Petra - Introduction
Figure 2Map of Petra with the locations of major excavations marked
Jones (2021)
Basemap: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics, USDA FSA, USGS, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community
| Transliterated Name | Language | Name |
|---|---|---|
| Petra | English | |
| Al-Batrā | Arabic | ٱلْبَتْرَاء |
| Petra | Ancient Greek | Πέτρα |
| Rekeme | Thamudic ? | |
| Raqmu | Arabic | |
| Raqēmō | Arabic | |
Petra is traditionally accessed through a slot canyon known as the Siq. The site was initially inhabited at least as early as the Neolithic and has been settled sporadically ever since - for example in the Biblical Edomite, Hellenistic, Nabatean, Byzantine, and Crusader periods. After the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE, Petra lost its strategic and commercial value and began to decline until it was "re-discovered" by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812 (Meyers et al, 1997). It is currently a UNESCO World Heritage site and has been and continues to be extensively studied by archaeologists.
Petra (Πετρα, "rock"), the capital of the Nabatean kingdom in Edom, is situated about 80 km (47.5 mi.) south of the Dead Sea (map reference 192.971). A "rock" in conjunction with the Nabateans is mentioned for the first time by Diodorus of Sicily (XIX, 95-98), not as the name of a settlement but as a term meaning "a certain rock" - where the Nabateans sought refuge for themselves, their goods, and their chattels when they were attacked by the diadoch Antigonus I in 312 BCE, and where they safeguarded their elders, women, and children on the occasion of their annual gatherings. The identification of Petra with the biblical Selah in Edom derives from the Septuagint and was accepted by Eusebius, who also identified Selah Jokteel with Petra (Onom. 36, 13; 142, 7; 144, 7). Josephus (Antiq. IV, 161), when speaking of the five Midianite kings who were defeated by the Israelites on their way to Canaan (Num. 31 :8), identifies Rekem, the town named after its founder, with Petra, the capital of Arabia. This identification has been confirmed by a Nabatean inscription, apparently from the first century CE, discovered at Petra, that mentions Raqmu, the town's Semitic name.
Petra was apparently not settled prior to the Hellenistic period, as is evidenced by the archaeological finds. In all of the sections of the town where excavations have been conducted, no pottery or coins prior to the fourth century BCE have been discovered thus far. The same has been true of the excavations at other Nabatean sites (see Elusa, Nessana, Oboda).
Aretas I, the first known Nabatean ruler, is mentioned in 2 Maccabees 5:8. He is the Arabian prince from whom the deposed High Priest Jason requested asylum in 168 BCE. He may be the Aretas, king of the Arabs, mentioned in a Nabatean inscription from Elusa. The Nabatean royal dynasty at Petra may have been founded by Erotimus (Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XXXIX, 5, 5-6), probably the Greek name of Aretas II, who reigned at about the end of the second century BCE. Most of the Nabatean kings who reigned in Petra from that date until the abolishment of the Nabatean kingdom in 106 CE are known. An important event in the history of the Nabatean kingdom was the conquest of southern Syria, including Damascus, in the reign of Aretas III Philellenos or Philhellen (c. 87-62 BCE). The first attempt was made to crush Nabatean independence then as well. The first Roman governor of Syria, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, marched on Petra after Aretas III's intervention in Judea in support of Hyrcanus against Aristobulus, his brother. The Nabateans were forced to pay tribute to Rome and their kingdom became a client state. During the reigns of Obodas II (or III) (30-9 BCE) and Aretas IV (9 BCE-40 CE), Petra enjoyed a period of prosperity. At the beginning of the reign of Obodas II, the Romans began a struggle for control of the caravan trade, the consequences of which were not felt, however, until the second half of the first century CE.
The history of Petra during the reign of the last two Nabatean kings, Malichus II (40-70 CE) and Rabbel II (70-106) - the latter called the Restorer and Savior of his people - is not known in detail. On the death of Rabbel II in 106 CE, the emperor Trajan annexed the Nabatean kingdom, which became the Province of Arabia, with its capital at Petra, and appointed Cornelius Palma governor. In 131 CE, the emperor Hadrian visited Petra and granted it the name 'Ηαδπιανη Πετρα (Hadriane Petra). However, the diversion of the caravan trade to new routes brought about the rise of Palmyra and the decline of Petra. In the Late Roman period, Petra served mainly as a religious center for towns in Transjordan and southern Syria. In 363, the town was slightly damaged by a severe earthquake.
