Transliterated Name | Source | Name |
---|---|---|
The Petra Church | English | |
The Byzantine Church at Petra | English | |
Blessed and All-Holy Lady, the most Glorious Mother of God and Ever-Virgin Mary Church |
was probably named for the 'Blessed and All-Holy Lady, the most Glorious Mother of God and Ever-Virgin Mary'(Fiema et al, 2001). It's discovery and excavation opened a window into Byzantine Petra of which
almost nothing was knownbefore (Fiema et al, 2001). Ken Russell, who had worked as a supervisor on excavations of the nearby Temple of the Winged Lions and Area I, can be largely credited for it's discovery and it was Ken who initiated and spearheaded the project to excavate it. Tragically, Ken died at the age of 41 before excavations began. The final publication of the excavations (The Petra Church by Fiema et al, 2001) was dedicated to his memory.
Fiema et al (2001:18) surmised that Phase II ended with an earthquake based on rebuilding evidence discussed below:
The type of construction activity in Phase III [] included massive backfilling of certain spaces with material clearly originating from a demolition. Furthermore, there was seemingly no shortage of architectural elements - including doorjambs, drums, cornices and ashlars - which were reused. This evidence all indicates that Phase II ended in disaster and was followed by a period of intense restoration and construction. This hypothesis, combined with the available absolute dating, suggests that the earthquake of A.D. 363 is the best candidate for such a disaster. That earthquake is a historically documented, major natural calamity which beset Petra during the Byzantine period. The severity of its destructive power left numerous Nabataean and Late Roman period structures in ruins, e.g., the domestic structures at ez-Zantur, the Temple of the Winged Lions and Area I, the Theater, the Colonnaded Street area, and the Southern Temple. Afterwards, some buildings were either partially abandoned or never rebuilt. Whether the Phase II structures in the excavated area were seriously affected is not apparent, but it remains a possibility. At any rate, Phase II most probably represents the 3d century A.D. and the first half of the following century, ending in A.D. 363.Dating for the end of Phase II was largely established from sounding 30 of the foundation course of Wall I (infra), which Fiema et al (2001:18) states
...
One telling indication that Phase III was initiated after a devastating earth tremor is the amount of reused stone material, presumably readily available after the disaster. In all the stone-tumble layers excavated in the interiors of the northern rooms and courts - almost 4 m deep - the number of reused doorjambs was simply astonishing. In total, 275 complete stones or recognizable fragments were retrieved from that area.
certainly dates to Phase III. Fiema et al (2001:18) reports that
two coins were found there, one unidentifiable, the other dated to A.D. 350-55.
The Phase X earthquake came after the fire of Phase VIII which is well dated and provides a terminus post quem of the end of the 6th century CE.
The terminus post quem is derived from chronological information found in the Petra papyri
which were burned in the fire. The terminus ante quem for the Phase X earthquake is provided by succeeding Phase XI which is dated to late 7th to early 8th century. However, it should be noted that
Fiema et al (2001:115) state that no easily datable
material can be associated with [Phase XI] deposits
adding that several 7th century sherds were found in strata which may have been created
during Phase XI.
Fiema et al (2001:115) concludes that Phase XI could be dated
to the 7th century A.D., probably its second half, and apparently after the first earthquake
but notes that other ceramic evidence indicates that Phase XI
could have lasted longer, i.e. until the next earthquake
.
Fiema et al (2001:111) summarized Phase X earthquake evidence as follows:
There is no evidence whatsoever to suggest that the earliest structural destruction of the church complex was caused by factors other than natural ones, and an earthquake is the most acceptable explanation. Although the density of lowermost stone deposits varied from place to place, these deposits are nevertheless evident everywhere. The earthquake damaged the already weakened structure of the church proper. Evidently, most of the columns in the basilica broke and collapsed, either in their entirety or their upper sections. That was followed by a complete failure of the arches above the capitals, and thus the clerestory walls farther up. Whatever had remained after the fire of Phase VIII i.e. elements of the roof structure, now fell. Walls A, C, and F were visibly damaged , the latter one began to lean precariously toward the south. Room II lost its vaulted ceiling and, like Rooms I and V, the upper parts of its stone superstructure. Arches broke and fell inside Room I. The atrium's porticoes collapsed, at least partially, as well as the floors in the western rooms. However, except for some shifting, at least two columns survived intact in the baptistery. The central and the side apses seemed to have escaped with little damage, but no indisputable proof can be offered for that. Also, no cracking of the ground were detected, and there was no substantial shifting of walls from their foundation courses. The latter, wherever exposed, show no particular seismic damage at all.
