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el-Lejjun (aka Betthorus)

Aerial view of El-Lejjun Aerial view of El-Lejjun

APAAME

  • Reference: APAAME_20070419_DLK-0009
  • Photographer: David Leslie Kennedy
  • Credit: Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East
  • Copyright: Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works


Click photo for high res magnifiable image


Names
Transliterated Name Language Name
el-Lejjun Arabic يل ليججون
Legio Latin
Betthorus Greek ? bετθορuσ‎
Baetarus ‎
Introduction
Introduction

The Lejjun Legionary Fortress which was probably Betthorus, the base of Legio IV Martia as specified in the Notita Dignitatum however no proof of this has been found on the site (Parker, 2006).

Identification

The site of el-Lejjun is in Jordan, about 60 km (37 mi.) east of the Dead Sea and 17 km (11.5 mi.) northeast of Kerak in biblical Moab, at an elevation of some 700 m above sea level (map reference 233.072). A perennial spring, 'Ain Lejjun, feeds Wadi Lejjun, a tributary of the upper Wadi Mujib. The site lies in a shallow valley surrounded by low hills on all sides but the east. Although situated near the edge of the desert, rainfall is sufficient for dry farming wheat in winter; the present outflow of the spring is adequate to irrigate cultivation of the valley in summer.

History

The earliest settlement now attested at Lejjun is a substantial fortified city from the Early Bronze Age, as yet unexcavated. Excavations have demonstrated that the Roman fort (castellum) of Khirbet el-Fityan, 1.5 km (1 mi.) northwest of the spring, was built on top of an Iron Age structure. In the Early Roman period, a Nabatean watchpost (Rujm Beni Yasser) was constructed on top of a hill about one kilometer (less than a mile) east of the spring. The so-called altar, a masonry edifice about 21 m sq, noticed by nineteenth-century investigators (but since completely robbed), may have been a Nabatean cultic structure. Occupation of el-Lejjun resumed in about 300 CE, with the construction of a Roman legionary fortress for the Legio IV Martia, the smaller castellum of Fityan, and the reoccupation and reconstruction of Yasser. The site was then known as Betthorus, if the commonly held identification is accepted (Notitia Dignitatum, Or. 37 .22), a key element in the Roman fortified frontier, the Limes Arabicus. The limes was intended to control the incursions of neighboring nomadic Arab desert tribes. The modern Arabic name, Lejjun, seems to be a corruption of the Latin legio. The fortress was abandoned after an earthquake that affected Palestine and Arabia in 551 [JW: unlikley - Late 6th century Inscription at Areopolis Quake more likely]. Just before World War I, a Turkish military garrison was briefly established here; rows of Turkish barracks on a ridge southwest of the fortress were built with stones robbed from the fortress, and water mills were built below the spring.

Exploration

R. Brunnow and A. von Domaszewski conducted the first thorough survey of the Lejjun fortress in 1897 and published plans and photographs of the site. N. Glueck identified the Early Bronze site and published the first aerial photograph of the Roman fortress in 1934. S. T. Parker conducted survey work between 1975 and 1979.

Excavations

Five seasons of excavations at Lejjun and four other Roman military sites were conducted between 1980 and 1989 as part of the Limes Arabicus Project by Parker for the North Carolina State University and the American Center of Oriental Research. Excavations examined the several structures within the legionary fortress, amansio (staging post and inn) and Roman temple outside the fortress; the fortlet of Rujm Beni Yasser; and the Roman castella of Khirbet el-Fityan, Qasr Bshir (c. 15 km, or 9 mi. northeast of Lejjun), and Da'janiya (c. 75 km, or 47 mi. south of Lejjun). Some 537 other sites in the region were surveyed by the project

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Sections, and Illustrations
Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Illustrations, and Photos

Maps and Aerial Views

  • Map of Limes Arabicus
    Limes arabicus, central part in Jordan - Azraq basin and Wadi el-Mujib basin. Red squares are Roman fortresses and forts from the end of the 3rd/beginning of the 4th century.

    (modified from S. T. Parker, An Empire's New Holy Land: The Byzantine Perio, Near Eastern Archaeology , Sep., 1999, Vol. 62, No. 3 (Sep., 1999), p. 138)

    Ursus - Wikipedia - CC-BY-SA 4.0
    Fortresses in Jordan from Wikipedia
  • Location Map from
    El-Lejjun: map of the site and its surroundings

    Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
    Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
  • Aerial view of El-Lejjun
    Aerial view of El-Lejjun

    APAAME

    • Reference: APAAME_20070419_DLK-0009
    • Photographer: David Leslie Kennedy
    • Credit: Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East
    • Copyright: Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works
    from APAAME
  • El-Lejjun in Google Earth
    El-Lejjun

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Aerial Photo El-Lejjun
    Pl 3.1

    Aerial photo (1982) of el-Lejjun:

    • Roman fortress
    • Early Bronze (EB) Age site
    • 'Ain Lejjun (spring)
    • Khirbet el-Fityan
    • Ottoman barracks


    (Royal Geographic Centre of Jordan

    Parker et al (2006)
    and environs from Parker et al (2006)

Plans, Sections, and Illustrations

Site Plans and Illustration

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress

    Mike Bishop flickr modified (?) from Parker et al (2006)
    modified (?) from Parker et al (2006) - oriented to match with the APAAME photo
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)
  • Illustrated reconstruction of
    Fig. 6

    Reconstruction of El-Lejjun

    Campbell (2006:59)
    El-Lejjun from Campbell (2006)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Plans of Individual sectors

Principia

Normal Size

  • Plan of the principia
    Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

    Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
    (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period from Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
  • Fig. 4.1 Plan of the principia
    Fig. 4.1

    Plan of the principia in the Early Byzantine period (Strata VA-IV) with excavation squares

    Parker et al (2006)
    (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.2 Plan of the
    Fig. 4.2

    Plan of the three rooms of the northern range of the principia, with excavation squares (A.12-14)

    Parker et al (2006)
    three rooms of the northern range of the principia from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.5A Axonometric view
    Fig. 4.5A

    Axonometric view of the southwest corner of the principia, showing the cross hall, southern entrance, southern tribunal, aedes, southern passageway, and southern room of the official block

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the southwest corner of the principia from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.5B Perspective view
    Fig. 4.5B

    Perspective view of the arcaded portico, southern entrance, and southern tribunal of principia

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the arcaded portico, southern entrance, and southern tribunal of principia from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.6A Axonometric view
    Fig. 4.6A

    Axonometric view of the southern half of the aedes, showing the steps up to the elevated platform and to the base for the legionary stnadrad in the apsidal niche against the rear wall

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the southern half of the aedes from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.6C Section view
    Fig. 4.6C

    Elevation of the barrel vaults along the south wall of the aedes, looking south

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the barrel vaults along the south wall of the aedes from Parker et al (2006)

Magnified

  • Fig. 4.1 Plan of the principia
    Fig. 4.1

    Plan of the principia in the Early Byzantine period (Strata VA-IV) with excavation squares

    Parker et al (2006)
    (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.2 Plan of the
    Fig. 4.2

    Plan of the three rooms of the northern range of the principia, with excavation squares (A.12-14)

    Parker et al (2006)
    three rooms of the northern range of the principia from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.6C Section view
    Fig. 4.6C

    Elevation of the barrel vaults along the south wall of the aedes, looking south

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the barrel vaults along the south wall of the aedes from Parker et al (2006)