In the fourth century, the Province of Arabia was divided into two parts. The southern part, the province of Palaestina Tertia, included the town of Petra, which became its capital. The northern part, the Province of Arabia, had Bostra as its capital. In the fifth century, Christianity found its way to Petra, and in the fifth and sixth centuries, it was the see of a bishopric. A Greek inscription in the internal chamber of the Urn Tomb indicates that it was converted into a church in 446-447. The Nabatean temple called ed-Deir was also used by a Christian cult in the Byzantine period, as indicated by crosses incised in its rear wall. There is no information about the history of Petra in the first centuries of the Arab period. At the beginning of the twelfth century, in 1127, the town was occupied by Baldwin I, king of Jerusalem. The Crusaders gave it the name Li Vaux Moyse (the valley of Moses) and built small forts on the mountaintops. Petra is mentioned in the sources for the last time under the name of al-Aswit, in connection with the visit of Sultan Baybars in 1276; he passed through on his way from Cairo to Kerak, as narrated by his biographer, Numeiri.
Although U. J. Seetzen was the first European traveler to reach Petra (in 1807), he had no idea what it was. It was only identified in 1812, by J. L. Burckhardt, who is consequently considered its discoverer. During the nineteenth century, numerous travelers visited Petra. Toward the close of the century, the Dominican fathers at the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique Francaise in Jerusalem explored Petra; they published their first results in 1896. Of special importance here is the work of R. E. Brunnow and A. von Domaszewski who, in 1897-1898, explored tombs and buildings. Before World War I, G. Dalman examined the necropolis and especially the places of worship, on behalf of the German Evangelic Institute for Exploration of the Antiquities of the Holy Land in Jerusalem. H. Kohl explored the Qasr Bint Far'un building on behalf of the German Society for Oriental Research. During World War I, the Committee for the Preservation of Monuments of the German-Turkish army staff worked at Petra under the direction of W. Bachmann, C. Watzinger, and T. Wiegand, mainly investigating the remains of the Nabatean town of the Early Roman period.
The first excavations at Petra were conducted in 1929 by A. Conway-Horsfield and G. Horsfield, sponsored by the Melchett Exploration Fund, on behalf of the Mandatory Department of Antiquities. Work was concentrated in the town dumps, at several sections of the town wall, and in a few tombs. In 1934, another season of excavations was carried out by W. F. Albright for the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem and in 1937, by M. Murray and J. C. Ellis, for the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. In 1954, excavations were renewed by the Jordanian government (represented by M. M. Khadija, F. Zayadine, and N. Khairy), in cooperation with the British School of Archaeology, under the direction of P. J. Parr, and various American institutions. D. Kirkbride cleared several sections of the colonnaded street in 1955-1956; the monumental gate, the town dumps, and other sites were excavated in order to establish the chronology of the Nabatean pottery. In 1960, G. R. H. Wright studied and restored the Khazneh (Khaznet Far'un, or "Pharaoh's Treasury"). In 1962-1963, P. C. Hammond uncovered the large so-called Roman theater on behalf of the Princeton Theological Seminary and the Jordan Department of Antiquities. Since 1973, the Nuremberg Prehistoric Society, under the direction of M. Lindner, in cooperation with the Jordan Department of Antiquities, has carried out surveys and excavations at various locations at Petra and its surroundings. In 1982, a Nabatean potter's workshop was excavated by F. Zayadine, on behalf of the Jordan Department of Antiquities. Since 1973, Hammond has conducted excavations in the Temple of Winged Lions.
- Bird's-eye view of the location
of Petra from Libbey and Hoskins (1905)
BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE LOCATION OF PETRA
Libbey and Hoskins (1905) - Map of Petra from wikipedia
Map of Petra
Hobe/Holger Behr - Wikipedia - Public Domain - Fig. 2 - Location Map
from Jones (2021)
Figure 2
Map of Petra with the locations of major excavations marked
Jones (2021)
Basemap: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics, USDA FSA, USGS, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community
- Petra in Google Earth
Petra in Google Earth
click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
- City center plan from Stern et. al. (1993 v. 4)
Petra: city plan.
Stern et. al. (1993 v. 4) - Fig. 1.15 - City center map
from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 1.15
Most recent map of the city centre of Petra.
