551 CE Beirut Earthquake

Afternoon 9 July 551 CE

by Jefferson Williams

Introduction & Summary

On a Sunday afternoon¹ on the 9th of July in 551 CE, faults not far from Beirut broke resulting in a powerful (M_W = ~ 7.5) earthquake(s)² and tsunami. The earthquake is documented in roughly a dozen sources, some contemporaneous, and is corroborated with geologic and archaeoseismic evidence. Geologic evidence suggests that the epicenter was either offshore or on land but close to the sea. The sources suggest that the epicenter was not far from to Beirut. There was likely extensive damage to coastal towns from Tripolis to Tyre. Damage may have been more limited south of Tyre and north of Laodicea. The earthquake was felt as far away as Alexandria, Egypt and, according to the sources, Palestine, Syria, east of the Jordan River (labeled as Arabia), and parts of Mesopotamia. Some sources suggest there was seismic damage in the Galilee which may be supported by paleoseismic evidence in Bet Zayda. This earthquake has been widely cited as the cause of 6th century archaeoseismic evidence in far way Petra, el-Lejjun, and Areopolis but this destruction was more likely caused by the Inscription at Areopolis Quake which struck an area south of the Dead Sea a few decades later.

A little over half a dozen sources described a tsunami on the Phoenician (Lebanese) coast which started with an ebbing of the sea. Clear tsunamigenic evidence is lacking but there is probably some evidence in Beirut which two of the sources specifically say was struck by the tsunami. Cores taken from the ancient harbors of Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre did not encounter tsunamites in their Late Byzantine/Islamic sections although the cores from Sidon and Tyre may suffer from a hiatus during this time period due to later harbor dredging. Tsunamigenic evidence may or may not be present in Caesarea and nearby Jisr al-Zakra. Researchers have suggested that the probable tsunamite identified in cores from Caesarea and Jisr al-Zakra dates to the Holy Desert Quake of the 749 CE Sabbatical Year Sequence and if a tsunami did strike that far south in 551 CE, the deposit it left was reworked by the 749 CE tsunami. While modeling performed by Salamon et al. (2024) suggests that Caesarea would have likely been unaffected by the tsunami that affected Beirut, shaking from the 551 CE Beirut Quake could have generated a tsunami via offshore shelf collapse closer to Caesarea. The strength of the 551 CE Beirut Quake (M_W = ~ 7.5) and the distance from Beirut to Caesarea makes this a possibility.

Although evidence has not been found for a 6th century CE tsunamigenic event in Byblos, Morhange et al (2006:91) reported 6th century CE coastal uplift there (see Tsunamogenic Evidence) and Elias et. al. (2007) found evidence for ~80 cm. of vertical uplift in the vicinity of Tabarja located ~20 km. NE of Beirut (see Paleoseismic Evidence). Elias et. al. (2007) also claimed to have discovered a previously unknown thrust fault system offshore which they called the Mount Lebanon Thrust. They surmised that the 551 CE Beirut Quake was a result of fault movement on this thrust system and estimated M_w = ~7.4-7.6 for the 551 CE Beirut Quake.

Faysal et al. (2023) made use of better seismic data than was available to Elias et. al. (2007) (3D vs. 2D) and found that they could not confirm the existence of a Mount Lebanon Thrust Fault System. They also concluded that what Elias et. al. (2007) interpreted as "fresh" seafloor seismic ruptures that may have generated the 551 CE tsunami were in fact surface expressions of underlying salt tectonics. Faysal et al. (2023) suggested that the Latakia Ridge as a candidate for the fault rupture that created the 551 CE Beirut Earthquake.

