4	1220 CE ± 21	1222 CE ± 46	1202 CE Quake and 1212 CE Quake	not assigned
40	6	4	1170 CE ± 20	1168 CE ± 43	1170 CE Quake	not assigned

Dead Sea - En Gedi

possible to probable

8.1 - 8.9

Seismites assigned to earthquakes in 1202, 1212, and 1293 CE

Figure 10

Photo of a section of the Ein Gedi core containing three breccia layers with the respective dates of earthquakes. The 1202 A.D. event is barely determined because the 1212 event almost obliterated the 10-yr-old breccia. Nonetheless, a few laminae (arrow) can be resolved above event horizon 1202 A.D. Migowski et al. (2004) have inferred five unresolved events by correlation of the lamina-counting record of breccia layers with the historical record of destructive earthquakes.

Agnon et al (2006)

from Agnon et al (2006)

Migowski et. al. (2004) assigned a 1212 CE date to a 4.2 cm. thick Type 4 seismite at a depth of 103.07 cm. (1.0307 m).

Dead Sea - Nahal Ze 'elim

possible

8.2 -9.0

At site ZA-1, Ken-Tor et al (2001a) assigned a a date of 1212 CE to a ~10 cm. thick Type 4 seismite which they labeled as Event E and was dated between 1220 and 1390 CE (± 2σ). In Table 4 of Kagan et. al. (2011), a 10.5 cm. thick seismite at ZA-1 was associated with the 1212 CE earthquake. At site ZA-2, Kagan et. al. (2011) did not find any seismites whose time window encompassed 1212 CE.

Araba - Introduction

n/a

Araba - Qasr Tilah

unlikley to possible

≥ 7

Haynes et al. (2006) dated Events II and III to between the 7th and 12th centuries CE.

Araba - Taybeh Trench

unlikely

LeFevre et al. (2018) did not assign any seismic events to an earthquake in 1212 CE.

Araba - Qatar Trench

probable

≥ 7

Klinger et. al. (2015) identified one seismic event which fits.

Event	Mean Date	Age Range	Quake Assignment (Klinger)	Quake Assignment (Williams)
E2	1212 CE ± 57	1155-1269 CE	1212 CE Quake	not assigned

Araba - Taba Sabhka Trench

possible

≥ 7

Allison (2013) assigned a 1068 CE date to a seismic event which they dated to between 1045 and 1661 CE and Allison (2013) assigned a 1212 CE date to a seismic event which they dated to between the mid 11th century CE and the 16-17th centuries CE.

Araba - Shehoret, Roded, and Avrona Alluvial Fan Trenches

possible to probable

≥ 7

Events 7, 8, and 9 in Trench T-18 have a wide spread of ages however, taken together, the evidence suggests the 1212 CE, 1068 CE, and one earlier earthquake, perhaps between ~500 CE and 1000 CE, struck the area. Zilberman et al (2005) also discovered an early Islamic ranch in the western part of Avrona playa. The ranch was dated to the 11th century CE and was abandoned during the same century - an abandonment which Zilberman et al (2005) attributed to the effects of the 1068 CE earthquake. They measured 1 m of displacement of a Qanat (a covered water canal) on the ranch which they also attributed to the 1068 CE earthquake although it is possible that the displacement was caused by an earthquake which struck the area in 1212 CE.

Araba - Elat Sabhka Trenches

possible

Kanari et al (2020) suggested that a dewatering structure (aka a liquefaction fluid escape structure) found in Trench T1 and dated to before 1269-1389 CE was caused by the 1068 CE Quake(s) or the 1212 CE Quake.

Araba - Trenches in Aqaba

possible

≥ 7

Niemi (2011:153) noted that the most recent scarp-forming event fault [in Trench AQ-1] occurred after A.D. 1045-1278 based on a corrected, calibrated radiocarbon age from charcoal collected from a buried campfire at the base of the scarp in Trench T-1. This likely represents fault motion in one of the historical earthquakes affecting southern Jordan (e.g. 1068, 1212, 1458, or 1588).

Location (with hotlink)

Status

Intensity

Notes

Tell Saidiyeh and Ghor Kabed Trenches

Ferry et al (2011) detected 12 surface rupturing seismic events in 4 trenches (T1-T4) in Tell Saidiyeh and Ghor Kabed; 10 of which were prehistoric. The tightest chronology came from the Ghor Kabed trenches (T1 and T2) where Events Y and Z were constrained to between 560 and 1800 CE.

