Phase | Period | Dates | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
I | Nabatean | 1st century BCE to 1st century CE |
Petra's North Ridge contained a segment of the 1st c. B.C. to 1st c. A.D. occupation within the Nabataean capital. The upper sector of the ridge provided virtually unimpeded views of both the city center and the city's back entrance through Wadi Abu `Ullayqa. Because of this strategic importance, the Nabataean military may have utilized the top of the ridge and built a structure at its highest point.- Bikai et al (2020:40) |
II | Late Roman | 1st to mid 4th century CE | First to mid-4th-c. A.D. occupation on Petra's North Ridge remains surprisingly enigmatic. A number of walls post-dating the Phase I architecture and in use during Phase III could have been constructed during this phase. Likewise, as noted earlier, some Phase I walls in area 23 and in areas 1, 3, 4, and 28 may have been constructed during this period. In many cases, establishing a definite date of many post-Phase I and pre-Phase III North Ridge features remains difficult.- Bikai et al (2020:41) ... This sequence of construction is what was observed in the Petra Church (Fiema et al. 2001: 14). Walls that eventually were incorporated into the church complex were first constructed during this phase. Similar to the North Ridge, almost no artifacts or occupation layers attributed to this phase were identified. Fiema also suggests the scant evidence for Late Roman activities to the clearing and subsequent restoration of the area, presumably instigated by destruction related to the A.D. 363 earthquake (Fiema et al. 2001: 18).- Bikai et al (2020:46) |
III | Early Byzantine |
The Early Byzantine period on the North Ridge saw the conversion of the Nabataean and Late Roman structures at the top of the ridge into the Ridge Church and significant modification to the buildings that would eventually become the Blue Chapel complex (fig. 3.48- Bikai et al (2020:47) ... The Early Byzantine period on the North Ridge heralded the emergence of Christianity as the major imperial religion. In conjunction with this change, the Nabataean buildings at the top of the North Ridge were converted into the Ridge Church complex that included a small building honoring a prominent individual within Petra (figs. 3.100-101). This individual, a member of the military, was commemorated for protecting the city. The information provided by the inscription in the tomb provides a further link between the North Ridge and the military and may suggest that the military constructed the Ridge Church- Bikai et al (2020:57-58) ... The mid-4th to early 5th-c. construction boom across the western sector of the North Ridge, including the area of the Petra Church, could have been a response to structural damage from the substantive A.D. 363 earthquake. Fiema (Fiema et al. 2001: 18) suggests that the Late Roman complexes in the Petra Church area were robbed of desirable architectural elements and backfilled to prepare the area for new (post-A.D. 363) construction. While no similar evidence for extensive back-filling of Late Roman structures exists on the North Ridge, an architectural disjuncture does appear after the Late Roman phase. Only a few earlier walls are incorporated into Early Byzantine, and eventually, Late Byzantine structures. Presuming the A.D. 363 earthquake caused this shift, architectural modifications on the North Ridge during the Early Byzantine phase likely postdate the mid-4th century- Bikai et al (2020:57-58) |
|
IV | Late Byzantine | mid 5th - 6th centuries |
Expansion of the ecclesiastical buildings on Petra's North Ridge continued during the Late Byzantine period, from the mid-5th-6th centuries (fig. 3.102- Bikai et al (2020:59) ... Lower Sector [i.e. Blue Chapel] Wooden benches were built along the northern, western, and southern perimeter of the chapel. Small rectangular niches for attaching the bench were identified in the walls and floor (figs. 4.44-46, 51); one of the wall niches contained remnants of a peg used to attach the bench to the wall. 14C dating of that piece suggests the bench was constructed between CAL A.D. 530 and 640 [95.4% (2a) calibrated age ranges, relative area under distribution 0.978 (Stuiver and Reimer 1993)]. Another sample of charcoal from locus 1148, probably from the burning of church furnishings by later occupants (figs. 3.134-35), dates to CAL A.D. 527-651 [95.4% (26) calibrated age ranges, relative area under distribution 0.801 (Stuiver and Reimer 1993)], approximately the same date range as the bench peg recovered from within the Blue Chapel.