...
Generally, the intensity of the first major tremor which affected the complex does not suggest a total catastrophe. Rather, the magnitude of destruction indicates a moderate earthquake, probably comparable to grades VII-VIII on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMS).
The date of the earthquake is not easy to determine. A very general terminus post quem for this earthquake is the early 7th century A.D.
This phase is poorly understood, as is its dating. It was definitely long-lasting, thus requiring further subdivisions. Unfortunately, the stratigraphic sequences of the upper layers in the complex are too fragmentary and enigmatic to interpret. In light of these difficulties, an attempt to connect areas marked by possible human interference into meaningful spatially and temporally defined units would be pure guesswork. Therefore, the following section presents the evidence available as to activities that happened from the second earthquake until modern times. That would include the late Umayyad-Abbasid and Mamluk periods and the early Ottoman period. In the absence of well dated deposits, the association of the walls discussed below with any of these periods is impossible.
The extant remains in the complex indicate the possibility of further earth tremor(s). The indicators, upper stone tumbles, are more difficult to interpret. They may represent a single seismic event or multiple ones in a relatively short time. They also must, at least partially, account for the continuous natural deterioration and decay of the ruins. Separation of major stone collapses as separate loci was successful only in a few places. In the area of the nave, no evidence of collapse beyond that presumably associated with Phase X can be detected.
Room X
This room produced the most dramatic evidence for a possible later earthquake. Two or three of the four columns which originally had supported the canopy over the baptismal font broke and collapsed on the surface of E3.30A (Fig. 125). That fall was hardly due to natural deterioration. The drums of the SE column evidently shifted and the shaft broke almost exactly at a level corresponding with the top of locus E3.30A which, by that time, had already filled up the interior. That level was ca. 899.9 m, i.e. about 1.2 m above the room's floor level. Altogether, nine drums of that column fell in a well-aligned row. Four drums of another column, the SW one, were found in the parallel row. Both rows preserved almost exact east-to-west orientation which is in striking contrast to the general north-to-south collapse observed for the first earthquake. A few drums of the third (probably NE) column and a capital fell on the same surface but not in the same orientation as the others. In addition to the column drums, collapse locus E3.29 (=D4.38) contained large quantities of ashlars and other stone material, presumably from the destruction of neighboring walls TT, S, N, and M. The presence of canopy voussoirs outside Wall TT indicates that some of them could also have fallen then, across damaged Wall TT.![]()
Fig. 125
Room X, collapsed SE column of the baptistery
Fiema et al (2001)
The Aisles and the Apses
In the north apse, this event was represented by an extensive stone tumble, G4.17, which was deposited in the easternmost part of the aisle, including the interior of the apse. The tumble was about 0.5 m deep, originating at ca. 900.3 m and reaching up to 900.9. Glass and stone tesserae and even marble fragments continued in this area. It is possible that a section of that tumble could have originated from stones pushed aside during the activities of the previous phase. The second collapse was also noted in J4.05, although at a slightly higher level (900.6-901 m). That tumble contained several column drums (Fig. 3, section i-i'). Unlike G4, there were practically no finds in Square J4. Locus H4.14 also contained several column drums and larger ashlars. Its bottom was at ca. 900.5 m, and it was visibly separated from the earlier earthquake destruction (Fig. 2, section d-d'![]()
Fig. 3
N-S sections
Section i-i'