Groma

Normal Size

  • Fig. 4.3 Plan of the
    Fig. 4.3

    Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

    Parker et al (2006)
    western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.4 Section through
    Fig. 4.4

    Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

    Parker et al (2006)
    the south doorways of the groma from Parker et al (2006)

Magnified

  • Fig. 4.3 Plan of the
    Fig. 4.3

    Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

    Parker et al (2006)
    western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 4.4 Section through
    Fig. 4.4

    Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

    Parker et al (2006)
    the south doorways of the groma from Parker et al (2006)

Barracks

Normal Size

  • Fig. 5.1 Plan of the
    Fig. 5.1

    Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

    Parker et al (2006)
    early Byzantine barracks (Area B) from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 5.2 Plan of the
    Fig. 5.2

    Plan of Area B: the Late Roman Barracks (Stratum VI)

    Parker et al (2006)
    early Late Roman Barracks (Area B) from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the barracks
    Jordan. El-Lejjun, plan of Byzantine barracks

    ACOR website
    from ACOR website

Magnified

  • Fig. 5.1 Plan of the
    Fig. 5.1

    Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

    Parker et al (2006)
    early Byzantine barracks (Area B) from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 5.2 Plan of the
    Fig. 5.2

    Plan of Area B: the Late Roman Barracks (Stratum VI)

    Parker et al (2006)
    early Late Roman Barracks (Area B) from Parker et al (2006)

North Gate

Normal Size

  • Fig. 6.8 Plan of the north gate
    Fig. 6.8

    Plan of the north gate (porta principalis sinistra) of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the north gate
    Plan of the Porta Principalis sinistra after partial excavation by the Limes Arabicus project

    Betthorus legionary camp - excavation plan of the Porta principalis sinistra , Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan.

    Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
    from Wikipedia (Mediatus)
  • Fig. 6.9 Partially
    Fig. 6.9

    Partially reconstructed north facade of the north gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    reconstructed north facade of the north gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.10 The rampart
    Fig. 6.10

    The rampart stairway of the northern gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    stairway of the northern gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.11 Perspective
    Fig. 6.11

    Perspective of the north gate at eye level of an approaching rider

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the north gate at eye level of an approaching rider from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.12 Plan of
    Fig. 6.12

    Plan of Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.2 Reconstruction
    Fig. 6.2

    Reconstruction of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall from Parker et al (2006)

Magnified

  • Fig. 6.8 Plan of the north gate
    Fig. 6.8

    Plan of the north gate (porta principalis sinistra) of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the north gate
    Plan of the Porta Principalis sinistra after partial excavation by the Limes Arabicus project

    Betthorus legionary camp - excavation plan of the Porta principalis sinistra , Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan.

    Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
    from Wikipedia (Mediatus)
  • Fig. 6.9 Partially
    Fig. 6.9

    Partially reconstructed north facade of the north gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    reconstructed north facade of the north gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.10 The rampart
    Fig. 6.10

    The rampart stairway of the northern gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    stairway of the northern gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.11 Perspective
    Fig. 6.11

    Perspective of the north gate at eye level of an approaching rider

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the north gate at eye level of an approaching rider from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.12 Plan of
    Fig. 6.12

    Plan of Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate

    Parker et al (2006)
    Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.2 Reconstruction
    Fig. 6.2

    Reconstruction of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall from Parker et al (2006)

Northwest Tower

Normal Size

  • Fig. 6.3 Plan and section
    Fig. 6.3

    Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.4 Plan and section
    Fig. 6.4

    Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.5 Schematic section
    Fig. 6.5

    Schematic section of loci in C.6, southwest room of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of loci in C.6, southwest room of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.6 Plans
    Fig. 6.6

    Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

    Parker et al (2006)
    and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.7 Restored section C-D
    Fig. 6.7

    Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

    Parker et al (2006)
    showing the angle tower from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the NW tower
    Jordan. El-Lejjun, plan of north west tower

    ACOR website
    from ACOR website

Magnified

  • Fig. 6.3 Plan and section
    Fig. 6.3

    Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.4 Plan and section
    Fig. 6.4

    Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.5 Schematic section
    Fig. 6.5

    Schematic section of loci in C.6, southwest room of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

    Parker et al (2006)
    of loci in C.6, southwest room of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.6 Plans
    Fig. 6.6

    Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

    Parker et al (2006)
    and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 6.7 Restored section C-D
    Fig. 6.7

    Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

    Parker et al (2006)
    showing the angle tower from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plan of the NW tower
    Jordan. El-Lejjun, plan of north west tower

    ACOR website
    from ACOR website

Northern Part of the Fort

Normal Size

  • Plan of north part of the fort
    The north-western area of ​​the legionary camp with the porta principalis sinistra , the military baths, the cistern and accommodation buildings. Only the older, late Roman expansion phase is taken into account in the figure

    Legion camp Betthorus - Plan of the excavations, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan. Only the late Roman expansion phase is taken into account.

    Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
    from Wikipedia (Mediatus)
  • Fig. 6.2 Reconstruction
    Fig. 6.2

    Reconstruction of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall from Parker et al (2006)

Magnified

  • Plan of north part of the fort
    The north-western area of ​​the legionary camp with the porta principalis sinistra , the military baths, the cistern and accommodation buildings. Only the older, late Roman expansion phase is taken into account in the figure

    Legion camp Betthorus - Plan of the excavations, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan. Only the late Roman expansion phase is taken into account.

    Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
    from Wikipedia (Mediatus)
  • Fig. 6.2 Reconstruction
    Fig. 6.2

    Reconstruction of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall

    Parker et al (2006)
    of the juncture of the interval tower and curtain wall from Parker et al (2006)

Vicus

  • Plan of a structure
    El-Lejjun: plan of a structure in the vicus (civilian settlement)

    Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
    in the vicus from Stern et al (1993 v. 3)

Bath

Normal Size

  • Plan of the bath     
    Jordan. El-Lejjun, plan of bath

    ACOR website
    from ACOR website
  • Plan of the bath     
    Betthorus Legion Camp - Plan of the military baths, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan

    click on image to open a high res magnifiable version in a new tab

    (source: Samuel Thomas Parker: The Roman Frontier in central Jordan. Final Report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980-1989. Volume 1, (= Dumbarton Oaks studies 40), Fig. 7.1.)

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC-BY-SA-3.0 & GFDL
    from wikipedia

Magnified

  • Plan of the bath     
    Jordan. El-Lejjun, plan of bath

    ACOR website
    from ACOR website
  • Plan of the bath     
    Betthorus Legion Camp - Plan of the military baths, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan

    click on image to open a high res magnifiable version in a new tab

    (source: Samuel Thomas Parker: The Roman Frontier in central Jordan. Final Report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980-1989. Volume 1, (= Dumbarton Oaks studies 40), Fig. 7.1.)

    Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC-BY-SA-3.0 & GFDL
    from wikipedia

Area N

Normal Size

  • Fig. 8.1 Plan of    
    Fig. 8.1

    Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

    Parker et al (2006)
    Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3) from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 8.2 Balk    
    Fig. 8.2

    Balk sections in room N.2

    Parker et al (2006)
    sections in room N.2 from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 8.3 West    
    Fig. 8.3

    West section of southwest corner balk of room N.3

    Parker et al (2006)
    section of southwest corner balk of room N.3 from Parker et al (2006)

Magnified

  • Fig. 8.1 Plan of    
    Fig. 8.1

    Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

    Parker et al (2006)
    Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3) from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 8.2 Balk    
    Fig. 8.2

    Balk sections in room N.2

    Parker et al (2006)
    sections in room N.2 from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. 8.3 West    
    Fig. 8.3

    West section of southwest corner balk of room N.3

    Parker et al (2006)
    section of southwest corner balk of room N.3 from Parker et al (2006)

Photos

  • Fig. 4.13 Fallen arch
    Fig. 4.13

    Entrance blocked by fallen arch into room A.12 in the northern range of the principia. The vertical meter stick rests in the southwest corner of the room. View to the south

    Parker et al (2006)
    from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plate 6.1 northeast room
    Plate 6.1

    The northeast room (C.3) within the angle tower. The two meter sticks rest in the window. Note the arch springers in the walls to the left and right. In the foreground is the lower layer of tumble within the room. View to south.

    Parker et al (2006)
    (C.3) within the angle tower with lower layer of tumble from Parker et al (2006)
  • Plate 12.3 Collapsed arch
    Plate 12.3

    Collapsed arch and roof corbels in situ in southeast room (Q7) of arcade [of the Vicus Temple]. View to the east

    Parker et al (2006)
    and roof corbels (in situ) in southeast room (Q7) of the Vicus Temple from Parker et al (2006)

Chronology
Stratigraphy

Introduction/Summary

Ceramic evidence suggests that the fort was first built around 300 CE and occupied until the early 6th century CE with later limited occupation in the Ummayad and Late Islamic periods (Parker, 2006). Three "identifiable earthquakes" (Southern Cyril Quake - 363 CE, Fire in the Sky Quake - 502 CE, and the 551 CE Beirut Quake) were interpreted as providing breaks in the stratigraphic sequence. The earthquake assignments of 502 and 551 CE are probably incorrect as the epicenters for these quakes were distant. The 502 CE Fire in the Sky Quake should be replaced with the more local ~500 CE Negev Quake and the 551 CE Beirut Quake should be replaced with the late 6th century Inscription at Areopolis Quake. There is additional evidence on the site for one or two more earthquakes.

The stratigraphic framework was based on numismatic and ceramic evidence. The details of the stratigraphy are fairly complex. There are a number of apparent dating contradictions in their report that were explained as intrusive and, while this appears to have been necessary to make sense of the phasing and deal with incidences of stone robbing, etc., it does add some additional uncertainty to the dating. Since the dates for the 2nd and 3rd earthquakes provided by Parker et al (2006) (502 and 551) are probably incorrect and may have been relied on to sort through the difficult chronology, dates and date ranges provided on this page are based on information in their report rather than their earthquake date assignments.

Stratigraphy from Parker et al (2006)

Stratum Period Approximate Dates (CE)
VI Late Roman IV 284-324
VB Early Byzantine I 324-363
VA Early Byzantine II 363-400
IV Early Byzantine III-IV 400-502
III Late Byzantine I-II 502-551
Post Stratum III Gap intermittent use of site for camping and as a cemetery 551-1900
II Ottoman 1900-1918
I Modern 1918-

Building History

Table Explanation

Building History

As Parker was able to state and as the prehistorian Johanna Ritter-Burkert put it, Betthorus was "established on virgin soil". [8] This finding was so important for science because at the beginning of the investigations from 1980, this was one of the few cases in which a late antique legionary camp had been built as a new building. So it was neither an older camp that was rebuilt, as is generally found, nor was it disfigured by post-fort construction. With the legionary camp of Betthorus, the archaeologists at that time had the undisturbed construction plan of a late antique garrison before them. For these reasons, complex stratigraphy was not to be expected. [28]Based on these central selection criteria, Betthorus became the best-studied legionary camp on the eastern border of the empire after Palmyra . [8th]

Parker derived the founding of the fort during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (284-305) not only from the construction plan of the complex, but in particular from the numismatic findings and the late Roman ceramics from the area of ​​the enclosing wall and other finds from the foundation areas of the buildings inside of the castle. Apart from a single Nabataean piece, the series of coins begins in the last quarter of the third century with two issues of Emperor Probus (276–282) and one issue of Numerianus (283–284). During the investigations of the Limes Arabic project, about a dozen coins of Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy were discovered(284–305) picked up. The earliest accurately datable coin from this era dates from AD 284-286. Of particular interest is an issue from Diocletian's co-emperor Maximianus (286-305), discovered in the foundation of a late Roman barrack and dating to around 304-304 305 dated. This suggests that the legionary camp was constructed relatively late in the reign of Diocletian - perhaps shortly after AD 300 according to Parker [1]

The occupancy of the camp by the Legio IV Martia, which according to the Notitia Dignitatum was stationed in the Arabic Betthorus, cannot yet be proven on site. [8] The only inscription found in the staff building (Principia) was the rest of a dipino painted in red on white wall plaster. This remains of plaster was still attached to a block of limestone that had been torn from its original context by the earthquake of 551 AD. The Dipinto is written in Latin. Its relatively careful letterforms are typical of the third or fourth century. [29] Overall, however, only a few letters remained [8]of the 0.02 meter high inscription. The ancient historian Michael P. Speidel, who was responsible for the epigraphy during the Limes Arabic project, determined the following reading: [30]

[…] why
[…] t […]

The second inscription found in the military bath consisted of a single Latin letter, an "A" on a fallen block of stone. [31]

The development of fortifications for military use can be roughly divided into two construction phases between the period around 300 AD and 530 AD.

For citations, see Wikipedia page for Betthorus (in German)

Table

Dates Events
around AD 300 to May 19, AD 363 Parker's excavations revealed that most of the fort's internal structures date back to a reconstruction [32] that took place after a major earthquake on May 19, 363 AD. [31] The only buildings and components that are known to date back to the original construction around 300 AD are the fence, the wall sections of the subsequently massively rebuilt Principia, which are still partly made of limestone, and the older limestone barracks that were later built over , the remains of limestone walls on the structures that can probably be identified as granaries ( horreum ) and the military baths (balnea) also made of limestone . [32]The founding date could be specified by numismatic and ceramic sources. [1]
May 19 AD 363
to AD 530 		After extensive reconstruction of the interior of the fort and structural changes, chert was used instead of limestone. Troop strength may have been reduced by as much as 50 percent. [3] The fort was probably abandoned by the troops in 530.
AD 530
to July 9, AD 551 		After the military gave up the fort, there was a short period of civilian use. Already in the early 6th century, however, fortifications were neglected. Large amounts of rubbish accumulated on the camp streets and the deceased were left to rot where they died. This last phase apparently culminated in the devastating earthquake of July 9, 551 AD. The numismatic final coins date to the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527–565). [33]
661 AD
to 750 AD 		After the Islamic conquest of the Levant, the Roman ruins were only partially used to a very limited extent. For the most part, the Lejjun spring remained the main attraction for short-term nomad deposits. Only two surviving rooms of the north-west corner tower, which collapsed in AD 551, were temporarily reused in the Umayyad period . [2]
1174 AD
to 1517 AD 		Also during the Ayyubid - Mamluk period, a room in the north-west corner tower was used for a limited time. At the same time, a temporary use of the Roman building remains of the northern gate could be observed. In the northwest quadrant, late antique structures have been remodeled for a thirteenth-century lime kiln . In the area of ​​the camp village ( vicus ) there were no signs of Islamic structural use.
Middle Ages to modern times Over the centuries, local nomadic tribes and probably also traveling Islamic pilgrims invasively encroached on the entire ruin area, since their dead were buried there. [2]