Salamon et al. (2024) constructed a geographic database of Intensity values for various seismic effects compiled from textual, archaeoseismic, and geologic evidence and performed seismic modeling and tsunami simulation to assess seismotectonic possibilities for the 551 CE Beirut quake. They concluded that either the thrust system noted as Mount Lebanon Thrust underlying Lebanon or the intermittent transpressive Tripoli-Batroun-Jounieh-Damour fault zone³ along the Lebanese coast are the best candidate sources for the 551 AD earthquakes and tsunami. Both possibilities explained the initial tsunamigenic ebbing as well as the ~80 cm. of coseismic uplift on the Phoenician (Lebanese) coast. Salamon et al. (2024) found that models and simulations with the Latakia Ridge did not produce coastal uplift or a tsunami. Salamon et al. (2024) further noted that Hall et al. (2005) suggested that the the Latakia Ridge was primarily a strike-slip fault - unlikely to generate a tsunami. However, as noted by Salamon et al. (2024) and Faysal et al. (2023), the 551 CE tsunami could have been caused by an off fault offshore shelf collapse.

The sources may also suggest that there were two earthquake shocks. First came the shock that caused the tsunami and then some time later there was an earthquake shock that was described as being synchronous with the return of the sea to its regular level². Sources also mention an earthquake induced rockslide near Botrys (modern Batroun)⁴ and a fire that raged in Beirut for two months until 3 days of rain put it out. Emperor Justinian I is reported to have sent funds to pay for rebuilding efforts in the affected cities but Beirut (then known as Berytus) was reconstructed to a smaller size.

Footnotes

1 The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain states that the earthquake struck at the 10th hour which would specify ~4 pm if canonical hours were used (Symeon was elevated to sainthood) and ~230 pm if hours from sunrise was used. According to Clear Sky Tonight, the sun rose in Beirut at 4:31 AM on 9 July 551 CE which indicates that the tenth hour of sunlight started around 2:30 PM.

2 John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius were the only sources which described the timing of the tsunami and earthquake. They said that the tsunami hit first. If they got their timing right, this might suggest that the earthquake was preceded by an energetic foreshock.

3 Faysal et al. (2023) identified three unconnected offshore transpressive faults which they labeled as the Tripoli-Batroun, Jounieh, and Damour fault zones. Taken together the Tripoli-Batroun, Jounieh, and Damour fault zones were abbreviated by Salamon et al. (2024) as the TBJD fault zone.

4 Some sources state that the rockslide affected the Lithoprosopon which is a cape (now known as Ras-Chakka) just north of Batroun.