Fiema et al (2001)). The collapsed column in H3.11, which was found at ca. 900.2 m, might have fallen then, if not before. At any rate, the remaining columns or their broken shafts would now have finally succumbed. Notably, both Squares G4 and J4 clearly preserved what may be termed a third tumble layer.![]()
Fig. 2
E-W sections
Section d-d'
Fiema et al (2001)
Tumbles of high density, with many ashlars, were noted in the south apse area. beginning with F2.13 (at ca. 900.2 m) and continuing through F2.10, and 08, the latter with its top at ca. 901.1 m. Like G4, these deposits contained numerous mosaic fragments, glass, plaster flakes and loose tesserae. The confluence of the apse's wall and Wall A in this area are largely responsible for the abundance of stone material there. The destruction associated with Phase XIIA is less apparent farther west in the aisle. Perhaps loci A1.09, 08, 04, B1.04, B2.04, and C1.15, 25 may represent that event, although the density of stone deposition was not high there (Fig. 126). Locus C1.15 yielded interesting, though useless, numismatic evidence. An as of Trajan, struck in commemoration of the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom in A.D. 106 was associated in that stratum with two Late Byzantine nummi from the late 5th-6th century A.D.![]()
Fig. 126
Stone tumble in the south aisle, probably Phase XIIA. A1.09, 10
Fiema et al (2001)
The apse presumably survived the first earthquake. However, it fared much less well in the current seismic event. This time the collapse appears to have been complete. Massive tumbles H1.04, 03 = A3.04 covered the area of the bema up to 901.1 m. These are probably associated with tumble loci F4.05, 04 = G2.05, 04 in the apse, which also overlapped the eastern edge of the bema (Fig. 2, section a-a', and Fig. 3, section b-b'![]()
Fig. 2
E-W sections
Section a-a''
Fiema et al (2001)). While the bema tumbles still contained some wall mosaic fragments, the amount of that material in the apse loci was substantially less. The pattern of these stone deposits was not clear but it appeared to concentrate toward the west, resembling the pattern noted in the baptistery. The tremor buckled and broke the structure of the semidome resulting in its fall along with the remaining mosaics upon the central and eastern bema. The upper works of the semidome probably fell straight down on the remaining part of the synthronon and the space in Square G2.![]()
Fig. 3
N-S sections
Section b-b'
Fiema et al (2001)
The Northern Rooms and the Atrium
The second earthquake apparently deposited substantial stone tumble in the area of the northern rooms. Loci I.08, 07, 06, excluding the mosaic-rich deposits along Wall T, and II.07, 06 may be reasonably associated with that event. The matrix of these tumbles was sandy, and the cultural material generally meager but locus I.06 was abundant in numismatic finds. Two mid-4th century coins, one late 4th-early 5th century piece, and one Late Byzantine coin were found there. Much more significant was the find from locus I.08 — large fragments of a greenish-grey, ribbed storage jar, generally dated to the 7th century A.D. The average level of the deposits in Rooms I and II extended from ca. 900 m to 901.3 m. In the courtyards, the tumble loci were even more extensive and difficult to separate. Possibly, the collapse there is represented by IIIA.04 = IIIB.06, followed by IIIA.03=IIIB.05, 04, the latter reaching a level of ca. 901.8 m. The presence of several possibly late 7th century sherds was noted in IIIB.06 (=J4.15).
Stone tumble loci in the atrium may reflect the impact of the second earthquake there. Particularly, the areas marking the confluences of walls display upper tumbles. To such belonged D2.43, C1.16, C2.02 (?), I.2.03, 02, and K3.14, 13. Judging from the depth and density of accumulation, Walls N and YY probably suffered much damage during that seismic episode, although human interference in the subsequent phase would have been instrumental in changing the pattern of stone collapse. By then Wall YY was already reduced to a height of barely 1 m above the floor, either by natural or human forces since Wall B, probably constructed in Phase XIIB, encroached on its remains.
Seismic Effects are difficult to report as this seismic event is surmised from rebuilding evidence but re-used ashlars suggests wall damage or collapse.
