551 CE Beirut Earthquake

• from Salamon et al. (2024)
• CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 2

EMS-98 macroseismic intensities assigned to localities affected by the 551 earthquakes

Salamon et al. (2024)

• from Salamon et al. (2024)
• CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 3

Intensity degrees assigned to tsunami effects related to the 551 event according to the Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) tsunami intensity scale

Salamon et al. (2024)

• from Salamon et al. (2024)
• CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 4

Intensity degrees assigned to environmental effects associated with the 551 event according to the ESI-2007 Scale (Serva et al. 2016)

Salamon et al. (2024)

• from Salamon et al. (2024)
• CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 5

Fault rupture parameters of potential 551 seismogenic sources

Salamon et al. (2024)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 1

Regional map of the eastern Mediterranean area showing: Arabian, African, and Anatolian plates

• Dead Sea Transform Fault (black fault lines)
• Lebanese Restraining Bend and study area (inside dashed black frame)
• Latakia ridge (dashed red)
• Levant basin (yellow)
• 3D seismic volume of this study (dark blue)

Background topography is from https://www.geomapapp.org

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 2

Right (onshore): DEM (SRTM 90 m) of the Lebanese Restraining Bend with the main physiographic units and faults. Left (offshore): monochromatic bathymetric map of the study area generated from the 3D seismic data, with figure locations and structures of this and previous studies (by color).

• AF Aabde fault
• BT Beirut thrust
• DB deformation belt
• DFZ Damour fault zone
• F# fault mentioned in text
• JFZ Jounieh fault zone
• LR Latakia ridge
• SF Saida fault
• TBFZ Tripoli-Batroun fault zone
• TT Tripoli thrust

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 3

Color-scaled bathymetric map of the study area (Fig. 2-left) generated from the 3D seismic data showing the regions and features discussed in the text.

• Ch# channel
• CM central margin
• L# lens-shaped feature
• NM northern margin
• R# Region
• SM southern margin
• TH # topographic high, 1–7 morphological highs

Contour interval is 200 ms. Dashed yellow lines separate regions

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 4

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the northern margin showing the salt layer being offset across the Tripoli-Batroun transpressive fault zone (dashed yellow) under a topographic high that reaches the seafloor. Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Dark blue fault affects the post-salt layers. Transpression is concentrated along the margin. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 5

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the central margin showing the salt layer being affected by the Jounieh fault zone (dashed yellow). Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Dark blue faults affect the post-salt layers. Seafloor morphology is related to salt movement rather than to major tectonic faulting reaching the seafloor. The ‘‘antiforms’’ within the fault zone lie under salt highs and are due to velocity pull-up effects. Transpression is concentrated along the margin. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 6

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the central margin showing the morphological highs along the seafloor (2, 3, and 7; cf. Figure 3), and salt changing thickness under differential overlying deposition. Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Dark blue faults affect the post salt layers. Note the normal faults in the post-salt layer above the salt highs implying reactive diapirism, and the ‘‘antiforms’’ under the salt highs due to velocity pull-up effects. MB minibasin, SF seismic signal fading. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 7

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the southern margin showing the salt layer changing thickness and uplifted across the Damour fault zone (dashed yellow). Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Dark blue faults affect the post-salt layers. Note the normal faults in the post-salt layers due to salt movement. The ‘‘antiform’’ under the salt high in the middle is due to velocity pull-up effect. Seafloor morphology is caused by tectonic uplift and salt evacuation under its overburden as shown at the slope break. Transpression is concentrated along the margin. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 8

2D seismic section of the 3D data across the Latakia ridge showing a composite structure of old reverse faulting (dashed yellow) and newer transtentional faulting. Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Dark blue faults affect the post-salt layers and the negative flower structure. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with regional tectonics. Note the difference in elevation of the base of salt (green horizon) across the structure. Break in the seafloor is evidently related to recent faulting. GF possible gas flow effect (chimney); SF seismic signal fading. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 9