Note: Although Ferry et al (2011) combined archaeoseismic interpretations, their paleoseismic evidence, and entries from earthquake catalogs to produce earthquake dates and some overly optimistic probabilities, only the paleoseismic data is presented here. Ferry et al (2011)'s archaeoseismic data was researched and is treated separately.

Dead Sea - Seismite Types

Dead Sea - En Feshka

Kagan et. al. (2011) identified several seismites from around this time.

Depth (cm.)	Thickness (cm.)	Seismite Type	Modeled Age (± 1σ)	Modeled Age (± 2σ)	Quake Assignment (Kagan)	Quake Assignment (Williams)
12	7	4	1277 CE ± 17	1303 CE ± 64	1293 CE Quake	1293 CE Quake
28	2	4	1220 CE ± 21	1222 CE ± 46	1202 CE Quake and 1212 CE Quake	not assigned
40	6	4	1170 CE ± 20	1168 CE ± 43	1170 CE Quake	not assigned

Dead Sea - En Gedi

Seismites assigned to earthquakes in 1202, 1212, and 1293 CE

Figure 10

Photo of a section of the Ein Gedi core containing three breccia layers with the respective dates of earthquakes. The 1202 A.D. event is barely determined because the 1212 event almost obliterated the 10-yr-old breccia. Nonetheless, a few laminae (arrow) can be resolved above event horizon 1202 A.D. Migowski et al. (2004) have inferred five unresolved events by correlation of the lamina-counting record of breccia layers with the historical record of destructive earthquakes.

Agnon et al (2006)

from Agnon et al (2006)

Migowski et. al. (2004) assigned a 1212 CE date to a 4.2 cm. thick Type 4 seismite at a depth of 103.07 cm. (1.0307 m).

Dead Sea - Nahal Ze 'elim

Araba - Introduction

Araba - Qasr Tilah

Haynes et al. (2006) dated Events II and III to between the 7th and 12th centuries CE.

Araba - Taybeh Trench

LeFevre et al. (2018) did not assign any seismic events to an earthquake in 1212 CE.

Araba - Qatar Trench

Klinger et. al. (2015) identified one seismic event which fits.

Event	Mean Date	Age Range	Quake Assignment (Klinger)	Quake Assignment (Williams)
E2	1212 CE ± 57	1155-1269 CE	1212 CE Quake	not assigned

Taba Sabhka Trench

Shehoret, Roded, and Avrona Alluvial Fan Trenches

Events 7, 8, and 9 in Trench T-18 have a wide spread of ages however, taken together, the evidence suggests the 1212 CE, 1068 CE, and one earlier earthquake, perhaps between ~500 CE and 1000 CE, struck the area.

Zilberman et al (2005) also discovered an early Islamic ranch in the western part of Avrona playa. The ranch was dated to the 11th century CE and was abandoned during the same century - an abandonment which Zilberman et al (2005) attributed to the effects of the 1068 CE earthquake. They measured 1 m of displacement of a Qanat (a covered water canal) on the ranch which they also attributed to the 1068 CE earthquake although it is possible that the displacement was caused by an earthquake which struck the area in 1212 CE.

Araba - Elat Sabhka Trenches

Araba - Trenches in Aqaba

Notes

Ambraseys (2009)

AD 1212 May 1 Gulf of Aqaba

A damaging earthquake on 27 Dhu'l-Qa'da 608 a.H. in the Gulf of Aqaba and in south Palestine. At al-Shaubak and al-Karak, towers and houses were destroyed, killing a number of women and children (Ibn Kathir xiii. 62; al-Maqrizi I/1, 175; al-Suyuti 49/35). The earliest account says that it was strongest in the part of Aila (Eilat) that is by the sea^[1].

In the Sinai Peninsula, the shock caused severe damage to the monastery of St Catherine, destroying a major part of its fortifications and damaging the church. The northern wall of the monastery, with its northwest and northeast corners, collapsed. Of the cells, some were destroyed completely and others lost their roofs, apparently without loss of life. This was possibly due to the fact that the earthquake, which struck at dawn, had been preceded by a foreshock at sunset the previous evening (Monday 30 April), which might have served as a warning.

The shock triggered rock falls from the mountains behind the monastery, and was followed by aftershocks that continued for a year. The date of the earthquake was commemorated as a day for prayers and penitence^[2]. The walls and cells were almost immediately rebuilt with the assistance of the metropolitan, Gabriel of Supaki (Petra), whose caravan of builders originally sent to rebuilt the church at Agia Koryphi (Jabal Musa), which had been damaged by a previous shock, arrived at St Catherine's six days after the earthquake^[3]. The shock is also said to have caused damage at Qal'at al-Jundi in Sinai^[4], but the evidence is inconclusive. In Egypt, the shock was strongly felt in Cairo and Fustat and destroyed a number of houses. The location of the earthquake should be sought in the Gulf of Aqaba or south of the Dead Sea. No details of the shock are recorded for Syria or Damascus.