- Bikai et al (2020:63) ... The Late Byzantine period saw a peak in ecclesiastical activity on the North Ridge, and perhaps Petra as a whole. In the early part of this phase, the Blue Chapel building 2 was converted into a triapsidal structure, which included construction of an elevated bema, an elaborate ambo, a thronos, a rectangular synthronon, and wooden benches along the aisles. 14C analysis of remnants of the bench installation and of the architectural features of the church imply this conversion occurred in the mid-6th c. A.D. This is concurrent with renovations of the two other ecclesiastical structures on the North Ridge: the Ridge Church and the Petra Church. The Ridge Church now contained floor and wall mosaics, an elevated bema, and marble furnishings.- Bikai et al (2020:64) |
V - 1 | Early Islamic - Subphase 1 | 6th - 8th centuries CE |
The Early Islamic period on the North Ridge is categorized by occupation of the former ecclesiastical structures by 6th—8th-c. residents of Petra, ending with extensive earthquake destruction in the 8th c. A.D.- Bikai et al (2020:64) ... Subphase 1- Bikai et al (2020:64-65) |
V - 2 | Early Islamic - Subphase 2 | 6th - 8th centuries CE |
The Early Islamic period on the North Ridge is categorized by occupation of the former ecclesiastical structures by 6th—8th-c. residents of Petra, ending with extensive earthquake destruction in the 8th c. A.D.- Bikai et al (2020:64) ... Subphase 2- Bikai et al (2020:66) ... Lower Sector - Building 2 - Ashy Deposits beneath fallen columns The Blue Chapel also contained much evidence of human domestic activity, such as burning and ash from small cooking fires, animal bones, and storage and cooking vessels (fig. 3.134- Bikai et al (2020:68-70) |
V - 3 | Early Islamic - Subphase 3 | 6th - 8th centuries CE [JW: and maybe later] |
The Early Islamic period on the North Ridge is categorized by occupation of the former ecclesiastical structures by 6th—8th-c. residents of Petra, ending with extensive earthquake destruction in the 8th c. A.D.- Bikai et al (2020:64) ... SUBPHASE 3- Bikai et al (2020:70-71) |
VI | Late Islamic to Modern | post 8th century CE |
Post-8th-c. human activity on the North Ridge is rather ephemeral and not easily datable. There is nothing indicating a permanent population until the modern era. The evidence for post-8th-c. occupation consists mainly of agricultural terracing and possibly the construction of retaining walls within the Blue Chapel complex and Petra Church (fig. 3.147- Bikai et al (2020:73) ... SUMMARY- Bikai et al (2020:75) |
No evidence found. Bikai et al (2020:41) surmise that cleaning and restoration after the 363 CE earthquake may have removed evidence.
Jones (2021:Table 1) notes that early 7th century Phase V.1 abandonment reported by Perry in
Bikai et al (2020:58,64) could have been caused by a late 6th century earthquake.
Occupation of at least part of the Blue Chapel complex likely ceased due to earthquake-related structural instability and collapse in the mid-8th century. A date provided by 14C analysis of an animal bone recovered from immediately underneath a fallen column (drum no. 2; fig. 3.136Perry in Bikai et al (2020:470) noted the following:) in the Blue Chapel indicates that the animal died between A.D. 658 and 782 CAL [95.4% (26) calibrated age ranges, relative area under distribution 0.942 (Stuiver and Reimer 1993)]. The column presumably fell shortly after this animal's death and consumption by the buildings' occupants. Two earthquakes during this period affected the Petra region, according to earthquake chronologies constructed by Russell (1985) and Guidoboni (1994): the A.D. 672 earthquake that impacted Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ramle along the Mediterranean coast [JW: No such earthquake is listed in the catalogue of Guidoboni et al (1994 references at end of chapter indicate that Guidoboni (1994) does refer to Guidoboni et al (1994)], and the massive A.D. 748/9 seismic event(s) that affected northeastern Egypt through northern Mesopotamia. Evidence from the Blue Chapel suggests that the A.D. 748/9 earthquake, which strongly affected Petra, likely was responsible for initial collapse of the columns.![]()