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the northern margin showing a transpressional fault zone that corresponds to Aabde fault of Carton et al. (2009) or Tripoli fault (F4) of Ghalayini et al. (2014). Salt layer is not shown because section is taken to the east of salt layer pinch-out. Dashed yellow faults originate deep in the section, some might extend upward to reach the seafloor. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with regional tectonics. Transpression is concentrated in the middle of the section. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 10

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the northern margin showing the Tripoli-Batroun fault zone effect (dashed yellow) being less pronounced than in Fig. 4, uplifting the salt layer without reaching the seafloor. Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Sinistral strike slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Transpression is concentrated along the margin. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 11

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the central margin showing mostly reverse faults (yellow) in the pre-salt layers, and normal and listric faults (dark blue) in the post-salt layers. Yellow faults correspond to the southern extent of the Jounieh fault zone. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Seafloor morphology is related to shallow normal and listric faulting in the post-salt layers rather than to major tectonic faulting. Transpression is diffuse across the section, marking the attenuation of the Jounieh fault zone. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 12

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the southern margin showing minor faulting in the pre-salt layers (yellow) and post-salt layers (dark blue), with no major thrusting. Seafloor morphology is related to shallow normal and listric faulting in the post-salt layers beyond the slope break. MS merging seam of 3D seismic volumes. SF seismic signal fading that might be due to possible gas chimney. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 13

2D seismic section of the 3D data from the southern margin showing the salt layer pinching out and being offset across the Damour fault zone (dashed yellow). Yellow faults originate in the pre-salt layers. Sinistral strike-slip movement is in accordance with onshore tectonics. Dark blue faults affect the post-salt layers. Sharp break in the seafloor above the fault zone suggests active tectonic faulting, while seafloor morphology beyond the slope break is related to shallow normal and listric faulting in the post-salt layers. Transpression is concentrated along the margin. MS merging seam of 3D seismic volumes. Location in inset and in Fig. 2

Faysal et al. (2023)

• from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 1

• Regional map of the Middle East showing the eastern Mediterranean area and the Arabian, African, and Anatolian plates; dashed box is the location of (b)


• Digital elevation model (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 90-m resolution) of the eastern Mediterranean region showing the different segments of the Dead Sea Transform Fault; box shows the location of the Lebanese Restraining Bend (c)


• Digital elevation model (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 90-m resolution) of the Lebanese Restraining Bend showing the main units, structures, and places that are referred to throughout the text

Nemer et al. (2023)

• from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 2

The study area with:

• main faults (red)
• folds (green)
• seismogenic zones (blue outlines, cf. Fig. 4)
• estimated epicentral locations (black squares annotated by date and magnitude) of the major historical earthquakes of the Lebanese Restraining Bend (e.g. Sbeinati et al., 2005)
• instrumental seismicity earthquakes with magnitudes ≥ 4

Nemer et al. (2023)

• from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 5

1. The study area with regional polygons that delimit the velocity structural models (differentiated by colors)
2. Geological map of the study area after Dubertret (1962)

Nemer et al. (2023)

• from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 5b

Geological map of the study area after Dubertret (1962)

Nemer et al. (2023)

• from Nemer et al. (2023)

Table 2

Velocity parameters (upper 40 km) of the different regional polygons used to define the structural models

Nemer et al. (2023)

An earthquake occurred in Greece and destroyed almost completely the walls of Corinth. This earthquake is mentioned only by later Syrian sources and dated to 854 a.S. (Eli. Nis. BR 120). It is probably the earthquake mentioned by earlier writers (Procop. A. 225; B. 239) and possibly a duplicate of the earthquake of AD 551 (see below).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

A destructive sea wave in the Black Sea flooded the coast of Thrace, inundating Odessus (now Varna), Dionysopolis (now Balchik) and Aphrodisium by advancing four miles inland, drowning many people before retiring.

This event is mentioned by Theophanes, who places it in a.M. 6037 (September 544 to August 545), or in the 18th year of Justinian (Cedr. CS 657), which commenced in April 544. He does not mention, however, whether this event was associated with an earthquake. Only an eighth-century Syrian chronicle, which is not so reliable, says briefly that in 855 a.S. there was an earthquake and a submersion by the sea of many cities (Chron. 724, 111).