- Q: the Qasr el-Bint
- G: Temenos Gate
- ST: South Tower
- BS: Baths Complex
- NT: North Tower
- ST: Small Temple
- GT: “Great Temple”
- B: Bridges
- RC: Ridge Church
- CS: Colonnaded Street
- PC: Pool Complex
- MM: “Middle Market
- UM: “Upper Market”
- BT: “Byzantine Tower”
- TA: “Trajanic” Arch
- SN: South Nymphaeon
- NN: North Nymphaeon
- PC: the Petra Church
- TWL: Temple of the Winged Lions
- RP: “Royal Palace”
- BC: Blue Chapel
- ZH: az-Zantur Houses
(McKenzie 2004: Fig.3; Kanellopoulos and Akasheh 2001: Fig.1, with some additions)
Rababeh (2005) - Aerial view of the city center
from Stern et. al. (2008)
Petra: view of the city center, looking east.
Stern et. al. (2008) - Drawing of reconstruction of
the city center at the end of the 2nd century CE from Kanellopoulos (2002)
A bird's eye view of the slope south of the Wadi Musa. This reconstruction depicts
(from left to right) the Pool and Garden Complex, the Great Temple Complex, the Temenos Gate and the
Small Temple and Qasr al-Bint in its Temenos as they would have looked at the end of the second century CE.
The Qasr al-Bint appears with a pitched roof and roof tiles (following the latest conclusions by Larche (1984),
instead of a flat roof, which was the favored solution of other reconstructions. The open air Great Temple
is represented with poetic license, so that its theater can be seen.
Kanellopoulos (2002)
- City center plan
from Stern et. al. (1993 v. 4)
Petra: city plan.
Stern et. al. (1993 v. 4) - Fig. 1.15 - City center map
from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 1.15
Most recent map of the city centre of Petra.
- Q: the Qasr el-Bint
- G: Temenos Gate
- ST: South Tower
- BS: Baths Complex
- NT: North Tower
- ST: Small Temple
- GT: “Great Temple”
- B: Bridges
- RC: Ridge Church
- CS: Colonnaded Street
- PC: Pool Complex
- MM: “Middle Market
- UM: “Upper Market”
- BT: “Byzantine Tower”
- TA: “Trajanic” Arch
- SN: South Nymphaeon
- NN: North Nymphaeon
- PC: the Petra Church
- TWL: Temple of the Winged Lions
- RP: “Royal Palace”
- BC: Blue Chapel
- ZH: az-Zantur Houses
(McKenzie 2004: Fig.3; Kanellopoulos and Akasheh 2001: Fig.1, with some additions)
Rababeh (2005)
- Fig. 2.2 - Geological cross section
of Wadi Araba and Petra from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 2.2
Geological cross section of Wadi Araba and Petra, showing the rock units exposed in Petra and the surroundings
(Paradise 1998: Fig.3.5)
Rababeh (2005) - Fig. 2 - Simplified Geological
Map of Petra and surroundings from Delmonaco et. al. (2013)
Fig. 2
Simplified geological map of Petra at 1:5.000 scale
Jordan National Resources Authority (1991)(from Heinrichs, 2008, modified)
Delmonaco et. al. (2013) - Fig. 2.4 - Geological Map
of Petra and surroundings from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 2.4
Geological map for Petra and the surroundings, showing the formation of sandstone, limestone, the locations of the quarries, and the sources of clay.
Rababeh (2005) - Fig. 3 - Litostratigraphy
of the Petra-Beida area from Delmonaco et. al. (2013)
Fig. 3
Litostratigraphy of the Petra-Beida area and view at the outcrop and thin section of typical sandstones from the UMM-Ishrin and Disi formation
(Franchi et al., 2009)
Delmonaco et. al. (2013)
- Fig. 2 - Simplified Geological
Map of Petra and surroundings from Delmonaco et. al. (2013)
Fig. 2
Simplified geological map of Petra at 1:5.000 scale
Jordan National Resources Authority (1991)(from Heinrichs, 2008, modified)
Delmonaco et. al. (2013) - Fig. 2.4 - Geological Map
of Petra and surroundings from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 2.4
Geological map for Petra and the surroundings, showing the formation of sandstone, limestone, the locations of the quarries, and the sources of clay.