Location | Source | Images | Description |
---|---|---|---|
General Remarks | Fiema et al (2001:105) |
There is little doubt that the occupation of the atrium in Phase IX was ended abruptly by a destructive natural phenomenon, an earthquake. The entire interior of the church, the area of the porticoes in the atrium, and western and northern rooms were found strewn with collapsed stone. Generally, the total depth of the loci that contain massive stone tumble varies considerably, from more than 3 m of the barely differentiated massive collapse in Room I to about half a meter in the center of the church. A notable exception is the very center of the atrium which contains very little stone, but it is suspected that the area could have been partially cleared in Phase XI. |
|
The Nave | Fiema et al (2001:105-106) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 116 ![]() ![]() The collapse of columns associated with Phase X Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 3 section f-f' ![]() ![]() N-S sections section f-f' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 117 ![]() ![]() Section g-g'. J2-K1 south balk. Fiema et al (2001) |
The appearance of the deposits of drums and capitals, was particularly dramatic in the nave, notably in the western and central parts. Square B4 featured a field of densely packed stone material which extended vertically from ca. 899.5 m up to 900.5 m, including the collapse loci 07 and 03 (Fig. 116). Several column drums which preserve a rough NE or NW pattern of collapse were located in locus 07. Locus 03, atop of it, contained mainly ashlar collapse. This distinction should not be related to separate episodes. Rather, the collapse of columns of the south row was followed directly by the fall of the clerestory walls. These loci contained very little cultural material, but notable amounts of roof tiles. These were also characteristic for neighboring boring B3, where loci 05 and 04 displayed a similar pattern of deposition i.e. the column drums in the lower locus (Fig. 3, section f-f'). Farther east, Square A4 preserved the earliest stone collapse in loci 07 (upper) and 06. Locus 07 (lower) is probably a silt layer containing some gravel and charcoal. This presumably accumulated before the earthquake. Both loci 07 and 06 also yielded considerable amount of roof tiles. However, what set them apart from the deposits already mentioned was the abundance of cultural material including nails, mosaic chunks, glass, wall plaster, iron objects, and a great quantity of marble fragments, the latter located close to the edge of the chancel platform. A Nabataean coin was found in A4.07 (upper). |
North and South Aisles | Fiema et al (2001:106-107) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 3 section i-i' ![]() ![]() N-S sections section i-i' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 2 section d-d' ![]() ![]() E-W sections section d-d' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 118 ![]() ![]() North aisle. fallen column in H3.11 and note the paving slabs in the stratum below. Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 2 Section h-h' ![]() ![]() E-W sections section h-h' Fiema et al (2001) |
In the north aisle, the early collapse was well represented, and in squares such as J4, H2, and H3, separable from the later falls. This collapse was very uneven in terms of absolute levels, because of the considerable difference in depth of the material (including the pavers) relocated there in Phase IX. Well-defined early collapse was noted in Square G4, where Loci 23 and 21 contained drums and capitals, among the ashlars, as well as numerous wall mosaic fragments. Locus 21 was sealed by a silt lamination (locus 19), on top of which rested a later, equally impressive tumble. A similar situation occurred in the western part of the aisle. Loci J4.11 and 10 (early collapse) were well separated from the later collapses (J4.05, 02) by the silt layer, J4.08 (Fig. 3, section i-i'). A substantial stone tumble was observed in H2. Loci 09, 07, a total of ca. 0.6 m in depth, cover the area of the nave and the north aisle. Several drums were floating in these loci. Judging from the lack of any pattern, the drums could have been pushed aside from the top of the bema in the following phase. The presence of a reasonably well-defined upper stone tumble here was also noted. That upper collapse also contained column drums which may indicate that some columns or their stumps had survived the first tremor. The early collapse was poorly represented in Square H4, although loci 24 and 21 may be reasonably associated with that episode. This square featured an easily recognizable upper tumble (H4.15, 14) with several column drums and large ashlars (Fig. 2, section d-d'). Evidently, not all columns had fallen during the earthquake of Phase X. |
The Bema and Central Apse | Fiema et al (2001:107-108) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 2 section a-a' ![]() ![]() E-W sections section a-a' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 3 section b-b' ![]() ![]() N-S sections section b-b' Fiema et al (2001) |