Stratigraphic Relationships between el-Lejjun and other outposts

Traces of the border structures between the legionary camp and the fort
Name/Location Description/Condition
Kirbet Thamayil/Khirbat ath-Thamayil Within two nested, walled enclosures forming a closed square, a rectangular tower-like ruin borders on the southwestern inside of the inner enclosing wall. The outer wall was 36.70 × 27 meters, the inner 26 × 16.50 meters. The tower-like central building was 7.70 × 10 meters in size [61] and still about five meters high. [62]The enclosing walls of both outer structures are mainly of large unhewn limestone and basalt stones, with some additional megalithic ashlar blocks, and are laid in two rows about a meter wide. Inside the complex there are several depressions that apparently come from cisterns. In the southeast, a large terraced area borders the outside of the enclosing wall. The complex is situated on a hill approximately 750 meters high and overlooks a wadi system to the west, south and east. Immediately in front of the south-west wall of the outer enclosing wall, the terrain drops about 20 meters steeply into Wadi ar-Ramla.

In addition to Parker's Limes Arabic Project, the historian and biblical scholar James Maxwell Miller also investigated the Kirbet Thamayil with his Archaeological Survey of the Kerak Plateau , which took place from 1978 to 1982. Miller reported that during his field visit, mostly Iron Age II pottery fragments surfaced as surface finds. He was also able to identify two Nabataean sherds and one late Roman sherd. [63] Between July and August 1992, the most thorough investigation to date was carried out. They took place as part of the Moab Marginal Agriculture Project , which Canadian archaeologist Bruce Routledgedirected. Routledge, who identified Kirbet Thamayil as the most significant Iron Age II site in his area of ​​study, made two sonde cuts in addition to a thorough planum survey. The archaeologist and his team were able to collect 1180 ceramic fragments, of which only 16 did not belong to the Iron Age, but were dated "Byzantine" as surface finds. [64] The site was probably an Iron Age fortification and was reused to a limited extent in the Nabatean and late Roman-early Byzantine periods. Parker collected 120 sherds of pottery and eight stone tools during his investigation, but these have not yet been identified. The following is an analysis of Parker's pottery finds. [65]The chronological periods and dates follow Parker's 2006 account. [66]

Number Period Dates
107 iron age II ca. 900–539 BC Chr.
6 early Roman-Nabataean about 63 BC -135 AD
6 late Roman-early Byzantine circa 135-502
1 modern

The watchtower Rujm el-Merih, which Parker regarded as a late Roman foundation, [67] which was built about 1.60 kilometers east of Kirbet Thamayil, may have succeeded it. [68]

Watchtower, Limes Arabic project, field find no. 198 At this site there is a square, 7.70 × 7.70 meter tower-like structure within a brick enclosure. [69] The building was built of large, roughly hewn blocks of limestone and is located at the highest point of the Jebel-esh-Sharif mountain range, which adjoins the Jebel Abu Rukba with the late Roman watchtower Qasr Abu Rukba to the north- west . [70]From its exposed summit location on Jebel-esh-Sharif, the small fort dominated the country to the north and east - so many other sites, including el-Lejjun, were visible. Parker assumed that this structure was an Iron Age watchtower later used by the Nabataeans. After a long period of vacancy, limited use seems to have taken place again during the late Roman-early Byzantine era. Along with Parker, Miller also visited this site. A total of 86 sherds of pottery were picked up by the employees of the Limes Arabicus Project . In addition, three previously undated stone tools were found. [71] [72]
Number Period Dates
22 iron age ca. 1200–539 BC Chr.
43 early Roman-Nabataean about 63 BC -135 AD
10 late Roman-early Byzantine circa 135-502
11 indefinite

A little less than four kilometers west of this site was the large settlement of El-Mureigha, an Iron Age foundation that flourished during the Nabatean, Roman and Byzantine periods. [73]

Possible predecessor earthquake in the early 4th century CE

Plans

Plans

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Discussion

Lain and Parker (2006:144) report that a beaten earth floor and ash layer in Room A.13 which ante-dated the 1st earthquake (Stratum VI-VB) was chock-full of tile fragments suggesting an apparent roof collapse due to an unknown cause. Such "collapse" debris was not found in any other excavation areas. The floor would have been built after initial construction of the fort which Parker et al (2006) dates to around 300 CE based on ceramic evidence.

1st Earthquake - 355 CE - 384 CE

Plans

Plans

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Discussion

Lain and Parker (2006:130) established a terminus post quem of 355 CE in the aedes where architectural installations from a rebuild after the 1st earthquake included a new floor. Underneath the new floor was a layer which yielded Early Byzantine pottery and two coins dated to 330-340 CE and 355 - 385 CE. A terminus ante quem comes from Room A.13 where Lain and Parker (2006:149) report on a 0.25-0.33 m thick beaten earth floor which was constructed from fill and leveled after the first earthquake. In an intrusive pit (A.13.009), a coin hoard was discovered with 249 bronze coins all dated from 326 to 383-384. The latest coin (Coin #461) was an issue of Arcadius dated to 383-384 which provides a terminus ante quem of 384 CE. This earthquake appears to have struck between 355 and 384 CE indicating that it is probable that the southern Cyril Quake was responsible for the seismic damage.

2nd Earthquake - ~450 - ~530 CE

Plans

Plans

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Discussion

Parker (2006:120) dates underlying Stratum IV to the 5th century CE however noted a relative scarcity of 5th century coinage - something he characterized as a regional phenomenon. Only a few early 5th century coins were recovered and none dated from 450-491 CE. Thus, the terminus post quem for this earthquake is 450 CE. It appears that the legion was demobilized in ca. 530 CE - as suggested by Procopius - according to Parker (2006:121). The latest closely dateable Byzantine coins [in overlying Stratum III] [] are issues of Justinian I dated 534-565 (Parker, 2006:121). There were signs in Stratum III of demobilization and conversion to civilian use such as dumping of debris on the via praetoria which Lain and Parker (2006:157) characterizes as an absence of normal military discipline, the relative dearth of evidence underneath the earthquake debris of the 3rd earthquake in the principia suggesting an orderly and systematic evacuation of the headquarters complex (Lain and Parker, 2006:157) and a corpse interred in Room N.2 something Parker (2006:121) characterizes as a clear loss of military discipline. Thus, the terminus ante quem for this earthquake is ~530 CE. The earthquake struck between ~450 and ~530 CE.

3rd Earthquake - ~530 - ~750 CE

Plans

Plans

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Discussion

Parker (2006:121) describes the last phase of significant occupation as follows:
The later phase (ca. 530-51) of Stratum III began with the demobilization of the legion ca. 530, as suggested by a passage in Procopius (Anecdota 24.12-14). It is notable that the latest closely dateable Byzantine coins from el-Lejjun are issues of Justinian I, dated 534-65, exactly what one would expect if Procopius' assertion were true. Some structures like the principia, were completely abandoned. Others, like the church, were extensively robbed. Large amounts of trash were dumped in barrack alleyways and even in major thoroughfares, such as the via praetoria. In Area N the rooms rebuilt rebuilt after 502 afterward witnessed little actual occupation. It is especially telling that a human corpse was interred in one room (N.2) that opened directly onto the via principalis a clear sign of the absence of military discipline.