Rababeh (2005)
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- Titles have been translated from German
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105 (1973), 27-49
119
(1987), 129-141
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214 (1974), 39-41
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238 (1980), 65-67
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(July 1978), 64-65
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22
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39
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36 (1986), 346-348
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id., Archiv fur
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101 (1969), 113-
116
102 (1970), 111-115
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19 (1974), 135-150
(with P. Hottier) 21 (1976), 93-
104
23 (1979), 185-197
26 (1982), 365-393
29 (1985), 239-250, 295-296
(with Z. T. Fiema) 30 (1986),
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(with S. Farajat) 35 (1991), 275-311
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(1980), 237-252
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id., LA 37 (1987), 389-393
id., SHAJ 3 (1987), 291-294
id., ZDPV 104
(1988), 84-91
106 (1990), 144-155
P. Mayerson, Zeitschriftfur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 56 (1984),
223-230
69 (1987), 251-260
J. S. McKenzie (with A. Phippen), ADAJ27 (1983), 209-212
id., Levant 17
(1985). 157-170
(with A. Phippen) 19 (1987), 145-165, 217-218
id., SHAJ 3 (1987), 295-305
id., PEQ
120 (1988), 81-107
id., Syria 62jl-2 (1985)
Z. T. Fiema, ADAJ 30 (1986), 329-332
S. Hart, PEQ 118
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R. G. Khouri, Petra: A Guide to the Capital of the Nabateans, London 1986
id., Petra: A
Brief Guide to the Antiquities (AI Kutba Jordan Guides), Amman 1988
Petra: Neue Ausgrabungen und
Entdeckungen (ed. M. Lindner) (Reviews), LA 37 (1987), 421-423.- PEQ 120 (1988), 153-154;
D. Tarrier, RB 93 (1986), 254-256
P. Bienkowski, BAlAS 6 (1986-1987), 60-63
Khairieh 'Amr, ibid.
(Review), LA 37 (1987), 423-424
M.-J. Roche, Syria 64(1987), 217-222
67(1990), 377-395
A. SchmidtColinet, SHAJ 3 (1987), 143-150
H. Stierlin, Stadte in der Wuste (Antike Kunst im Vorderen Orient),
Zurich 1987
R. Wenning, Die Nabataiier: Denkmaiiler und Geschichte (Novum Testamentum et Orbis
Antiquus 3), Freiburg 1987, 197-304
K. Matthiae, ZDPV 104 (1988), 74-83
Akkadica Supplementum,
7-8 (1989), 442-457
R. N. Jones, RASOR 275 (1989), 41-46
Petra und das KO'nigreich der Nabataer
(Review), Die Welt des Orients22 (1991), 155-158
T. F. C. Blagg, Levant22(1990), 131-137
L. Marinoet
al., Marmor 28 (1990), I-XIII
J. Naveh, RASOR 280 (1990), 89
J. Patrich, The Formation of Nabatean
Art, Jerusalem 1990
R. A. Stuckyet al., ADAJ34 (1990), 249-283
35 (1991), 251-273
K. S. Freyberger,
Damaszener Mitteilungen 5 (1991), 1-8.
Petra and the Caravan Cities. Proceedings of the Symposium, Petra, Sept. 1985 (ed. F.
Zayadine), Amman 1990
P. C. Hammond (& D. J. Johnson), Petra: Survey and Excavations at the “Temple
of the Winged Lions” 1973–1990 (American Expedition to Petra 1990–1993), Salt Lake City, UT 1993;
id., The Temple of the Winged Lions, Petra, Jordan, 1974–1990, Fountain Hills, AZ 1996
Y. Y. Katimi,
Petra, Amman 1993
Petra und die Weihrauchstrasse: Ausstellung, Schweizerischen Kreditanstalt, Zürich
1993
M. Sartre, Petra et la Nabatène mèridionale du Wadi al-Hasa au Golfe de ‘Aqaba (Inscriptions
grecques et latines de la Syrie 21
Inscriptions de la Jordanie 4
Bibliothèque archéologique et historique
115), Paris 1993
ibid. (Review) SCI 13 (1994), 163–168
J. Taylor, Petra, London 1993
id., Petra and
the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, London 2002
ibid. (Review) SCI 21 (2002), 322–323
R. Maqsood,
Petra: A Traveller’s Guide, Reading 1994
MdB 88 (1994)
158 (2004), 34–43
Petra retrouvee (Les grandes
aventures de l’archéologie), Paris 1994
E. Balasch, Petra: el enigma de desierto (Nueva biblioteca de los
temas ocultos), Madrid 1995
I. Browning, Petra, 4th ed., London 1995
H. Donner & S. Morenz, Isis in
Petra, Leipzig 1995
M. M. Aulama, All Petra: A Wonderland of the Past, Amman 1996
G. Lacerenza, Il
viaggio a Petra di Giammartino Arconati Visconti (1865) (Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale Napoli
Suppl. 88), Napoli 1996
Petra-Ez Zantur, Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen
1: 1988–1992 (Terra Archäologica 2), by A. Bignasca et al., Mainz am Rhein 1996
ibid. (Reviews) Mesopotamia 33 (1998), 384–387. — BASOR 315 (1999), 85–87. — JNES 63 (2004), 230–232
ibid., 2/1: Die
Feinkeramik der Nabatäer: Typologie, Chronologie und kulturhistorische Hintergründe (Terra Archäologica
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ibid., 2/2: Die spätantiken Wohnbauten von ez Zantur in Petra
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Rhein 2000
ibid. (Reviews) Parthica 4 (2002), 170–171. — JRA 16 (2003), 653–658. — JAOS 124 (2004),