Uncertainty was already expressed as for the manner and removal of the bema's and central apse's marble floor. The nature of deposition of the lowermost layers in this area (e.g. A3.18, 16, H1.10, 08) which cover the mortar bedding of the removed floor is also unclear. Directly above these strata were stone tumble loci A3.17, 05 = H1.09, 05 = G2.14, 12 = F4.14, 12, which occupied the major part of the chancel platform and its western steps, from ca. 900.2 m to ca. 900.6 m (Fig. 2. section a-a' and Fig. 3. section b-b'). These substantial stone deposits tended to slope to the west and south. All contained very high numbers of roof tiles, and wall mosaic fragments as well as loose tesserae. The fragments of the marble furnishings of the chancel were equally numerous everywhere, forming a solid layer of marble within locus H1.05. All the aforementioned loci were, in turn, covered by an equally massive tumble at a higher level. These loci included H1.04, 03 = A3.04, and G2.08, 07, 06 = F4.08, 06, the latter set also covering a substantial part of the apse's interior. The depth of the combined lower and upper collapse loci did not exceed 1 m, and the top of the upper collapse was at about 901.1-.2 m. Although the upper collapse could reasonably be distinguished from the lower one, there were no clear intermediate layers of tumble-free soil between them. This could lead to the conclusion that all collapse layers mentioned here represent a simultaneous deposit. However, this situation may not be as obvious as it appears. Farther east, in the apse area (G2,F4), the evidence allowed the separation of stone deposits into different episodes, and also to note possible disturbances. Square F4 contains the intact southern half of the synthronon while the other half had been totally removed from the area of its northern counterpart (G2). The apse's semicircles was filled with a deposit (F4.10=G2.10) of debris including stone, mortar chucks, window glass and wall mosaic fragments. Locus F4.10 rested directly on the mortar bedding (F4.15) of the removed apse's floor. In the north, G2.10 covered not only the remains of the floor's mortar bedding (G2.15), but also appeared to spread occupied by the northern part of the synthronon. There, G2.10 was over locus 13, which in turn superseded locus 17. Locus G2.17 featured stone blocks in a clayish soil which created the elevated surface for the entire semicircle of the apse, while locus 13, above it, probably represented debris and rubble from the actual removal of the synthronon. Both loci produced mosaic fragments, tesserae, glass, mortar and plaster, but no fire-related debris. |
The Side Apses | Fiema et al (2001:108) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) |
The image of the initial seismic destruction in the south apse is far from uniform. Locus F2.17 (lower), noted above, contains great quantities of material which could have been redeposited during Phase IX. One element of the original marble furnishing of the apse - the marble colonnette (F2.37) which had supported the altar — survived intact and continued to stand through the postulated acts of vandalism in Phase VIII and a potential redepositing in Phase IX. The colonnette is ca 0.95 m tall, with its top at 900.25 m. Its survival was possible only because the area around it was already filled up when a major collapse came. Otherwise, the colonnette would have been knocked down. The top of F2.17 was at ca. 900.2 m, which is just high enough to preserve the colonnette intact. Only a few stones came loose during the initial tremor, collapsed and became embedded in deposit F2.17 (lower). The loci above, F2,13 and 10, which contained relatively large ashlars, represent either a gradual deterioration of the structure of the apse and/or later tremors. The tumble continued farther up through loci 08 and 07. Large quantities of glass tesserae and wall mosaic chunks were found in all these loci The extant evidence does not warrant the suggestion of a complete collapse of the apse's semidome during the initial earthquake. Since the tumble loci did not display a clear subdivision, it is postulated that this area experienced a series of minor collapses related to several tremors or/and gradual decay. |
The Northern Area | Fiema et al (2001:108-109) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 119 ![]() ![]() Stone tumble in the area of Courtyard IIIA and Room II with Wall F in the center Fiema et al (2001) |
The lowest collapse layers in Room I that may be associated with the initial earthquake destruction were the combined loci I.10 and 09, with the bottom at ca. 899.3 in and the top at ca. 900.1 m. The bottom of I.10 rested on an dense layer (I1.11) of paving stones, ca. 100 fragments. The majority of the pavers had collapsed during the fire when the wooden ceiling burned down. The I.10, 09 tumble was extensive and of high density. Patches of ash and charcoal bits were noticeable in places. A late Byzantine nummus (A.D. 491-565) was found in I.09. The most significant occurrence in Room I during the first earthquake was the collapse of the arches, or at least the western one. That arch was somewhat precarious and irregular, being supported by a pilaster against Wall HH on the north side, and practically springing out of the narrow Wall G on the south. Notably, the thick pilasters, including the northern one for the western arch, are all preserved to a considerable height. On the other hand, the upper part of Wall G collapsed early, creating a curious window-like gap. The bottom of the gap is at 900.35 m, i.e. ca. 1.4 m above the floor of Room I, which is probably the level from which the arch springer began. The emergence of this gap is important in the history of the church as it created a direct connection between Room I and the north aisle of the church. |