Figure 3.136
Locus 1148, under column 2
Bikai et al (2020)
Occupation within the Ridge Church and the Blue Chapel complex halted during the 8th c.: in the Blue Chapel complex, this occurred concurrent with or immediately before significant collapse of part of these structures. The pattern of collapse, particularly evidence for the dramatic tumble of the columns in the Blue Chapel, would point to a seismic event as the cause (figs. 3.140-46; 9.9). Ceramic evidence and a 14C date of carbonized animal bone found directly under one of the columns (fig. 3.136) implicates the sizeable earthquake of A.D. 748/749 that has been documented extensively in the region. The Petra Church suffered a similar fate, marked by collapsed stone in the interior of the basilica, the atrium, and surrounding rooms from a half a meter to three meters deep on top of occupational debris (Fiema 2001: 105), which Fiema (2001: 115-18) attributes to an A.D. 672 seismic event. This was followed by further collapse in the church and in the baptistery from the A.D. 748/749 earthquake. The Jabal Haroun church and chapel experienced significant destruction also attributed to a mid- to late-7th c. earthquake (Mikkola et al. 2008: 136). These structures were rebuilt, only to be damaged again in the 748/749 earthquake (Mikkola et al. 2008: 148), after which only the chapel was used for ecclesiastical purposes (Mikkola et al. 2008: 157). No evidence for an earlier phase of destruction dating to the late 7th c. was discovered in the Blue Chapel complex. However, continuous seismic events after the 8th c. caused additional damage to the abandoned, collapsed Blue Chapel complex structures. This damage included the collapse of a cornice along the western and northern walls of the Blue Chapel entry hall and the collapse of part of the upper story (see figs. 3.141-42).Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70-71) identified archaeoseismic evidence from "one apparent destructive earthquake" in Phase V subphase 3 deposits in Building 2 of the Lower Sector (i.e. the Blue Chapel). This "one apparent destructive earthquake" appears to be the mid 8th century CE earthquake.
LOWER SECTOR
Building 2
Building 2 contains the most evidence for Early Islamic Sub-phase 3 building collapse on the North Ridge. Thick (1-1.5 m) layers of building tumble were discovered in the stairway in area 19 (loci 1052, 1057, 1071, and the upper levels of 1114, and 1115); the entry hall in area 24 (loci 1109 and the upper levels of 1130; fig. 3.140); area 20 (loci 973, 1027, and 1177); the atrium (area 23, the lower level of loci 1037 and 1125 and loci 1039, 1041, 1140, 1145, and 1165 in the southern half of the room, the middle levels of locus 1132 and loci 1173, 1176, 1189, 1190, 1201, 1207, 1220, 1225, and 1228 in the northern half of the room); and the Blue Chapel (area 25, the upper levels of loci 1048, 1050, and 1087 and loci 1062, 1063, and 1088 in the central aisle, the upper levels of locus 1087 and loci 1088, 1103, and 1153 in the northern aisle, loci 1087, 1088, and 1147 in the southern aisle, and locus 1088 in the bema). Many architectural features appeared to have fallen in one destructive episode, such as the cornice along the western and northern walls of the entry hall, as well as the vault of the area![]()
Figure 3.140
Rock tumble in area 24; view to the north from area 19; the lintel of door 1073 is visible just above center
Bikai et al (2020)
(figs. 3.141and 3.142![]()
Figure 3.141
Earthquake collapse of cornice and vault stones in area 24
Bikai et al (2020)), and the columns in the Blue Chapel![]()
Figure 3.142
The vault stones in area 24 were repurposed decorative limestone architectural elements. The side exposed in the photo would have been hidden as they served as the back side of the vault stones. The undersides of the stones were smoothed in a curvilinear fashion.