350–351. — JNES 63 (2004), 230
Petra: antike Felsstadt zwischen arabischer Tradition und griechischer
Norm (Antike Welt Sonderhefte
Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie
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am Rhein 1997
ibid. (Reviews) Archéologia 49 (1998), 110–111. — PEQ 133 (2001), 209–211
M. G.
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ibid.
(Review) JNES 64 (2005), 212–213
U. Hübner et al., Nach Petra und ins Königreich der Nabatär (Bonner
Biblische Beiträge 118), Bodenheim 1998
ibid. (Review) Syria 78 (2001), 261–264
M. Sharp Joukowsky,
Petra Great Temple, 1: Brown University Excavations, 1993–1997, Providence, RI 1998
ibid. (Reviews)
LA 51 (2001), 391–393. — Antike Welt 34 (2003), 109–110
id., Petra Great Temple Excavation 2002 Field
Campaign, Providence, RI 2003
F. Bourbon & B. Fisher, Petra: Art, History and Itineraries in the Nabatean
Capital, Vercelli 1999
id., Petra: Jordan’s Extraordinary Ancient City, New York 2000
U. Levy, The Lost
Civilization of Petra, Cambridge, MA 1999
E. Schluntz, From Royal to Public Assembly Space: The Transformation of the “Great Temple” Complex at Petra, Jordan, Providence, RI 1999
C. Auge & J. Denzer,
Petra: Lost City of the Ancient World, New York 2000
C. Blazquez, La ciudad de los nabateos, Madrid
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E. Borgia, Jordan, Past & Present: Petra, Jerash, Amman, Rome 2001
Z. T. Fiema et al., The Petra
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ibid. (Reviews) JRA 15 (2002), 691–699.
— LA 52 (2002), 498–503. — BASOR 331 (2003), 94–96. — PEQ 135 (2003), 138–139. — AJA 108 (2004),
484–486. — Levant 37 (2005), 243–245
Petra: A City Forgotten and Rediscovered (Publications of the
Amos Anderson Art Museum, NS 40
eds. J. Frösén & Z. T. Fiema), Helsinki 2002
ibid. (Reviews) LA 52
(2002), 488–490. — JRA 16 (2003), 653–658
The Petra Papyri, 1 (ACOR Publications 4
eds. J. Frösén
et al.), Amman 2002
ibid. (Reviews) LA 52 (2002), 503–507. — Revue des Études Byzantines 61 (2003),
267–268. — SCI 22 (2003), 350–355. — BASOR 334 (2004), 92–94
Petra: A Royal City Unearthed (NEA
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L. -A. Bedal, The Petra Pool-Complex: A Hellenistic Paradeisos in the Nabataean Capital (Results from the Petra ‘Lower Market’ Survey and Excavation 1998
Gorgias Dissertation
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ibid. (Review) BASOR 339 (2005), 118–120
G. A.
Crawford, Petra and the Nabataeans: A Bibliography (ATLA Bibliography Series 49), Lanham, MD 2003;
ibid. (Review) JAOS 124 (2004), 407
M. Lindner, Über Petra hinaus: Archäologische Erkundungen im
südlichen Jordanien (eds. D. Vieweger & H. -D. Bienert), Rahden 2003
Petra Rediscovered: Lost City of
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ibid. (Review) AJA 109 (2005), 783–787
The Petra Siq:
Nabataean Hydrology Uncovered (ed. I. Ruben), Amman 2003
F. Zayadine et al., Le Qasr al-Bint de Pétra:
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ibid. (Review) Revue Archéologique 2005/2,
425–426
Men of Dikes and Canals: The Archaeology of Water in the Middle East. International Symposium,
Petra, 15–20.6.1999 (Orient Archäologie 13
eds. H. -D. Bienert & J. Häser), Rahden 2004 (various)
J.