However, Guidoboni et al. associate this event with a seismic sea wave (Guidoboni et al. 1994, 329), but no earthquake is mentioned by any of the local sources.

Note

a.M. 6037: In that year the sea rose up against Thrace and covered it for four miles [inland] around the parts of Odyssus and Dionysopolis, and also Aphrodisium. And many people drowned in the waters. And then, at the divine command, the sea flowed back into its own limits.’ (Theoph. 224).

An earthquake and a seismic sea wave, which caused great damage on the island of Cos. The town of Cos was almost completely destroyed, as was all but a small part of the island, and the death toll was heavy. Houses of unbaked brick or mud survived, but most houses, built of stone, were reduced to rubble and drinking water was also polluted by the sea wave.

Agathias visited Cos, in the course of a voyage from Alexandria to Constantinople, shortly after the event, and was thus able to see the effects (although of course there may be some exaggeration). His chronology is so confused that the date of the event is uncertain. Agathias says ‘at around that time’ just after narrating the earthquake of July 551, but in ii. 15 and ii. 16 he regresses four years in his time sequence.

Modern authors amalgamate this earthquake with the event of AD 551 that destroyed the Phoenician coast, 800 km away from Cos (McCail 1967, 243).

Agathias also visited the island in AD 558, on his return from Constantinople, but Guidoboni et al. (1994, 338–339) note that this visit was before the Constantinople earthquake of AD 557 and date the event between AD 554 and 558 on the assumption that Egypt was affected by an earthquake in AD 554 (Guidoboni 1989, 703).

Note

And at the same time [as the earthquake in Syria and Lebanon] the island of Cos, which lies on the edge of the Mediterranean, was shaken by an earthquake, and while a small part of it was preserved, all the rest collapsed, in what was a complex and unprecedented disaster.

The sea rose up to an incredible height and engulfed all the buildings by the shore, destroying the property and people in them. Such was the size of the wave, and so extraordinary, that whatever its surging crests could not ride over, it dashed down and destroyed.

Almost all its citizens were killed in the confusion, whether they happened to have fled to sanctuaries, or stayed at home, or gathered elsewhere.

At that time I happened to be sailing from Alexandria to Byzantium, and I disembarked on the island, which lies en route: as soon as I stepped on to the shore I was confronted by the most pitiful sight which was beyond the power of words to describe. For almost the entire city was reduced to a pile of rubble, with stones and bits of broken pillars and wooden beams scattered everywhere, and the air was darkened with great clouds of dust, so that one could hardly discern the thoroughfares but only dimly perceive them.

A few houses remained standing, unharmed, but these were not built of gypsum or stone, or of any similar material which might seem more durable, but were built in peasant-fashion from unbaked brick or mud. Here and there a few men could be seen, whose expressions were of despondency, despair and dejection, as if this were the end, and also of apathy. For in addition to all the other ills, the drinking water from the river had been polluted by the sea, being thus rendered undrinkable . . . (Agath. ii. 16).

During AD 551, three separate earthquakes struck Boeotia, involving the areas around the Maliac and Crissean Gulfs in central Greece. Eight cities were destroyed, the worst hit being Patrae, Naupactus, Chaeronea and Coronea, which were destroyed, with loss of life.

Procopius’s contemporary and only account of these events in AD 551 says that at this time a (series) of extraordinary earthquakes occurred throughout Greece, affecting both Boeotia and Achaea and the country around the Crisean Gulf, as a result of which many towns and eight cities, which are not named, were levelled to the ground, among which were Chaeronea, Coronea, Patrae and all of Naupactus where there was also great loss of life.

It adds that the earth was ‘rent asunder’ to the extent that in many places the people were not able to travel from one place to another without making many detours.

It goes on to say that, at Echinus and at Scarphea in Boeotia in the Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia, there was a sudden influx of the sea, which levelled both towns. The sea flooded the mainland for a long time, so that for a very considerable period it was possible for men to walk to the islands, which are inside this gulf, since the sea had abandoned its proper place and spread over the land as far as the mountains. When the sea returned to its proper place, fish were left on the ground.