Footnotes

[1] Abu Shama, Dhail, p. 78. Strong winds and shooting stars were noticed the previous day.

[2] Nectarios Kretas (1768, 197; 1677, 198) and Eustratiades (1932, 1225) quote an Arabic synaxarium written at the monastery in February 1214. The day for prayers, 1 May, is the definitive date of the shock; Muslim sources all give 27 Dhul-Qada, which is 2 May [JW: 27 Dhu l-Qa'da A.H. 608 = 1 May 2012 CE] .

[3] This information is recorded by Nectarios, a Sinaite archbishop writing in 1658. He gives the date as 1312 or 1212, whereas Papamichalopoulos (1912, 29) places the earthquake on 1 May 1608 on the authority of Iosaph, which is not consistent with the other chronological elements in the account. These two sources have misled Ben-Menahem (1979, 258), who has 1312 (or 1608): the date should read 1212 (608 a.H.). See Melville (1984, 99).

[4] Ben-Menahem refers to Tamari (1977), who has a summary of the epigraphy relating to the Qal'at al-Jundi's construction history. One might infer from the last inscription, dated 1201(?), and a footnote referring to an edict of a certain Malik al-Kamil dated 1221(?), mentioned by Ibn al-Dawadari, that the fort was damaged by an earthquake during the intervening period. However, there is no such inference made by Tamari himself, and Ibn al-Dawadari's chronicle sheds no further light on the issue.

References mentioned

Nectarios Kretas (1768, 197; 1677, 198)

Nectarios Kretas (1658), Epitomi tis hierokosmikis historias, ed. S. Milias, Venice, 1677.

Nectarios Kretes, Patriarch of Jerusalem (1677) Epitomi tis ierokosmikis historias, 1st edn; also ed. S. Milias, Venice (1758).

Eustratiades, S.A. (1932) Oi en Byzantio megaloi kai katastreptikoi seismoi. Romanos o Melodos, I (Paris), 121-6.

Melville, C. P. (1984), ‘The use of historical records for seismic assessment’, in A. Brambati and D. Slejko (eds.), The O.G.S. Silver Anniversary Volume, Trieste.

Tamari, S. (1977), ‘Two further inscriptions from Qalat al-Gundi’, in Studies in Memory of Gaston Wiet, ed. Rosen-Ayalon, Jerusalem: Institute of Asian and African Studies, The Hebrew University, pp. 261–265.

Guidoboni and Comastri (2005)

(101) 1212 May 1 Gulf of Aqaba

sources Abu Shama, Dhayl, p.78; Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya, XIII, p.62; al-Maqrizi, Kitab, p.175; al-Suyuti, Kashf, p.49
literature Taher (1979); Klinger et al. (2000)
catalogues d. Perrey (1850); Sieberg (1932a); *Ambraseys et al. (1994); Amiran et al. (1994)
catalogues p. Ergin et al. (1967); Poirier and Taher (1980); al-Hakeem (1988)

On 27 Dhu'l-qa'da in the year 608 of the Hegira (corresponding to 1 May 1212) there was a destructive earthquake in southern Palestine and Egypt, with the worst damage at Aylat (Elat) on the Gulf of Aqaba, where a great deal of destruction occurred. There were also widespread collapses, very serious damage and many victims not only at Cairo, where collapses occurred in both the old and new cities, but also at Al-Karak and Shubak (Ash Shawbak), two localities situated respectively to the east and south of the Dead Sea, in what is now Jordanian territory. There is also evidence that some towers collapsed in the citadel at Shubak (Jordan). The chief source for this earthquake is Abu Shama, an Arab historian and textual scholar from Damascus, who lived from 1203 to 1268:

During the night of 27 Dhul-qd da (1 May), there was a tremendous earthquake which destroyed many parts of old and new Cairo; it also destroyed towers and houses at Al- Karak and Shubak. Many women and children died in the ruins. The most violent shock was at Aylat, on the coast. It was said that the earthquake was preceded by a black wind and many falling stars.

The earthquake is also recorded in some chronicles compiled by Arab historians of later centuries. Thus Ibn Kathir (a 14th century historian from Damascus) records that

There was a very violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. The same thing happened at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some of its citadel towers were destroyed. Many women and children died in the ruins.