S. McKenzie, The Architecture of Petra (Oxbow Reprint Books), Oxford 2005
Petra: Lost City of Stone
[An Exhibition], Cincinnati Art Museum 14.9.2004–20.1.2005 (ed. G. Markoe), Cincinnati, OH 2005
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(Review) AJA 109 (2005), 783–787
Petra: The Mystery of the Tombs (Current World Archaeology 10),
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P. Bienkowski, Levant 23 (1991), 147–180
F. Zayadine, Melanges de l’École Française de Rome,
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id., ADAJ 36 (1992), 217–239
id., MdB 88 (1994), 24–28
158 (2004), 50–
52
id., Annales archélogiques arabes Syriennes 42 (1996), 167–178
id., Syria 79 (2002), 207–215
id.,
SHAJ 8 (2004), 433–444
ACOR Newsletter 4/2 (1992), 4
6 (1994), 12
J. M. Dentzer (& F. Zayadine),
SHAJ 4 (1992), 233–252
id., RA 1996, 187–191
id., MdB 127 (2000), 22–25
158 (2004), 44–50
H. G. K.
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Lebanon and Egypt, Amman 1992, 85–96
id. (& H. D. Bienert), The Prehistory of Jordan II, Berlin 1997,
221–262
P. C. Hammond, SHAJ 4 (1992), 261–262
id. (& D. J. Johnson), ADAJ 38 (1994), 333–344
42
(1998), 319–330 (with T. Mellott-Khan)
id. (& D. J. Johnson), AJA 98 (1994), 542–543
id., OEANE, 4,
New York 1997, 303–306
id., PEQ 132 (2000), 123–130
134 (2002), 165–168
id. (et al.), AJA 105 (2001),
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id., Minerva 16/5 (2005), 19–24
A. Invernizzi, Mesopotamia 27 (1992), 313–316 (Review)
P. A.
Kaswalder, LA 42 (1992), 393–394 (Review)
N. Marchetti, Vicino Oriente 8 (1992), 157–177
Z. alMuheisen, SHAJ 4 (1992), 215–220
5 (1995), 721–726
6 (1997), 143–148 (with D. Tarrier)
id., Yarmouk
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id. (& D. Tarrier), Syria 73 (1996), 197–204
id. (& D. Tarrier),
Aram 13–14 (2001–2002), 515–524
K. W. Russell, ACOR Newsletter 4/1 (1992), 1–2
id., ADAJ 37 (1993),
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id., SHAJ 5 (1995), 693–705
R. A. Stucky, Antike Kunst 35 (1992), 129–142
id., ADAJ 36 (1992),
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id., Arabia Antiqua: Centers Around Arabia (Serie Orientale Roma 70/2
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F. Salles), Roma 1993, 37–55
id., SHAJ 5 (1995), 193–198
134 (2002), 165–168
D. Tarrier, LA 42 (1992),
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id., Yarmouk University Newsletter 13 (1992), 11–13
M. Albouy et al., Conservation of Stone
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Z. T. Fiema, ACOR: The First 25 Years, Amman 1993, 69–70
id.,
ACOR Newsletter 5/1 (1993), 1–3
7/2 (1995), 1–3
id. (& R. N. Jones), MdB 83 (1993), 45
127 (2000),
38–41, 63–65
158 (2004), 54–57
id., AJA 98 (1994), 549–550
id., ASOR Newsletter 44/2 (1994), n.p.
id.
(et al.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East, 1, Ann Arbor, MI 1995, 293–303
3, Portsmouth, RI 2002,
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id., Occident and Orient 2/2 (1997), 21
id., CRAIBL 1997, 733–738
id., ADAJ 42 (1998), 395–
424
id., AJA 103 (1999), 271
id., Urban Centers and Rural Contexts in Late Antiquity (eds. T. S. Burns &
J. W. Eadie), East Lansing, MI 2000, 111–131
id., Antike Welt 32 (2001), 47–52
id., SHAJ 7 (2001), 433–
436
id., Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Amman, Jordan,
2–11.9.2000 (BAR/IS 1084
eds. P. Freeman et al.), Oxford 2002, 131–137
id., ZDPV 119 (2003), 38–58;