It also adds that at the locality of the so-called Schisma there was a tremendous earthquake, which caused more loss of life than in all the rest of Greece, particularly since a festival was being celebrated there (in October?), for which many people had gathered from all over Greece.

It is important to recognise that Procopius places earthquakes in the plural, in the context of more than one earthquake in more than one place. The time of which he is speaking is about that of the defeat of the Gepaedes, perhaps December 550 to January 551 and he clearly refers to more than one, probably three, distinct earthquakes in central Greece, that is (1) a destructive shock in Boeotia that caused great loss of life in Schisma and destroyed Coronea and Chaeronea, probably damaging Corinth; (2) a destructive sea wave at Echinus and Scarpheia, which was probably associated with a second earthquake about 70 km away in the Maliakos Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia; and (3) a damaging shock more than 100 km to the west of Schisma in the Gulf of Corinth and in Achaea, which heavily damaged Nafpaktos and Patra. Much of what has been said above is based on a study of source credibility by White (2001a).

The sequence of these events is not possible to establish, but it is possible, on physical grounds, to exclude the possibility of a single earthquake being associated with an epicentral area of radius more than 100 km. Many important centres, which are not recorded as having suffered in this earthquake, would have also been utterly destroyed, such as Chalcis, Aegeum, Amphissa and Delphi, for which there is no evidence.

Insofar as the first earthquake is concerned, the name of the festival on which it occurred, which could have helped with the reckoning of the date, is not given. It is unlikely that this was the festival of Dionysus, which was held in historical times on Mt Parnassus, and it could have been a local affair.

This earthquake affected Schisma most seriously, its name meaning a place cleft or rent. This may be the place where the ground deformation described by Procopius took place, most probably as the result of surface faulting and landslides. This locality may be the ‘Schisti hodos’ mentioned by earlier writers, which is the name of the junction of the road from Delphi that crosses the spurs of Mt Parnassus–Xeromeri with the route to Levadia south of Daulia. This locality is only a few kilometres from Cheronea and 15 km from Coronea, sites that were totally destroyed by the earthquake.

Procopius mentions Corinth separately as having suffered from more than one earthquake and notes that its walls were repaired within his lifetime. However, when he enumerates other cities that were renewed by Justinian after AD 553, he says explicitly that the restoration of the walls of Plateae and Athens, which are between Schisma and Corinth, was necessitated not because of damage sustained by earthquakes, but because these cities had suffered from the long passage of time. It is probable, therefore, that the same earthquake as that at Schisma damaged Corinth to some degree.

There are no other primary sources for this earthquake, and later sources either repeat some of this information or amalgamate it with that from other earthquakes in the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Procopius refers to a series of ‘extraordinary earthquakes’ (seismoi) that occurred in Greece and Asia Minor during the reign of the Emperor Justinian. While seismoi can mean ‘shocks’, this translation is valid only in the context of an obvious single earthquake in one place.

If the ordering of events in Procopius’s narrative can be trusted, this earthquake must have occurred shortly after Narses’s march against the Goth Totila (about March 551). Since the festival held in Schisma is likely to have been the great June event, the Thesmophoria, it is probable that the earthquake happened during that month.

Locating Schisma has proved difficult. It is not mentioned in any contemporary sources. However, Pausanias says that ‘Going forward from there [the road to Delphi] you will arrive at a road called the Branch (“Schiste”)’ (Paus. X. v. 1/LCL. iv. 388–390). Of particular interest is a passage from Sophocles’s Oedipus Tyrannus. Jocasta says to Oedipus, in the course of his questioning her about the death of his father Laeus, ‘The land is called Phocis, and the branch road (“schiste hodos”) to it leads from Delphi and Daulia.’ (Soph. OT l.733/LCL. i. 400). Kammerbeek describes a road which runs southeast–northwest through Greece from Thebes to Lebadea (modern Livadia), just north of which it splits, a branch road (“schiste hodos”) running west to Delphi and the main road continuing northwest to Daulia. By association the point at which the Delphi road split off (actually a crossroads, since another road joined the main road there, too) came to be known as “Schiste” (Kammerbeek 1967, iv. 153). This road remains substantially the same today, although the crossroads has been moved so that now Levadia is on the Delphi branch.