The Atrium | Fiema et al (2001:109-110) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Figs. 2 section h-h' ![]() ![]() E-W sections section h-h' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 20 ![]() ![]() Section Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 117 ![]() ![]() Section j-j', C1, west balk, Walls Y and Z, elevation Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 120 ![]() ![]() South portico of the atrium. collapse of the portico's gallery (D1.11) Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 121 ![]() ![]() Collapse of paving stones from the gallery of the south portico, associated with Phase X, D1.07, 11, 12, 13, 14 Fiema et al (2001) |
There is clear evidence in the form of paving slabs for earthquake damage in the atrium. This material was overwhelming in the lowermost tumble layers in the atrium, which were largely restricted to the area of the porticoes. This indicates that the upper floors of the porticoes collapsed during this phase. For example, to these initial collapse layers in the eastern Portico belong loci K3.17, K1.12 (upper) and 11, C3.06, 05, and C1.21 and probably 16 (Fig. 2. section h-h', Fig. 20, Fig. 117). The Square C1 deposits were rich in numismatic finds. These included two Early Byzantine folles and one Late Byzantine nummus in C1.21, and three Early Byzantine coins in locus 16. The collapse loci tended to slope away from the walls. Many stones of these tumbles rested directly on the floor, but the average range of the tumble was from 899.8 m to 899.5 m. The lowermost location was usually filled with sandy, slightly ashy loci. e.g. K3.19 under K3.17, C3.07 under C3.06, and C1.24 under C1.21. |
The Western Rooms | Fiema et al (2001:110) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) |
The interior of Room XI presented a particularly bewildering multilayered stone tumble. This heavy and dense mass of stone must he related to the unusual thickness of the southern and western Walls of the room. The tumble, ca. 3 m high, was difficult to subdivide stratigraphically except by rough and arbitrary means. The only reliable indication of breaks between the strata were changes in contents and amount of cultural material. The initial collapse was represented by the lowermost tumble loci D2.23 = D4.20 = E3.22 = F1.22, which also contained paving slabs. Notably, however, this material was not restricted to these loci. Pavers were found floating in most of the tumble layers inside the room, many as high as 2 m above the floor. Since the slabs in Room XI would have been used as pavement on the upper floor, this distribution is puzzling. The first major collapse inside Room IX is represented by loci M3.05 (upper) and 04. The latter having its top slightly more than 1 m above the floor. No patterning of the tumble was recognized. The tumble also contained some paving stones, undoubtedly from the upper chamber's floor. Several pavers were or marble and one of alabaster. |
Damage to the Mosaic Floors | Fiema et al (2001:110-111) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) |
In addition to damage already noted to the south mosaic, damage caused by excessive wear and the rough handling of objects before the fire (some of which had been repaired in antiquity), some areas of both the north and south aisles have damage that could have been caused by an earthquake. That damage is particularly visible in the east part of the south aisle, and in the western half of the north aisle, but is not restricted to these areas. A project conservator reported:... There are a number of areas where the mosaic has undergone compressive forces and ... has been lifted from its mortar bedding creating voids under the tesserae. In a few cases the buckling has provoked the loss of tesserae, while in others an intact ridge has been created. There are a couple of examples where a section of the mosaic has been lifted up along aMuch of that damage could be due to the first earthquake, but should not be restricted to it. Some phenomena, such as cracking, buckling, and shearing could have been caused by slow earth movement, not necessarily related to short and violent tremors. Furthermore, the existence of voids underneath the floors, created by the levelling of occupational remains predating the church's construction and ineffectual compaction of artificial fill, could have created unstable ground, generally detrimental for the mosaic's preservation.fault linecreating a difference in level along the fault of up to 10 cm. Some cases of cracking of the mortar bedding have been observed, with a resulting gap between tesserae. This cracking is likely due to differential settling of ground and pavement foundations. The buckling, shearing and cracking phenomena are probably due to earthquakes in antiquity. Fallen blocks and paving stones have created three kinds of localized damage to the mosaic floor. In several cases the mosaic has been crushed, with all the tesserae still in place but detached from their mortar bedding, and the individual tesserae broken into fragments. In other cases the fallen stone has actually wedged itself under the tesserae, separating them from their bedding. In several cases, the weight of the fallen stone has caused the whole mosaic to sink, creating a depression in the floor. ... |