A. Hadidi, Horizons and Styles (H. L. Thomas Fest.
SIMA 1
ed. P. Aström), Jonsered 1993, 41–60
M. S.
Joukowsky, ACOR Newsletter 5/2 (1993), 11
8/1 (1996), 6–7
9/1 (1997), 7
id., ADAJ 38 (1994), 293–332;
39 (1995), 241–266 (with E. Schluntz)
40 (1996), 177–206
41 (1997), 195–218
42 (1998), 293–318
43
(1999), 195–222
44 (2000), 313–334
45 (2001), 325–342
46 (2002), 315–330
47 (2003), 389–406
id.,
AJA 98 (1994), 301, 543–544
99 (1995), 307, 518–520
100 (1996), 525–526
101 (1997), 339, 520–521;
103 (1999), 505–506
104 (2000), 582
105 (2001), 451–452
106 (2002), 288, 451–452
108 (2004), 441–
443
id., ASOR Newsletter 44/2 (1994), n.p.
id., L’Orient Express 2 (1994), 43–44
id., MdB 94 (1995), 43;
id., Syria 72 (1995), 133–142
id., OEANE, 4, New York 1997, 303–306
id., SHAJ 6 (1997), 303–312;7
(2001), 447–455
id., Ancient Egyptian and Mediterranean Studies (W. A. Ward Fest.
ed. L. H. Lesko),
Providence, RI 1998, 133–148
id., Occident and Orient 3 (1998), 10–11
id., Hesed ve-Emet (E. S. Frerichs
Fest.
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id., The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond,
Winona Lake, IN 2000, 221–234
id., ASOR Annual Meeting Abstract Book, Boulder, CO 2001, 2
ASOR
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id., BASOR 324 (2001), 1–4, 43–58 (with J. J. Basile);
id., NEA 65 (2002–2004), 235–248
[id.], Artifax 20/3 (2005), 9
B. Kolb (& R. A. Stucky), ADAJ 37 (1993),
417–427, 42 (1998), 259–277
44 (2000), 355–372
45 (2001), 311–324 (with D. Keller)
46 (2002), 279–
293 (with D. Keller)
id., MdB 105 (1997), 52
id., SHAJ 7 (2001), 437–447
id., NEA 65 (2002–2004),
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M. Lindner, AJA 97 (1993), 483–484
id. (& J. Zangenberg), ZDPV 109 (1993), 139–151
113
(1997), 61–69 (with H. Hübl)
id. (et al.), AfO 40–41 (1993–1994), 307–319
44–45 (1997–1998), 535–565
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id. (& E. Gunsam), SHAJ 5 (1995), 199–214
id., Occident and Orient 1/2 (1996), 6–7;
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id. (et al.), ADAJ 41 (1997), 177–188
42 (1998), 225–240 (et al.)
43 (1999), 479–
500
45 (2001), 393–394
46 (2002), 225–241 (with E. Gunsam)
id., Jahrbuch des Deutschen
Evangelischen Instituts für Altertumswissenschaft des Heiligen Landes 5 (1997), 98–115
id., LA 47 (1997),
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M. Lyttelton, Levant 25 (1993), 223–224 (Review)
A. I. Meza, ADAJ 37 (1993), 427–431
id.,
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 32 (1995), 179–183
id., ADAJ 40 (1996), 167–176
id.,
Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Egyptologists, Cambridge, 3–9.9.1995 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 82
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I. Parlasca, Arabia Antiqua (op. cit.), Roma
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J. Patrich, IEJ 43 (1993), 273–275 (Review)
id., Aram 17 (2005), 95–113
G. L. Peterman,
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id., Archaeology 47/2 (1994), 18
id., BA 57 (1994), 55–57
id., MdB 88
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R. Schick et al., ADAJ 37 (1993), 55–66
S. G. Schmid, Antike Welt 24 (1993), 259–261
id.,
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6 (1997), 413–420
id., Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of GraecoOriental and African Studies: Graeco-Arabica 7–8, 1999–2000 (eds. V. Chirstides & T. Papadopoullos),
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id., PEQ 133 (2001), 159–197
136 (2004), 163–186
S. C. Stone, AJA 97 (1993),
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BAR 20/1 (1994), 22
P. M. Bikai, LA 44 (1994), 634–636 (with P. M. Bikai)
52 (2002),
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id., ADAJ 40 (1996), 481–486
id., ACOR Newsletter 9/1 (1997), 1–3
12/1 (2000), 1–2 (with M.
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id., SHAJ 6 (1997), 339–342, 343–344
8 (2004), 59–64
id., AJA 102 (1998), 571
103 (1999),
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104 (2000), 382–383 (with M. A. Perry)
105 (2001), 453–454
106 (2002), 450–451
id. (& M.