A report on excavations at the crossroads in 1907 describes extremely dilapidated buildings, one of them being a fort on a rounded hill (Fossey 1986). Their condition was attributed to hurried construction in the second century AD. Unfortunately, the article does not describe their state in any detail, so it is possible only to conjecture how the buildings came to be so dilapidated.

Regarding the alleged festival at Schisma, there was a biennial festival at nearby Parnassus to celebrate the rebirth of Dionysus, so it may be that the Thesmophoria of AD 551 was held there.

In his Buildings Procopius mentions terrible earthquakes that had occurred in Corinth, as a result of which Justinian repaired the city walls. This may refer to many earthquakes over a long period, or to those which occurred only during the reign of Justinian. However, in the Anecdota he lists many cities, mostly Asian, but including Corinth, that were ruined by earthquakes during Justinian’s reign. Modern writers claim that an inscription from Corinth honours one Theodosius as ‘rebuilder of the town’ after the earthquake of AD 551, but the source is not quoted (Bousquet and Pechoux ´ 1983, 33).

It goes without saying that this could not have been, as some modern writers claim, the same earthquake as that which struck Asia Minor in July 551 since it would have damaged an area of two million km2, and many important cities between Greece and Asia Minor would have been wiped out

Notes

‘It was at this time that extraordinary earthquakes occurred throughout Greece, both Boeotia and Achaea and the country on the Crisaean Gulf being badly shaken. And countless towns and eight cities were levelled to the ground, among which were Chaeronea and Coronea and Patrae and all of Naupactus, where there was also great loss of life. And the earth was rent asunder in many places and formed chasms. Now some of these openings came together again so that the earth presented the same form and appearance as before, but in other places they remained open, with the consequence that the people in such places are not able to intermingle with each other except by making use of many detours. But in the gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia there was a sudden influx of the sea at the city called Echinus and at Scarphea in Boeotia. And advancing far over the land it deluged the towns there and levelled them immediately. And for a long time the sea thus visited the mainland, so that for a very considerable period it was possible for men on foot to walk to the islands which are inside this gulf, since the water of the sea, obviously, had abandoned its proper place, and, strange to say, spread over the land as far as the mountains which rise there. But when the sea returned to its proper place, fish were left on the ground, and since their appearance was altogether unfamiliar to the people of the country, they seemed a kind of prodigy. And thinking them edible they picked them up to boil them, but when the heat of the fire touched them the whole body was reduced to a liquid putrefaction of an unbearable sort. But in that locality where the so-called Cleft (Schisma) is located there was a tremendous earthquake which caused more loss of life than in all the rest of Greece, particularly on account of a certain festival which they happened to be celebrating there and for which many had gathered in that place from all Greece.’ (Procop. Bell. VIII. xxv. 16–24/LCL. v. 324)

‘He [Justinian] also rendered secure all the cities of Greece which are inside the walls at Thermopylae, renewing their circuit-walls in every case. For they had fallen into ruin long before, at Corinth because of terrible earthquakes which had visited the city; and at Athens and Plataea and the towns of Boeotia they had suffered from the long passage of time, while no man in the whole world took thought for them.’ (Procop. Aed. IV. ii. 23–24/LCL. vii. 238).

He [the Emperor Justinian], after he had accomplished all this, learned that all the cities of the Peloponnesus were unwalled, he reasoned that obviously a long time would be consumed if he attended to them one by one, and so he walled the whole Isthmus securely, because much of the old wall had already fallen down.’ (Procop. Aed. IV. ii. 27–28/LCL. vii. 238)

And one might add to the list [of cities destroyed in earthquakes during Justinian’s reign] Ibora and also Amasia, which chanced to be the first city in Pontus, also Polybotus in Phrygia, which the Pisidians call Philomede, and Lychnidus in Epirus, and Corinth, all of which cities have from ancient times been most populous. For it befell all these cities during this period to be overthrown by earthquake and their inhabitants to be practically all destroyed by them.’ (Procop. Anecd. xviii. 42/LCL. vi. 224–226).