Al-Mairizi, a geographer and scholar who lived in Cairo in the 14th century, records the earthquake in similar terms:

There was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. There was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak and many people died in the ruins and a number of towers in its citadel were destroyed. And smoke was seen coming down from heaven to earth in Damascus between dusk and evening.

Finally, the famous Cairo historian al-Suyuti (16th century) records:

In the year 608 [H. = 1212-1213], there was a violent earthquake in Egypt and at Cairo, and many houses were destroyed. There was also an earthquake at Al-Karak and Shubak, and some towers in its citadel were destroyed and many people died in the ruins. Smoke was seen to come down from heaven to earth between dusk and evening at the tomb of Atika in the western part of Damascus.

Ambraseys et al (1994)

Fig. 2.12 1212 May 1, Dead Sea. (Ambraseys et al, 1994)

1212 May 1 27 Dhu'l-Qa'da 608 Dead Sea

A damaging earthquake in south Palestine also affected Egypt, where it was strongly felt in Cairo and Fustat and destroyed a number of houses. At al-Shaubak and al-Karak, towers and houses were destroyed, killing a number of women and children.¹ The earliest account says it was strongest in the part of Aila (Eilat) that is by the sea.²

In the Sinai Peninsula, the shock caused severe damage to the monastery of St Catherine, destroying a major part of its fortifications and damaging the church. The northern wall of the monastery, with its northwest and northeast corners, collapsed. Of the cells, some were destroyed completely and others lost their roofs, apparently without loss of life. This was possibly due to the fact that the earthquake, which struck at dawn, was preceded by a foreshock at sunset the previous evening (Monday 30 April), which might have served as a warning. The shock triggered rockfalls from the mountains behind the monastery, and was followed by aftershocks that continued for a year. The date of the earthquake was commemorated as a day for prayers and penitence.³ The walls and cells were almost immediately rebuilt with the assistance of the metropolitan, Gabriel of Supaki (Petra), whose caravan of builders originally sent to rebuild the church at Agia Koryphi (Jabal Musa), damaged by a previous shock, arrived at St Catherine's six days after the earthquake.⁴ The earthquake is also said to have caused serious damage at Qalat al-Jundi in Sinai,⁵ but the evidence is inconclusive.

The location of the earthquake should be sought in the Gulf of Aqaba or south of the Dead Sea. No details of the shock are recorded for Syria or Damascus (Figure 2.12).

Footnotes

1 Ibn Kathir, XIII, 62; al-Maqrizi, I/i, 175; al-Suyuti, p. 49/35.

2 Abu Shama, Dhail, p. 78; also Taher (1979), p. 137/82, 238. Strong winds and shooting stars were noticed the previous day.

3 Nectarios (1758), p. 197, (1677), p. 198 (see also next note) and Eustratiades (1932), p. 125, quote an Arabic synaxarium written at the monastery in February 1214. The day for prayers, 1 May, is the definitive date of the shock; Muslim sources all give 27 Dhu'l-Qa'da, which is 2 May.

4 This information is recorded by Nectarios, a Sinaite archibishop writing in 1658. He gives the date as 1312 instead of 1212, while Papamichalopoulos (1912), p. 29 places the earthquake on 1 May 1608 on the authority of Ioasaph, which is not consistent with the other chronological elements in the account. These two sources have misled Ben-Menahem (1979), p. 258, who has 1312 (or 1608): the date should read 1212 (608 H). See also Melville (1984a), p. 99.

5 Ben-Menahem refers to Tamari (1977), who has a summary of the epigraphy relating to Qal'at al-Jundi's construction history. One might infer from the last inscription, dated 1201 (?) and a footnote referring to an edict of al-Malik al-Kamil dated 1221 (?), mentioned by Ibn al-Dawadari, that the fort was damaged by an earthquake during the intervening period. However, there is no such inference made by Tamari himself, and Ibn al-Dawadari's chronicle sheds no further light on the issue

References mentioned

Nectarios Kretes, Patriarch of Jerusalem (1677) Epitomi tis ierokosmikis historias, 1st edn; also ed. S. Milias, Venice (1758).

Eustratiades, S.A. (1932) Oi en Byzantio megaloi kai katastreptikoi seismoi. Romanos o Melodos, I (Paris), 121-6.

Papamichalopoulos, C. N. (1912), I moni tou orous Sina, Athens–Cairo

1212 CE Quake

1 May 1212 CE

by Jefferson Williams

Introduction & Summary

Textual Evidence

Archaeoseismic Evidence

Landslide Evidence

Tsunamogenic Evidence

Paleoseismic Evidence

Notes

Paleoclimate - Droughts

References