Some inhabitants, perhaps discharged soldiers and their families or civilians from the surrounding countryside, continued to live within the fortress, however. The discovery of a human infant within the northwest angle tower in the debris of the earthquake of July 9, 551, implies that families were now living in the fortifications. The earthquake of 551 was a major catastrophe.

The numismatic finds and demobilization evidence described above provide a terminus post quem of ~530 CE for seismic destruction and final abandonment of the fortress at el-Lejjun. A terminus ante quem is not so well defined because after the 3rd earthquake, there is a Post Stratum Gap that lasted until 1900 CE. Parker (2006:121) notes that there is some evidence of camping and limited reoccupation of the domestic complex near the north gate in the Umayyad period (661-750 CE). Sherds and coins of Ayyubid/Mamluk (1174-1516) and Ottoman periods [also] attest [to] occasional later use of the fortress. Because Groot et al (2006:183) report discovery of a nearly complete Umayyad Lamp in Square 4 of Area B (Barracks) in the Post Stratum Gap, the Umayyad period (661 - 750 CE) is the terminus ante quem for this earthquake and the date for this earthquake is constrained to ~530 - 750 CE. deVries et al (2006:196) also found Umayyad sherds in the Post Stratum Gap in Rooms C.3, C.4, C.6, and C.7 of the northwest Angle Tower along with an Umayyad coin dated to 700-750 CE in locus C.4.018.

Although Parker et al (2006) attributed the 3rd earthquake to the 551 CE Beirut Quake, this is unlikely as the epicenter was far away - near Beirut. One of the sources for the 551 CE Beirut Quake (The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain) states that damage was limited south of Tyre and there are no reports of earthquake destruction in Jerusalem which is 121 km. closer to the epicenter than el-Lejjun. The most likely candidate for this earthquake is the Inscription at Areopolis Quake which struck Aeropolis - a mere ~12 km. from el-Lejjun - in the late 6th century - before 597 CE.

4th Earthquake - ~600 CE - 1918 CE

Plans

Plans

Normal size

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Magnified

  • Plan of the Fort at El-Lejjun
    Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
    1980-89

    modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
    modified from Parker et al (2006)
  • Fig. I Plan of the Fort at
    Figure I

    Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

    (Courtesy S. T. Parker)

    Meyers et al (1997)
    El-Lejjun from Meyers et al (1997)

Discussion

Groot et al (2006:183) report discovery of a nearly complete Umayyad Lamp in Square 4 of Area B (Barracks - B.6.038) in the Post Stratum Gap - above and later than the 3rd earthquake layer. Above the Ummayyad lamp was a 0.7 m thick layer of tumble containing some roof beams and many wall blocks (Groot et al, 2006:183). They note that the basalt roof beams found embedded in the lowest tumble level (B.6.032) suggests initial massive destruction rather than gradual decay over time. The wall blocks, found in the upper layer of tumble, contained one late Islamic (1174-1918 CE) and one Ayyubid/Mamluk (1174-1516 CE) sherd indicating a significant amount of time may have passed between the possibly seismically induced roof collapse and the wall collapse which was not characterized as necessarily having a seismic origin. This opens up the possibility that one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes or a later earthquake may have also caused damage at el-Lejjun. deVries et al (2006:196) suggests that Umayyad abandonment of the northwest tower was probably triggered by further major collapse. In the North Gate, deVries et al (2006:207) found evidence of full scale destruction in layers above 3rd earthquake debris and post-earthquake occupation layers which contained Late Byzantine/Umayyad and Umayyad sherds. Subsoil/tumble was found in C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell) bear ample witness to the destruction of the rooms, perhaps in the Umayyad period. Although Late Byzantine sherds were found in Post Stratum layers in the North Gate, if one assumes that the 3rd earthquake was the Inscription at Aeropolis Quake which struck before 597 CE - probably within a decade of 597 CE, one can establish an approximate and fairly conservative terminus post quem for this earthquake of ~600 CE. While the terminus ante quem is the end of the post stratum III gap (1918 CE), it is probable that that the earthquake struck much earlier.

Seismic Effects
Introduction to Seismic Effects

While there are many photos in the Final Report which suggest seismic effects (e.g. cracked lintels, tilted walls, secondary use of building elements, cracked staircases, displaced walls, etc.), only seismic effects described by the authors that appear to be reasonably well dated are listed in the sections below.

Possible predecessor earthquake in the early 4th century CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Roof collapse                   Room A.13
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:144) report that a beaten earth floor and ash layer in Room A.13 which ante-dated the 1st earthquake (Stratum VI-VB) was chock-full of tile fragments suggesting an apparent roof collapse due to an unknown cause. Such "collapse" debris was not found in any other excavation areas.

1st Earthquake - 355 CE - 384 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Collapsed walls            praetentura
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The original limestone barracks in praetentura and possibly elsewhere in the fortress were leveled to their foundations. New chert barracks, only about half their former number, were erected along a slightly different alignment in both the praetentura and in the latera praetoria south of the principia. Rows of barrack-like rooms were erected on either side of the northern via principalis. - Parker (2006:120)
Collapsed walls            principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The principia also seems to have suffered extensive damage, requiring some portions to be completely rebuilt, such as the interior of the aedes, the rooms in the official block north of the aedes, and the rooms north of the central courtyard [of the principia]. - Parker (2006:120)
Collapsed walls            The mansio in the western vicus
El-Lejjun: plan of a structure in the vicus (civilian settlement)

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The mansio in the western vicus was destroyed in 363 and never rebuilt. - Parker (2006:120)
Roof collapse principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The earthquake brought down tile roofs throughout the principia - Lain and Parker (2006:131)
Arch collapse                  principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The west arcade between the central courtyard and the cross hall of the principia fell while the major walls were left standing. - Lain and Parker (2006:131)
Fallen columns                  A.7
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Three engaged half and quarter columns with Nabatean style capitals were found in the earthquake debris. - Lain and Parker (2006:133)
Fractured wall                  Wall A.8.003 in principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The wall contains a substantial crack running through the center of its eastern end - Lain and Parker (2006:151)

2nd Earthquake - ~450 - ~530 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Collapsed walls and arches        Area B Barracks
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Figure 8

Two fallen roof arches caused by earthquake in the barracks, from the north.

Parker (1982)
  • At el-Lejjun, the earthquake is best attested stratigraphically in the Area B barracks. Some barrack rooms, such as B.4, collapsed and were permanently abandoned. Others, such as the B.1 storeroom in the centurion's quarters, partially collapsed but were reused. - Parker (2006:121)
  • [Room B.1] suffered collapse of two of it's three roofing arches - Groot et al (2006:185)
  • The B.1 room was backfilled to cover the collapsed roofing arches prior to laying a new floor and re-using the room for storage [after the earthquake] - Groot et al (2006:185)
Collapsed walls            principia and other buildings in the fortress
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The earthquake damaged the principia and many other buildings within the fortress. - Parker (2006:121)
Collapsed walls and roofs Area N
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Fig. 8.1

Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.3

West section of southwest corner balk of room N.3

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.2

Balk sections in room N.2

Parker et al (2006)