The second event in AD 551 mentioned by Procopius is the sea wave in the Maliakos Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia, about 70 km to the north of Schisma, which destroyed the towns of Echinus and Scarpheia. He does not mention any damage to these or other towns due to an earthquake (see the previous entry).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

The third earthquake in AD 551 occurred more than 100 km to the west of Schisma in the western part of the Gulf of Corinth and in Achaea, damaging Nafpaktos and Patra (see AD 552 June entry).

The archaeological evidence that the collapse of the temple of Zeus in Olympia was due to this earthquake is very dubious (Decker 2000). It is based on Boetticher’s argument that, according to the Scholiast of Lucian, the temple of Zeus in Olympia remained standing during the period of Theodosius (AD 408–450). As a result of the edict of Theodosius in AD 426 the temple was burned; but Boetticher believes that this should have affected only the wooden construction of the temple (Boetticher 1883; cf. Meyer 1979). On the other hand, he points out that near the eastern front of the temple, within a wall dating from late antiquity, an early Byzantine hoard of more than 1000 coins of the period of Justinian II (AD 527–565) has been found buried under large fragments of the temple of Zeus. This implies, according to Boetticher, that the final destruction of the temple took place sometime between AD 426 and 565. Owing to the enormous size, but also due to the way the columns had fallen, he suggests that only an earthquake could have been responsible for the collapse of the structure. After mentioning all the earthquakes which took place in the period between AD 426 and 565, Boetticher concludes that only two of the most disastrous earthquakes during that period could have been responsible: the earthquake of AD 522 and/or the earthquake of AD 551.

Guidoboni (1989, 698–699) and Guidoboni et al. (1994, 331–332) amalgamate the three earthquakes of AD 551 in Greece to create an enormous earthquake.

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

A destructive earthquake in the eastern part of the Sea of Marmara.

In Constantinople many houses were ruined and people were killed, especially in the southern part of the city around the Golden Gate. Some churches and baths as well as part of the city wall near the Golden Gate were damaged. The spear of the statue of Constantine at the Forum fell and penetrated three cubits into the ground. The repair of the walls is recorded in extant inscriptions.

At least part of Nicomedea was destroyed, although the sources vary about the extent of the destruction: according to one source, the city was completely destroyed and part of it fell into the sea.

Part of Nicaea may also have been damaged, although this is mentioned by only one source. Other towns, which are not named, were also damaged. Damaging aftershocks continued for 40 days (Malal. CS 489; Sym. Styl. 1061).

This event was commemorated in Constantinople annually with prayers in the Campus in the district of Hebdomon (Sym. Styl. 1061; Mich. Syr. CH ii. 245).

Later authors say that also the sea flooded the coast and advanced inland two miles, sinking many ships (Cedr. CS 674), but this detail seems to belong to the earthquakes of AD 551 in Beirut, which they conflate with this event.

According to Malalas, this earthquake happened in Constantinople and Nicomedea in August of the second indiction (AD 554).

The contemporary Victor of Tunnuna lists a damaging earthquake in Constantinople in AD 553, and Agathias syncretises what is probably this event with the earthquakes of AD 551, including that on the island of Cos, and adds no information apart from corroborating the earthquake’s occurrence.

The Life of Symeon the Stylite the Younger (late sixth or early seventh century) records that six days after the great earthquake of AD 551, Constantinople, Nicomedea, Nicaea, Rhegium ‘and most of the cities close to Illyricum’ suffered a damaging earthquake during the night. Obviously this is an amalgamation of this event with the earthquake that affected cities close to Illyricum in February 548.

The evidence from other sources suggests that the earthquake of AD 554 affected Constantinople and the area east to Nicomedea, whereas the AD 557 earthquake affected Constantinople and the region to the west including Rhegium, so it is likely that they have been syncretised in the Life. The pattern of subsequent earthquakes makes it probable that Nicaea was affected by the ‘eastward’ earthquake, that of AD 554.