Bikai et al (2020)
(figs. 3.143![]()
Figure 3.143
Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the west
Bikai et al (2020)3.144![]()
Figure 3.143
Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the east
Bikai et al (2020)![]()
Figure 3.144
Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; view to the east
Bikai et al (2020)3.145![]()
Figure 3.144
Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; view to the south
Bikai et al (2020)and 3.146![]()
Figure 3.145
Drum 2 with percussion fractures around its edge, caused by the column drums rocking during an earthquake
Bikai et al (2020)). Additionally, clear evidence for collapse of the second story was discovered within area 20. A number of floor slabs probably from the upper floor were noted ca. 0.50 m from the room's floor level in loci 973, 1177, and the upper levels of 1030.![]()
Figure 3.146
Column drum 9 and the northwest base
Bikai et al (2020)
from the 8th c. A.D. on, the abandoned structures suffered extensive damage from repeated earthquakes.Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70) also noted that locis from areas 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18 in Building 1 of the Lower Sector
all contained tumble from post-earthquake building collapse(fig. 3.139
Collapse Feature | Photo/Drawing | Notes |
---|---|---|
Collapse and Debris |
![]() ![]() North section of collapse and debris in the Blue Chapel (building 2, probes 5 and 7) Bikai et al (2020) |
PHASE V. EARLY ISLAMIC SUBPHASE 1 LOWER SECTOR Building 2 (Blue Chapel) The rooms within building 2 displayed little activity during this subphase of the Early Islamic period besides accumulation of raw materials such as marble. Sandy soil layers loci 1066, 1067, 1068, and 1076 built up within the stairway in area 19, locus 1134 within the entry hall, the lower portions of loci 1191, 1045 and 1165 within the atrium, and the lower portions of loci 1030 and 1180 within area 20. Decorative elements, likely from the chapel, were found in these layers, such as a polycandelon fragment in the entry hall (NPR catalogue no. 142), and a complete glass lamp (NPR catalogue no. 146) and a small iron cross (NPR catalogue no. 147) in area 20. Loose sand (locus 1171) also clogged the drain under the atrium (locus 1185), and silt (locus 1182) filled the drainage channel (locus 1184) leading south from the atrium. In addition, sandy subsoil covered the aisles, bema, and apses of the Blue Chapel (loci 1055, 1069, 1070, 1074 and 1099.03 within the central aisle, locus 1090 within the southern aisle, loci 1099.14 and 1179, within the northern aisle, locus 1164 in the southern apse area, locus 1094 above the elevated bema, and loci 1087, 1099.02, 1183, and the lower portion of locus 1172 in scattered areas of the chapel; see fig. 3.122- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:64) POST BYZANTINE PETRA The ecclesiastical presence at Petra did not last beyond the late 6th c. or early 7th c. A.D., although the monastic complex on Jabal Haroun continued to have a sacred function into the late 8th to early 9th century (Mikkola et al. 2008: 159). Only a couple of decades after the first series of renovations in the Petra Church, another set of decorative changes was being installed in the late 6th century. Unfortunately, a fire destroyed the structure (and resulted in the carbonization of the Petra papyrus archive stored in a room adjacent to the sanctuary), and the church was never rebuilt (Fiema 2001: 94). In the next few years, the Ridge Church and the Blue Chapel complex also were cleared of most liturgical and other material objects and left abandoned. This period of inactivity is marked by a thin layer of sterile windblown sand that covered many of the floors in these structures. The reason for the abandonment of these two other ecclesiastical structures may be linked to the destruction of the Petra Church, which provided the impetus to shut down formal ecclesiastical presence in Petra. In addition, evidence from the church and chapel on Jabal Haroun show a period of significant destruction and fire, which is attributed to earthquakes ca. 551 and 559 (Mikkola et al. 2008: 119). Could this tremor have destabilized the other ecclesiastical structures within Petra in the mid-6th c., resulting in their abandonment? This would provide even less reason for recovery of the Petra Church after its fire. Unlike the churches within Petra, the complex on Jabal Haroun, important due to its association with Aaron/Haroun, was rebuilt (Mikkola et al. 2008: 119).- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:468-469) |
Collapse Feature | Photo | Notes |
---|---|---|
Fallen Column |
![]() ![]() Locus 1148, under column 2 Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel - a fallen column (drum no. 2) |
Fallen Columns |
View to the West
![]() ![]() Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the west Bikai et al (2020) View to the East ![]() ![]() Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the east Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel |
Damage to the Bema Floor |
View to the East