3rd Earthquake - ~530 - ~750 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Collapsed walls            various locations
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
At el-Lejjun, the seismic shock severely affected most parts of the fortress, including the principia, the barracks, the northwest angle tower, the church, and the rooms along the via principalis. Those structures attached to the deep foundations of the curtain wall, such as the horreum and the bath, seem to have better weathered the shock of 551 [JW: Late 6th century CE Inscription at Areopolis Quake a more likely candidate], but even these structures partially collapsed. The fortress was apparently then almost completely abandoned. - Parker (2006:121)
Collapsed walls            principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:132) report that the 3rd earthquake toppled original architecture which had survived the previous two earthquakes and created heavy architectural tumble from walls and installations.
Northward collapse of walls principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:132) report that the direction of architectural collapse was from south to north and that much of the material fell in aligned patterns
Fallen and broken columns groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
drums and capitals dislodged from half and quarter columns lay in aligned rows. - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Collapsed walls            groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
ashlar limestone and chert blocks from adjacent walls tumbled into the groma's southwest corner - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Roof collapse groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The guardroom that adjoined the gate hall was filled with upended basalt roof beams - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Collapsed arches Square A.1
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
arches of the south portico collapsed in aligned rows between piers of the colonnade - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Northward collapsed wall preserving courses Square A.2 - officium
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Pl 4.11

Collapsed south wall of the A2, officium within the aedes. The wall fell in the earthquake of 551. View to the west.

Parker et al (2006)
The entire south wall of the room had toppled northward to fill the officium with 18 rows of aligned wall blocks, representing collapsed courses of the wall. The fallen wall overlay roof tile debris that yielded Late Byzantine pottery. - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Roof collapse aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
first the roof tile caved in. - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Fallen column aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Next, the three sided podium collapsed, with blocks from its flagstone surface and barrel-vaulted substructures rolling down into the center of the shrine - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Collapsed walls            aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Finally the aedes walls toppled, creating a sloping stratum of jumbled limestone wall blocks. - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Collapsed walls and fallen column aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The debris from both the tumbled podium and the collapsed walls of the aedes yielded Late Byzantine pottery. - Lain and Parker (2006:132)
Collapsed roof and walls A.15
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
[A subsoil tumble layer in A.15.003] covered the entire square and exhibited marked declivity from south to north, contained ashlar limestone blocks, chert blocks, and basalt roof beams arrayed in patterns indicative of seismic collapse. The basalt beams were concentrated in the south end of the square above the sidewalk. The beams measured 1.75 m in length, and all lay with their short ends oriented north-south. The limestone and chert blocks lay in two fairly regular rows and extended east-west across the square, along the same line as the A.15.008 curb - Lain and Parker (2006:134)
Collapsed walls            A.13.007
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:154) report collapsed Walls in tumble layer
Collapsed walls            Areas B and L
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
collapse of most of the remaining barrack rooms still standing in Areas B and L - Groot et al (2006:185)
Collapsed walls and ceilings Northwest Angle Tower - C.3 and C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Pl 6.1

The northeast room (C.3) within the Angle Tower. The two meter sticks rest in the window. Note the arch springers to the left and right. In the foreground is the lower layer of tumble within the room. View to the south.

Parker et al (2006)
deVries et al (2006:196) reports the collapse of upper floors and ceilings
Collapsed arches Northwest Angle Tower - C.3 and C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
destruction of all arches except the southern ones in Room C.3 - deVries et al (2006:196)
Collapsed arches and ceiling Northwest Angle Tower - C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
deVries et al (2006:192) reports a collapsed ceiling caused by arch collapse and notes that the earthquake which collapsed the ceiling must have been quite a force to destroy something so sturdy
Human remains Angle Tower - C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Pl 6.6

Skeleton of a human infant found in the northwest room (C.7) of the angle tower. The infant apparently was a casualty of the 551 earthquake.

Parker et al (2006)
deVries et al (2006:193) found the skeleton of an infant in Angle Tower who apparently fell to his/her death from an upper story
Collapsed arches and roof Room N.2
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Fig. 8.1

Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

Parker et al (2006)
Pl 8.7

View of Room N.2, with collapsed arches and roofing slabs, probably from the 551 earthquake. View to the south.

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.2

Balk sections in room N.2

Parker et al (2006)
Parker et al (2006) reports collapsed Arches and Roofing slabs in room N.2 which probably fell during this earthquake
Collapsed walls            Horreum
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Stratum III occupation ended in all three rooms with massive wall collapse, perhaps resulting from the 551 earthquake [JW: more likely the late 6th century Inscription at Areopolis Quake] - Crawford (2006:238)

4th Earthquake - ~600 CE - 1918 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Collapsed walls and arches        Barracks - Room B.6
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
  • [0.7 m thick layer of tumble containing] some roof beams and many wall blocks [where the] basalt roof beams found embedded in the lowest tumble level (B.6.032) suggests initial massive destruction rather than gradual decay over time - Groot et al (2006:183)
  • Note: Wall block tumble interpreted as coming from a later time and not necessarily seismically induced
Collapsed walls            North Gate - C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell)
Fig. 6.8

Plan of the north gate (porta principalis sinistra) of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of the Porta Principalis sinistra after partial excavation by the Limes Arabicus project

Betthorus legionary camp - excavation plan of the Porta principalis sinistra , Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan.

Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Fig. 6.12

Plan of Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate

Parker et al (2006)
The north-western area of ​​the legionary camp with the porta principalis sinistra , the military baths, the cistern and accommodation buildings. Only the older, late Roman expansion phase is taken into account in the figure

Legion camp Betthorus - Plan of the excavations, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan. Only the late Roman expansion phase is taken into account.

Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
deVries et al (2006:207) reports full scale destruction in layers above 3rd earthquake debris and post-earthquake occupation layers which contained Late Byzantine/Umayyad and Umayyad sherds. Subsoil/tumble was found in C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell) which bear ample witness to the destruction of the rooms, perhaps in the Umayyad period

Deformation Maps
Possible predecessor earthquake in the early 4th century CE

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from a plan in Stern et al (1993 v. 3)

1st Earthquake - 355 CE - 384 CE

  • Modified by JW from Fig. I from Meyers et al (1997)
  • Appears to only capture some of the damages
Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. I from Meyers et al (1997)

2nd Earthquake - ~450 - ~530 CE

  • Modified by JW from Fig. I from Meyers et al (1997)
  • Appears to only capture some of the damages
Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. I from Meyers et al (1997)

3rd Earthquake - ~530 - ~750 CE

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. I from Meyers et al (1997)

4th Earthquake - ~600 CE - 1918 CE

  • Modified by JW from Fig.s 5.1 and 6.12 from Parker et al (2006)
  • Appears to only capture some of the damages
Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig.s 5.1 and 6.12 from Parker et al (2006)

Intensity Estimates
Possible predecessor earthquake in the early 4th century CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Roof collapse suggests displaced walls    Room A.13
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:144) report that a beaten earth floor and ash layer in Room A.13 which ante-dated the 1st earthquake (Stratum VI-VB) was chock-full of tile fragments suggesting an apparent roof collapse due to an unknown cause. Such "collapse" debris was not found in any other excavation areas. VII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

1st Earthquake - 355 CE - 384 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Collapsed walls            praetentura
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The original limestone barracks in praetentura and possibly elsewhere in the fortress were leveled to their foundations. New chert barracks, only about half their former number, were erected along a slightly different alignment in both the praetentura and in the latera praetoria south of the principia. Rows of barrack-like rooms were erected on either side of the northern via principalis. - Parker (2006:120) VIII +
Collapsed walls            principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The principia also seems to have suffered extensive damage, requiring some portions to be completely rebuilt, such as the interior of the aedes, the rooms in the official block north of the aedes, and the rooms north of the central courtyard [of the principia]. - Parker (2006:120) VIII +
Collapsed walls            The mansio in the western vicus
El-Lejjun: plan of a structure in the vicus (civilian settlement)