Pseudo-Dionysius, probably copying John of Ephesus, gives a detailed and somewhat rhetorical account, dating the event to 7 Ab (August), a.S. 1862 (obviously an error for 862, thus AD 551), and claims that part of Nicomedea was swallowed into the sea.

Theophanes dates the earthquake to the second indiction, 15 August a.M. 6046 August (AD 554), adding that the event occurred ‘as Sunday was dawning’, i.e. Sunday 16 August.

Michael the Syrian claims that aftershocks were felt for only twenty days, but this may be a confusion with the earthquake of AD 557.

Millingen confirms the damage to the Golden Gate, where an inscription records its restoration by Justin II (Meyer-Plath and Schneider 1943). See also Cyr. Scyth. 199; John Eph. NA 489; Leo Gramm. CS 128; McCail (1967, 242) and Downey (1955, 598)

Later writers syncretise this earthquake with the AD 551 event and others (Cedr. 674/736; Glyc. 269/504; Abu’l Faraj 76/81). Guidoboni (1989, 700–701) associates this earthquake with the shock felt in Alexandria in AD 551

Notes

‘In the month of August, in the 2nd indiction, there was a terrible earthquake, so that many houses and baths and churches and parts of the walls of Byzantium were damaged. In this terror also fell the spear which was held by the statue in the forum, and it penetrated the ground to a depth of three cubits. Other cities suffered in this terror, among which was Nicomedea, part of which collapsed. After a few days some survivors were pulled from the ruins of Nicomedea. This earthquake lasted for forty days.’ (Malal. 486–487/704–705).

‘a.553 While these things were going on [Justinian’s synod and anathemas] an earthquake shook the Imperial City and threw down many buildings and porticoes, and the arcades of many basilicas were flattened.’ (Vict. Tunn. 553/203).

At the same time [as the Frankish invasions], in summer, there was a great earthquake in Byzantium and in many parts of the Roman Empire, so that numerous cities, both on islands and the mainland were completely razed to the ground and their inhabitants all killed . . .’ (Agath. ii. 15).

And after six days a great earthquake occurred in Constantinople, and in various districts many houses partially collapsed, and many people were killed. Nicomedea also collapsed, as did the [suburb] called Rhegium, and part of Nicaea and the most of the cities close to Illyricum. And these things were known in the city of Antioch, and there was great mourning there, and they prayed night and day.’ (Vit. Sym. Iun. 106).

In the year 1862 (sic.) a great earthquake happened in the Imperial City, on the first day of the week.

On 7 Ab [August] there was a terrible quake, severe and ¯ violent, in the Imperial City during part of the night, at dawn of the first day of the week, and numerous houses were overthrown in this [event] and became awful tombs for their inhabitants. Many churches, baths and town walls collapsed, and above all the wall of the Imperial City, which is called the Gates (sic.) of Gold. And again many people died everywhere in this earthquake. Many towns were overthrown and razed, so that Nicomedea, capital of Bithynia, collapsed and was completely destroyed; and a good part of it was swallowed up in the sea and all the rest was buried in the collapse. Many of those who were found alive in the destruction were found alive; some were unharmed but others were injured. These earthquakes had been terrifying, as they went on, one after another, for forty days. Since those who loved God were filled with His mercy, they also called men to lives of penitence. And thus it was that everywhere men persevered in prayer in the churches and stayed there. It was in suffering and tears of penitence that the memorials of these earthquakes were born, seven miles from the city. And every year, during the days over which [the earthquake] had taken place, prayers went up, which were followed by prayers for the entire city to say; and all he way down from the nobles, [everyone] followed the prayers on the plain with zeal.’ (Ps.Dion. ii. 126/94).