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id., NEA 65 (2002–2004), 271–276
P. M. Bikai, ADAJ 38 (1994),
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id., ASOR Newsletter 44/2 (1994), n.p.
id. (& F. Nazeh), AJA 103 (1999), 511
Z. Bilkadi & B.
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E. French, ADAJ 38 (1994), 241–266, 293–322
J. Frösen (&
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id., MdB 117 (1999), 81
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id., SHAJ 8
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M. Griesheimer, Syria 71 (1994), 248–251 (Review)
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K. Matthiae, Das Altertum 39 (1994), 275–286
id.,
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A. Negev, Aram 6 (1994), 419–448
id., EI 25 (1996), 105*–106*
P. J. Parr,
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id., PEQ 128 (1996), 63–70 (Review)
T. C. Roby, Proceedings of the 5th Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics, Rome 1994, 31–37
id.,
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M. -J. Roche, Transeuphratène 8
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10 (1995), 57–69
F. Vattioni, Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli 34 (1994),
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A. Barbet, SHAJ 5 (1995), 383–390
P. T. Crocker, BH 31 (1995), 101–104
R. Franchi & P. Pallecchi, SHAJ 5 (1995), 99–104
D. F. Graf, The Roman and Byzantine Near East, 1, Ann Arbor, MI 1995,
241–268
L. Koenen, ACOR Newsletter 7/1 (1995), 9–10
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id., JRA 9 (1996), 177–189
id.,
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J. S. McKenzie, Levant 27 (1995), 249
id. (et al.), PEQ 130 (1998), 35–50;
H. Merklein, Meilenstein (H. Donner Fest.
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id. (& R. Wenning), ZDPV 114 (1998), 162–178
id. (& R. Wenning), SHAJ 7
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L. Mildenberg, Transeuphratène 10 (1995), 69–72
id., Aram 8 (1996), 55–65
J. W. & E.
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L. Nehmé, MdB 95
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id., SHAJ 5 (1995), 427–436
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id., Occident and Orient 2/1 (1997), 3
id., Des
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id., Topoi. Orient-Occident 7 (1997), 1023–1067
id., AJA 106 (2002), 452–455
F. Pflüger, ADAJ
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J. Teixidor, Semitica 43–44 (1995), 111–121
G. Vannini (& A. Vanni-Desideri), ADAJ
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id. (& C. Tonghini), SHAJ 6 (1997), 371–384
Z. Aslan & M. She‘er, ADAJ 40 (1996),
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J. J. Basile, ADAJ 41 (1997), 255–266
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46 (2002), 331–346
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C. Clamer et al., MdB 104
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M.
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E. A. Knauf, ZDPV 113 (1997), 68–69
M. Sha‘er (& Z. Aslan), ADAJ
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H. Shanks, BAR 23/1 (1997), 64–65
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id., Thetis 7 (2000), 71–82
D. Ben-Gad Hacohen, Cathedra 88 (1998), 181
id., JSRS 11
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J. Frösén et al., ibid., 483–502
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44 (2000), 395–
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T. Gagos, ibid. 42 (1998), 473–481
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L. -A. Bedal, ADAJ 43 (1999),
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46 (2002), 381–389
id., AJA 103 (1999), 506–507
106 (2002), 448–450
109 (2005), 552–554;
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id., Expedition 42/2 (2000), 23–36
id., ASOR Annual Meeting
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id., Minerva 13/2 (2002), 24–26
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L. D. Bestock,
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H. -L. Danielsen, Inhold 11 (1999), 70–80
V. D. Gogte, ADAJ 43 (1999), 299–
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K. Heinrichs & B. Fitzner, ibid., 321–351
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C. Jacquat & D. Martinoli, Vegetation
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id. (& T. S.
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Table 1List of sites in and near Petra (other than al-Zantur) with destructions attributable to earthquakes in 363 AD and the 6th century
Jones (2021)
- from Jones (2021)
Figure 2Map of Petra with the locations of major excavations marked
Jones (2021)
Basemap: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics, USDA FSA, USGS, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community
| Effect | Location | Image | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Open crack in pavement |
Figure 6Location unspecified An open crack (covered with construction debris) in the loose soil, apparently formed during the earthquake of 363 Korzhenkov et al (2016) |
Open crack thought to have formed in the 363 CE earthquake - later filled with construction debris- paraphrased from a translation of Korzhenkov et al (2016) |