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The mansio in the western vicus was destroyed in 363 and never rebuilt. - Parker (2006:120) VIII +
Displaced wallls suggested by Roof collapse principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The earthquake brought down tile roofs throughout the principia - Lain and Parker (2006:131) VII +
Arch collapse                  principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The west arcade between the central courtyard and the cross hall of the principia fell while the major walls were left standing. - Lain and Parker (2006:131) VI +
Fallen columns                  A.7
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Three engaged half and quarter columns with Nabatean style capitals were found in the earthquake debris. - Lain and Parker (2006:133) VI +
Penetrative fractures - Fractured wall Wall A.8.003 in principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The wall contains a substantial crack running through the center of its eastern end - Lain and Parker (2006:151) VI +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

2nd Earthquake - ~450 - ~530 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Collapsed walls and arches        Area B Barracks
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Figure 8

Two fallen roof arches caused by earthquake in the barracks, from the north.

Parker (1982)
  • At el-Lejjun, the earthquake is best attested stratigraphically in the Area B barracks. Some barrack rooms, such as B.4, collapsed and were permanently abandoned. Others, such as the B.1 storeroom in the centurion's quarters, partially collapsed but were reused. - Parker (2006:121)
  • [Room B.1] suffered collapse of two of it's three roofing arches - Groot et al (2006:185)
  • The B.1 room was backfilled to cover the collapsed roofing arches prior to laying a new floor and re-using the room for storage [after the earthquake] - Groot et al (2006:185)
 VIII +
Collapsed walls            principia and other buildings in the fortress
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The earthquake damaged the principia and many other buildings within the fortress. - Parker (2006:121) VIII +
Collapsed walls and roofs Area N
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Fig. 8.1

Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.3

West section of southwest corner balk of room N.3

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.2

Balk sections in room N.2

Parker et al (2006)
VIII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

3rd Earthquake - ~530 - ~750 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Collapsed walls            various locations
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
At el-Lejjun, the seismic shock severely affected most parts of the fortress, including the principia, the barracks, the northwest angle tower, the church, and the rooms along the via principalis. Those structures attached to the deep foundations of the curtain wall, such as the horreum and the bath, seem to have better weathered the shock of 551 [JW: Late 6th century CE Inscription at Areopolis Quake a more likely candidate], but even these structures partially collapsed. The fortress was apparently then almost completely abandoned. - Parker (2006:121) VIII +
Collapsed walls            principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:132) report that the 3rd earthquake toppled original architecture which had survived the previous two earthquakes and created heavy architectural tumble from walls and installations. VIII +
Northward collapse of walls principia
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:132) report that the direction of architectural collapse was from south to north and that much of the material fell in aligned patterns VIII +
Fallen and broken columns groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
drums and capitals dislodged from half and quarter columns lay in aligned rows. - Lain and Parker (2006:132) V + or VIII +
Collapsed walls            groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
ashlar limestone and chert blocks from adjacent walls tumbled into the groma's southwest corner - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VIII +
Displaced wallls suggested by Roof collapse groma - square A.7
Fig. 4.3

Plan of the western end of the via praetoria at its intersection with the groma

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 4.4

Section through the south doorways of the groma, looking south

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The guardroom that adjoined the gate hall was filled with upended basalt roof beams - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VII +
Collapsed arches Square A.1
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
arches of the south portico collapsed in aligned rows between piers of the colonnade - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VI +
Northward collapsed wall preserving courses Square A.2 - officium
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Pl 4.11

Collapsed south wall of the A2, officium within the aedes. The wall fell in the earthquake of 551. View to the west.

Parker et al (2006)
The entire south wall of the room had toppled northward to fill the officium with 18 rows of aligned wall blocks, representing collapsed courses of the wall. The fallen wall overlay roof tile debris that yielded Late Byzantine pottery. - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VIII +
Displaced walls suggested by Roof collapse aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
first the roof tile caved in. - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VII +
Fallen column aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Next, the three sided podium collapsed, with blocks from its flagstone surface and barrel-vaulted substructures rolling down into the center of the shrine - Lain and Parker (2006:132) V +
Collapsed walls            aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Finally the aedes walls toppled, creating a sloping stratum of jumbled limestone wall blocks. - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VIII +
Collapsed walls and fallen column aedes
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
The debris from both the tumbled podium and the collapsed walls of the aedes yielded Late Byzantine pottery. - Lain and Parker (2006:132) VIII +
Collapsed roof and walls A.15
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
[A subsoil tumble layer in A.15.003] covered the entire square and exhibited marked declivity from south to north, contained ashlar limestone blocks, chert blocks, and basalt roof beams arrayed in patterns indicative of seismic collapse. The basalt beams were concentrated in the south end of the square above the sidewalk. The beams measured 1.75 m in length, and all lay with their short ends oriented north-south. The limestone and chert blocks lay in two fairly regular rows and extended east-west across the square, along the same line as the A.15.008 curb - Lain and Parker (2006:134) VIII +
Collapsed walls            A.13.007
Plan of the principia (headquarters building) in the Early Byzantine period

Stern et al (1993 v. 3)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Lain and Parker (2006:154) report collapsed Walls in tumble layer VIII +
Collapsed walls            Areas B and L
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
collapse of most of the remaining barrack rooms still standing in Areas B and L - Groot et al (2006:185) VIII +
Collapsed walls and ceilings Northwest Angle Tower - C.3 and C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Pl 6.1

The northeast room (C.3) within the Angle Tower. The two meter sticks rest in the window. Note the arch springers to the left and right. In the foreground is the lower layer of tumble within the room. View to the south.

Parker et al (2006)
deVries et al (2006:196) reports the collapse of upper floors and ceilings VIII +
Collapsed arches Northwest Angle Tower - C.3 and C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
destruction of all arches except the southern ones in Room C.3 - deVries et al (2006:196) VI +
Collapsed arches and ceiling Northwest Angle Tower - C.7
Fig. 6.3

Plan and section of the northwest angle tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.4

Plan and section of the interval tower of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.6

Plans and sections of the northwest angle tower stairway

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 6.7

Restored section C-D (see Fig. 6.6) showing the angle tower with either two or three floors

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
deVries et al (2006:192) reports a collapsed ceiling caused by arch collapse and notes that the earthquake which collapsed the ceiling must have been quite a force to destroy something so sturdy IX + (upgraded to IX based on deVries et al (2006) observation)
Collapsed arches and roof Room N.2
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Fig. 8.1

Plan of Area N showing three excavated rooms (N.1-3)

Parker et al (2006)
Pl 8.7

View of Room N.2, with collapsed arches and roofing slabs, probably from the 551 earthquake. View to the south.