‘a.M.6046. In that year on 15th August, in the 2nd indiction, in the middle of the night, as Sunday was dawning, there was a terrible earthquake, so that many houses and baths and churches and part of the walls of Constantinople were damaged, especially around the Golden Gate. And many people died. A large part of Nicomedea fell too. And this earthquake continued for forty days. And after a little, men kept vigil, supplicating and watching and going to the churches, and when God’s love for man was [manifested] again (i.e. when the earthquake stopped), they were worse. This earthquake is commemorated each year in the Campus (Hebdomon Plain) when the people pray.’ (Theoph. 229).

‘There was another, very violent, earthquake in the imperial city [Constantinople] in the month of ‘Ab [August]: many houses were overturned and became their inhabitants’ tombs. Churches, baths, and the wall, which used to be called the “Golden Gate” also collapsed. In this earthquake Nicomedea was completely destroyed. These earthquakes carried on for 20 days, as if to call men to repentance. They were commemorated each year by rogations, on a great plain seven miles from the imperial city.’ (Mich. Syr. ix. 29/ii. 245).

The outwork of the Theodosian Wall was restored under Justin and Sophia, our most pious Sovereigns, by Narses, the most glorious Spatharius and Sacellarius, and Stephen, who belonged to the servide, a servant of the most pious Sovereigns.’ (Millingen 1899, 96).

On the authority of Agathias (CS 96–97) and John Nikiou (143), Guidoboni et al. (1994, 337–338) amalgamate two earthquakes in Egypt to AD 554.

Agathias, who was born c. AD 531 (OCD 25), says that there was an earthquake in Alexandria, which caused much panic but no damage. This, he adds, happened at the time he was preparing himself to enter the law school, presumably when he was about 20 years old, and what he describes should have been the far-field/distant effects of the earthquake in Lebanon in AD 551.

John of Nikiu, a seventh-century writer, reports an unidentified earthquake that was felt in Egypt during the reign of Justinian (AD 527–565) that he says was an event commemorated on 17 Teqempt (14 October). This event occurred during Justin’s reign, in AD 520 (see 14 October 520).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

This is a duplicate of the earthquake of c. AD 551 in Cos (see above). Guidoboni dates it to AD 558 or within the period AD 554–558 (Guidoboni 1989, 703; Guidoboni et al. 1994, 338–339).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

551 *Chaeronea, •Coronea, •Echinus, •Naupactus, • Patras [Patrae], •Scarphe, Achaia, Boeotia, the Crisaean Gulf seismic sea-wave, surface faulting

sources

• Procop. bell. 8.25.16-23

• Meyer (1979)

• Ligorio [1574-7]
• Bonito (1691)
• von Hoff (1840)
• Mallet (1853)
• Schmidt (1881)
• Galanopoulos (1961)
• Ambraseys (1962 b)
• Shebalin et al. (1974)
• Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
• Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
• Guidoboni (1989)Guidoboni (1989)

(219) the night of 15 August 554 *Constantinople, •Nicea?, • Nicomedia

sources1

• Mal. 486-7
• Ioh. Ephes. 325-6
• Agath. 2.15.1 ff.
• Vita s. Sym. Stil. Iun. 106
• Theoph. 229
• Anth. Pal. 9.425-7

• [Dion. Tellmahr.1 126
• Georg. Mon. 642
• Cedren. 679

• Cameron (1970)

• Bonito (1691)
• von Hoff (1840)
• Mallet (1853)
• Capelle (1924)
• Downey (1955)
• Grumel (1958)
• Hermann (1962)
• Shebalin et al. (1974)
• Ben-Menahem (1979)
• Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
• Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
• Guidoboni (1989)

(220) 14 October 554 Alexandria, •Egypt

sources

• Agath. 2.15.1 ff.
• Ioh. Nik. 90.81-3 (p.159 [2791/393 [5131 Zotenberg = p.143 Charles)

• von Hoff (1840)
• Sieberg (1932 a)

(221) 554-558 •the island of Cos seismic sea-wave

sources

• Agath. 2.16.1-6

• Cameron (1970)

• von Hoff (1840)
• Schmidt (1881)
• Sieberg (1932 a)
• Galanopoulos (1960)
• Ambraseys (1962 b)
• Ben-Menahem (1979)
• Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
• Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
• Guidoboni (1989)