![]() ![]() Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; view to the east Bikai et al (2020) View to the South ![]() ![]() Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; left, view to the south Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel |
Percussion Fractures on Column Drum |
![]() ![]() Drum 2 with percussion fractures around its edge, caused by the column drums rocking during an earthquake Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel |
Column drum 9 and the northwest base |
![]() ![]() Column drum 9 and the northwest base Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel |
Orientation and identification of Fallen Columns |
![]() ![]() Plan of the proper as excavated, showing the fallen columns, the holes in the floor for the benches, and the holes for the altar posts; drawing by Patricia M Bikai Bikai et al (2020) |
Drawing showing orientation of Fallen Columns in the Blue Chapel as well as their numerical identification (1-11) |
Collapse of cornice and vault stones |
![]() ![]() Earthquake collapse of cornice and vault stones in area 24 Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel - Area 24 - along the western and northern walls of the entry hall |
Collapse of Vault |
![]() ![]() The vault stones in area 24 were repurposed decorative limestone architectural elements. The side exposed in the photo would have been hidden as they served as the back side of the vault stones. The undersides of the stones were smoothed in a curvilinear fashion. Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel - Area 24 - area along the western and northern walls of the entry hall |
Second Storey Collapse | n/a | Blue Chapel - Area 20 - clear evidence for collapse of the second story was discovered within area 20. A number of floor slabs probably from the upper floor were noted ca. 0.50 m from the room's floor level in loci 973, 1177, and the upper levels of 1030.- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70) |
Rock Tumble |
![]() ![]() Rock tumble in area 24; view to the north from area 19; the lintel of door 1073 is visible just above center Bikai et al (2020) |
Blue Chapel - Area 24 |
Collapse Feature | Photo | Notes |
---|---|---|
Earthquake debris |
![]() ![]() Earthquake debris in area 18 Bikai et al (2020) |
locis from areas 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18 in Building 1 of the Lower Sector all contained tumble from post-earthquake building collapse.- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70) |
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Fallen Columns |
Blue Chapel - a fallen column (drum no. 2; fig. 3.136
![]() ![]() Locus 1148, under column 2 Bikai et al (2020) View to the West ![]() ![]() Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the west Bikai et al (2020) View to the East ![]() ![]() Overview of fallen columns in the Blue Chapel during excavation; view to the east Bikai et al (2020) Damage to Bema floor from collapsed columns - View to the East - ![]() ![]() Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; view to the east Bikai et al (2020) Damage to Bema floor from collapsed columns - View to the East - ![]() ![]() Damage to the bema floor in the Blue Chapel due to the collapse of column drum 3, the topmost drum of the northeast column; left, view to the south Bikai et al (2020) Percussion Fractures on Column Drum - ![]() ![]() Drum 2 with percussion fractures around its edge, caused by the column drums rocking during an earthquake Bikai et al (2020) Column drum 9 and the northwest base - ![]() ![]() Column drum 9 and the northwest base Bikai et al (2020) |
VI + |
Collapsed Vault |
Collapse of cornice and vault stones -
![]() ![]() Earthquake collapse of cornice and vault stones in area 24 Bikai et al (2020) Collapsed Vault Stones - ![]() ![]() The vault stones in area 24 were repurposed decorative limestone architectural elements. The side exposed in the photo would have been hidden as they served as the back side of the vault stones. The undersides of the stones were smoothed in a curvilinear fashion. Bikai et al (2020) |
VIII + |
Collapsed Walls |
Second storey failure indicates that the first storey walls collapsed -
clear evidence for collapse of the second story was discovered within area 20. A number of floor slabs probably from the upper floor were noted ca. 0.50 m from the room's floor level in loci 973, 1177, and the upper levels of 1030.- Perry in Bikai et al (2020:70) |
VIII + |
Bikai, P., et al. (2020). Petra: The North Ridge, American Center of Oriental Research.
Fiema, Z. T., et al. (2001). The Petra Church, American Center of Oriental Research.
Bikai, Patricia M. 2004. “Petra: North Ridge Project.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 8: 59-63
Bikai, Patricia M. 2002. “North Ridge Project.” ACOR Newsletter 14(1): 1–3.
Bikai, P.M. and Perry, M.A. 2001. “Petra North Ridge Tombs 1 and 2: Preliminary Report.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 324: 59–78.
Morris, M. 2018. “Conservation and Restoration of the Petra North Ridge Aphrodite Statues.” ACOR Newsletter 30(2): 9.
Petra: The North Ridge at ACOR
Petra North Ridge Project