Parker et al (2006)
Fig. 8.2

Balk sections in room N.2

Parker et al (2006)
Parker et al (2006) reports collapsed Arches and Roofing slabs in room N.2 which probably fell during this earthquake VI +
Collapsed walls            Horreum
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
Stratum III occupation ended in all three rooms with massive wall collapse, perhaps resulting from the 551 earthquake [JW: more likely the late 6th century Inscription at Areopolis Quake] - Crawford (2006:238) VIII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of IX (9) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

4th Earthquake - ~600 CE - 1918 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Collapsed walls and arches        Barracks - Room B.6
Fig. 5.1

Plan of Area B: the Early Byzantine Barracks (Strata VA-IV)

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
  • [0.7 m thick layer of tumble containing] some roof beams and many wall blocks [where the] basalt roof beams found embedded in the lowest tumble level (B.6.032) suggests initial massive destruction rather than gradual decay over time - Groot et al (2006:183)
  • Note: Wall block tumble interpreted as coming from a later time and not necessarily seismically induced
 VIII +
Collapsed walls            North Gate - C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell)
Fig. 6.8

Plan of the north gate (porta principalis sinistra) of the el-Lejjun fortress

Parker et al (2006)
Plan of the Porta Principalis sinistra after partial excavation by the Limes Arabicus project

Betthorus legionary camp - excavation plan of the Porta principalis sinistra , Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan.

Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Fig. 6.12

Plan of Late Byzantine domestic complex near the north gate

Parker et al (2006)
The north-western area of ​​the legionary camp with the porta principalis sinistra , the military baths, the cistern and accommodation buildings. Only the older, late Roman expansion phase is taken into account in the figure

Legion camp Betthorus - Plan of the excavations, Limes Arabicus Project, Jordan. Only the late Roman expansion phase is taken into account.

Click on photo to open a high resolution magnifiable image in a new tab

Mediatus - Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Plan of el-Lejjun fortress with excavation areas
1980-89

modified by JW from Parker et al (2006)
Figure I

Plan of el-Lejjun (ancient Betthorus). A later Roman legionary fortress east of the Dead Sea. Built around 300 CE for legio IV Martia

(Courtesy S. T. Parker)

Meyers et al (1997)
deVries et al (2006:207) reports full scale destruction in layers above 3rd earthquake debris and post-earthquake occupation layers which contained Late Byzantine/Umayyad and Umayyad sherds. Subsoil/tumble was found in C.9.008 (north room), C.9.009 (south room) and C.9.005 (stairwell) which bear ample witness to the destruction of the rooms, perhaps in the Umayyad period VIII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Campbell, D. B. (2006). Roman Legionary Fortresses 27 BC–AD 378. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury USA.

Kennedy, D.L. and Riley, D.N. 1990: Rome’s Desert Frontier from the Air, London, 131

Kennedy, D.L. 2000: The Roman Army in Jordan, London, 146–50 - open access at archive.org

Lain and Parker (2006) Chapter 4 The prinicipia in Parker, S.T. et al 2006: The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Final Report on the Limes Arabicus Project, 1980–1989, Washington - The final report refers back to Interim Report on some issues of dating and phasing and suggests that a complete report is to be had from both the Interim and Final Report

Lander, J. and Parker, S. T. 1982: ‘Legio IV Martia and the legionary camp at El-Lejjun’, Byzantinische Forschungen 8, 185–210 - open access at archive.org

Parker, S. T. (1982). "Preliminary Report on the 1980 Season of the Central "Limes Arabicus" Project." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research(247): 1-26.

Parker, S.T. 1986: Romans and Saracens. A History of the Arabian Frontier, Winona Lake, 58–74 - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Parker, S.T. 1988: ‘Preliminary Report on the 1985 Season of the Limes Arabicus Project’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Supplementary Studies 25, 131–74

Parker, S.T. 1990: ‘Preliminary Report on the 1987 Season of the “Limes Arabicus” Project’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Supplementary Studies 26, 89–136

Parker, S.T. 1991: ‘Preliminary Report on the 1989 Season of the Limes Arabicus Project’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Supplementary Studies 27, 117–54

Excavation Reports

Parker, S.T. (ed.) 1987: The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Interim Report on the Limes Arabicus Project, 1980–1985, BAR International Series 340, Oxford

Parker, S.T. et al 2006: The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Final Report on the Limes Arabicus Project, 1980–1989, Washington - The final report refers back to Interim Report on some issues of dating and phasing and suggests that a complete report is to be had from both the Interim and Final Report

Websites

legionaryfortresses.info page for El-Lejjun

El-Lejjun on APAAME flickr.com

Betthorus at Pleaides

Photos and plans of el-Lejjun at ACOR

Bibliography from Stern et al (1993 v.3)

Main publications

The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Interim Report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980-1985, 1-2 (BAR/IS 340, ed. S. T. Parker), Oxford 1987.

Other studies

Briinnow-Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia 2, 24-38

N. Glueck, AASOR 14 (1934), 40-45

S. T. Parker, ADAJ25 (1981 ), 171-178

32 ( 1988), 171-187

34 (1990), 357-376

id., AJ A 85 (1981 ), 211

id., BASO R 247 (1982), 1-26

id., BASO R Supplement 23 (1985), 1-34

25 (1988), l3l-174

26 (1990), 89-136

27 (1991), 117-154

id., Archaeology 37/5 (1984), 33-39

id., RB93 (1986), 256-261

id., Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier (ASOR Dissertation Series 6), Winona Lake 1986, 58-79; id., LA 37 (1987), 393-395

39 (1989), 261-263;id., ASORNewsletter39f2 (1988), 11-12

(Falll989), 6-7; id., Syria 67 (1990), 476-479

J. A. Lander and S. T. Parker, Byzantinische Forschungen 8 (1982), 185- 210

BAR/IS 340 (Review), LA 37 (1987), 424-426

B. Alpert Nakhai et al., RB 95 (1988), 252-262; Weippert 1988 (Ortsregister)

Akkadica Supplementum 7-8 (1989), 359-367

The Roman Frontier (Review), PEQ 121 (1989), 150-151

J. Taylor, RB 97 (1990), 142-143.

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

S. T. Parker, Preliminary Reports of ASOR-Sponsored Excavations, 1982–89, (ed. W. E. Rast), Baltimore, MD 1991, 117–154

id., ABD, 4, New York 1992, 276–277

id., AJA 96 (1992), 345

id., ACOR: The First 25 Years, Amman 1993, 60–62

id., SHAJ 5 (1995), 251–260

id., NEA 62 (1999), 134–180

id., The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond, Winona Lake, IN 2000, 367–388

id., Roman Fortresses and Their Legions (The Society of Antiquaries of London Occasional Papers 20

ed. R. J. Brewer), London 2000, 121–138

id., Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Amman, Jordan, 2–11.9.2000 (BAR/IS 1084

eds. P. Freeman et al.), Oxford 2002, 77–85

S. Gregory, Roman Military Architecture on the Eastern Frontier, From AD 200–600, Amsterdam 1997

M. Miller, BA 60 (1997), 194–204

J. Wiseman, Archaeology 53/6 (2000), 12–14

P. Freeman, The Archaeology of Jordan (Levantine Archaeology 1

eds. B. MacDonald et al.), Sheffield 2001, 427–459

D. Kennedy, Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies (op. cit.), Oxford 2002

J. Mühlenbrock, Tetrapylon: Zur Geschichte des Viertorigen Bogenmonumentes in der römischen Architektur, Paderborn 2003, 236–238

J. E. Jones, AJA 108 (2004), 434–435

Wikipedia pages

Legionary Camp Betthorus (in German)

  • from wikipedia - click link to open page in a separate tab and then use your browser to translate the page


Betthorus



Limes Arabicus