South Exterior of the Church | Fiema et al (2001:111) |
Excavation Squares
![]() ![]() General plan of the site, showing the locations of rooms, walls, soundings, excavation squares, and sections Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 3 section b-b' ![]() ![]() N-S sections section b-b' Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 6 ![]() ![]() Fiema et al (2001) Fig. 7 ![]() ![]() Walls Y and Z, conduit F2.41 Fiema et al (2001) |
Little is known about the area south of the church complex in Phases VI-IX, and even less can be reconstructed on the basis of extant remains. It is not known if the domestic occupation continued beyond the line of Walls GGG, HHH, and Z. To recapitulate, the foundation trench for Wall A had been dug out from the level of ca. 899.5-6 m. The bottom of the lowermost stone collapse observed in the area was at around 900.5 m. This means that almost 1 m of deposition had accumulated against the south face of Wall A between Phase IV and Phase X. The strata in this vertical bracket were commonly thin, some displayed hard-packed surfaces, others were silt. The occupational character of the former can neither be proven nor rejected. However, they contained some sherds, bones, wall plaster, and sometimes, tesserae, which indicates at least casual presence of humans. |
Location | Source | Effect | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Fallen Columns |
Two or three of the four columns which originally had supported the canopy over the baptismal font broke and collapsed on the surface of E3.30A (Fig. 125 |
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls surmised from ashlar tumble | large quantities of ashlars and other stone material, presumably from the destruction of neighboring walls TT, S, N, and M. |
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Vaults | The presence of canopy voussoirs outside Wall TT indicates that some of them could also have fallen then, across damaged Wall TT. |
Aisles and Apses | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Fallen Columns |
That tumble contained several column drums (Fig. 3, section i-i' |
Aisles and Apses | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls surmised from ashlar tumble | Locus H4.14 also contained several column drums and larger ashlars. Its bottom was at ca. 900.5 m, and it was visibly separated from the earlier earthquake destruction (Fig. 2, section d-d' |
Apse | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Vaults | The apse presumably survived the first earthquake. However, it fared much less well in the current seismic event. This time the collapse appears to have been complete. ... The tremor buckled and broke the structure of the semidome resulting in its fall along with the remaining mosaics upon the central and eastern bema. The upper works of the semidome probably fell straight down on the remaining part of the synthronon and the space in Square G2. |
Atrium | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls | Walls N and YY probably suffered much damage during that seismic episode, although human interference in the subsequent phase would have been instrumental in changing the pattern of stone collapse. By then Wall YY was already reduced to a height of barely 1 m above the floor, either by natural or human forces since Wall B, probably constructed in Phase XIIB, encroached on its remains. |
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Collapsed Walls | re-used ashlars suggests fallen or damaged walls | VIII+ |
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Fallen Columns | most of the columns in the basilica broke and collapsed, either in their entirety or their upper sections(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
V+ |
Arch Damage | That was followed by a complete failure of the arches above the capitals(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
VI+ |
Collapsed Walls | the clerestory walls farther upfell (Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
VIII+ |
Tilted Walls | Walls A, C, and F were visibly damaged , the latter one began to lean precariously toward the south(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
VI+ |
Collapsed Vaults | Room II lost its vaulted ceiling(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
VIII+ |
Arch Damage | Arches broke and fell inside Room I(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
VI+ |
Fallen Columns | The atrium's porticoes collapsed, at least partially(Fiema et al, 2001:111). |
V+ |
Generally, the intensity of the first major tremor which affected the complex does not suggest a total catastrophe. Rather, the magnitude of destruction
indicates a moderate earthquake, probably comparable to grades VII-VIII on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMS)
(Fiema et al, 2001:111).
Location | Source | Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|---|---|
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Fallen Columns |
Two or three of the four columns which originally had supported the canopy over the baptismal font broke and collapsed on the surface of E3.30A (Fig. 125 |
V+ |
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls surmised from ashlar tumble | large quantities of ashlars and other stone material, presumably from the destruction of neighboring walls TT, S, N, and M. |
VIII+ |
Room X | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Vaults | The presence of canopy voussoirs outside Wall TT indicates that some of them could also have fallen then, across damaged Wall TT. |
VIII+ |
Aisles and Apses | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Fallen Columns |
That tumble contained several column drums (Fig. 3, section i-i' |
V+ |
Aisles and Apses | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls surmised from ashlar tumble | Locus H4.14 also contained several column drums and larger ashlars. Its bottom was at ca. 900.5 m, and it was visibly separated from the earlier earthquake destruction |
VIII+ |
Apse | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Vaults | The apse presumably survived the first earthquake. However, it fared much less well in the current seismic event. This time the collapse appears to have been complete. ... The tremor buckled and broke the structure of the semidome resulting in its fall along with the remaining mosaics upon the central and eastern bema. The upper works of the semidome probably fell straight down on the remaining part of the synthronon and the space in Square G2. |
VIII+ |
Atrium | Fiema et al (2001:115-117) | Collapsed Walls | Walls N and YY probably suffered much damage during that seismic episode, although human interference in the subsequent phase would have been instrumental in changing the pattern of stone collapse. By then Wall YY was already reduced to a height of barely 1 m above the floor, either by natural or human forces since Wall B, probably constructed in Phase XIIB, encroached on its remains. |
VIII+ |
Fiema, Z. T., et al. (2001). The Petra Church, American Center of Oriental Research.
Korzhenkov, A. et.al., 2016, Следы землетрясений в затерянном городе (Earthquake trails in a lost city), Nature 43
Arjava, A., et al. (2013). The Petra Papyri I, American Center of Oriental Research.
Arjava, A., et al. (2013). The Petra Papyri II, American Center of Oriental Research.
Bikai, P. M. (2002). The churches of Byzantine Petra, in Petra. Near Eastern Archeology, 116, 555-571
Rucker, J. D. and T. M. Niemi (2010). "Historical earthquake catalogues and archaeological data: Achieving synthesis without
circular reasoning." Geological Society of America Special Papers 471: 97-106.
Bibliography for the Petra Church - ACOR webpage
Fiema, Z. T. 2003. “The Byzantine Church in Petra.” In Petra Rediscovered: The Lost City of the Nabataeans, edited by G. Markoe, 238–249. New York : Harry N. Abrams in association with the Cincinnati Art Museum .
Bikai, Pierre M. 1996. “Petra Church Project, Petra Papyri.” Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 40: 487–489.
Fiema, Z. T. 2007. “Storing in the Church: Artefacts in Room I of the Petra Church.” In Objects in Context,
Objects in Use. Late Antiquity Archaeology, Volume 5, edited by L. Lavan, E. Swift, and T. Putzeys, 607–623. Leiden: Brill.
Marii, F. and M. O’Hea.2013. “A New Approach to Church Liturgy in Byzantine Arabia / Palestinia Tertia:
Chemical Analysis of Glass from the Petra Church and Dayr ‘Ayn ‘Abāṭa Monastery.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 11: 319–326.
Figure | Image | Description | Source |
---|---|---|---|
4c |
![]() ![]() Petra Church through-going cracks in the Great Church of Petra, piercing several stone blocks. For them to arise. A huge amount of energy needs to be released. Korzhenkov et al (2016) |
through-going cracks | Korzhenkov et al (2016) |