Textual Evidence

Text (with hotlink)	Original Language	Biographical Info	Religion	Date of Composition	Location Composed	Notes
Textual Evidence Summary
Intensity Estimates
Chronographia by Johannes Malalas	Greek	Biography	Christian (Orthodox Byzantium)	~530s to 565 CE	Probably Antioch and Constantinople	Contemperaneous account which provides a year - 551 CE. Recounts a severe and tremendous earthquake occurred throughout the land of Palestine, in Arabia and in the land of Mesopotamia, Antioch, Phoenice Maritima and Phoenice Libanensis where the following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblus, Botrys and parts of other cities. Reports a rockslide in Botrys and that at the time of the earthquake the sea retreated [at an unspecified location] for a mile and many ships were destroyed followed by the sea restored to its original bed.
The Histories by Agathias of Myrina	Greek	Biography		between 578 and 582 CE	Constantinople	Contemporaneous account of the earthquake as Agathias was a young ~21 year old law student in Alexandria, Egypt when the earthquake struck. Although Agathias amalgamated other earthquakes (e.g., in Constantinople - 554 CE) into his text and created some chronological confusion and vagueness, one can isolate the effects of the 551 CE Beirut Quake to his description of damage to Beirut, moving of the law school in Beirut to Sidon, an earthquake which struck in the Summer, and, probably, the slight tremor felt in Alexandria. Ambraseys (2009) observed that if the Law School in Beirut was temporarily transferred to Sidon, this would mean that Sidon would have suffered less damage which in turns suggests an epicenter closer to Beirut.
The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain	Syriac	Biography				Provides a time - ~4 pm - the 10th hour. Ex eventu prophecy which reports that the next day, at about the tenth hour, the whole land was shaken by a terrible earthquake, of a kind unknown to past generations, and the towns and villages of the coast collapsed in ruins and that the mountains were uprooted and violently split open, and chasms opened up in the earth in various places. States that the sea receded for many hours, and ships broke up as they violently struck the land. Also states that the region to the north, from Laodicea to Antioch, remained standing, and only a few towers and church walls were damaged, but as St. Symeon had said, no buildings collapsed, and the area to the south from Tyre to Jerusalem was also preserved, just as Symeon had seen in his vision.
Ecclesiastical History by John of Ephesus	Syriac	Biography	Syriac Orthodox Church	ca. 588 CE		Provides an inaccurate year (558-559 CE). Reports that there was a severe earthquake, and Beirut collapsed, as did many coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria. Reports that along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles adding that when the earthquake came from heaven, the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles Then a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth and as the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them.
The Anonymous Itinerarium (erroneously) attributed to Antoninus of Piacenza	Latin	Biography		6th century CE		Describes a journey taken by the author to the region in the 6th century CE - perhaps 5-15 years after the earthquake. This is the closest thing we have to a post earthquake survey. Reports that Tripolis, Byblos, Treiris, and Berytus (Beirut) were destroyed and Sidon was partially ruined.
Romanos Melodos	Greek	Biography	Christian - convert from Judaism	6th century CE ?	Constantinople ?	Contains a vague poetic reference to a "storm of earthquakes" which Grosdidier de Matons (1981) suggests could refer to the 551 CE Beirut Quake as well as an earthquake which struck Constantinople in 554 CE.Gatier (1983), on the other hand interpreted the text as alluding to the Fire in the Sky Quake which struck Akko (Ptolemais) in 502 CE.
Fragmenta Historica Tusculana	Greek	Biography				Provides a date of 6 July and a year - 551 CE. Recounts a great and terrible earthquake happened in all the Eastern region, that is in Arabia, the whole of Palestine, and in the land of Mesopotamia and of Antiochia and many cities of the Phoenician littoral collapsed, viz. Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Biblus (sic.) and Botrys, and other cities; and of the surrounding villages 101 fell, and multitudes of men were crushed in these cities Reports a rockslide in Botrys.
Chronicle of Zuqnin by Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre	Syriac	Biography	Eastern Christian	750-775 CE	Zuqnin Monastery	Provides a month of June and mangles the year by describing the earthquake in three separate entries (553, 557, and 559 CE). In one entry, Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre reports that a severe and powerful earthquake occurred, in addition to the other ones where numerous cities collapsed, as did the cities of Phoenicia — that is Arabia and Palestine, Beirut, Tripolis, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta, Byblos, Antarados, and the rest of their towns, villages and districts fell and were ruined. Reports a rockslide and city collapse in Botrys. In another entry, Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre reports that a powerful earthquake took place, and Beirut as well as many other coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria collapsed. He also reports that when the terrible earthquake suddenly happened, the sea from the city of Beirut and the other cities along the seashore of Phoenicia, fell back, withdrew, retreated and fled away as far as two miles in distance. After this, the immensity of the terrible sea suddenly ran to return to its former depths noting that while this surge was happening a severe earthquake occurred. Also reports that a fire blazed inside the ruins [of Beirut[ for up to two months with such intensity that even the stones burned and turned into lime. The fire was extinguished when it rained for three days and three nights. Emperor Justinian sent funds to assist the victims and rebuild part of the city.
Chronicle of Theophanes	Greek	Biography	Orthodox (Byzantium)	810-814 CE	Vicinity of Constantinople	Provides a date of 9 July and a probable year of 551 CE. Recounts a severe and frightful earthquake throughout Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia where the following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytos, Tripolis, and Byblos. Reports a rockslide in Botrys and that the sea retreated [at an unspecified location] one mile towards the deep and many ships were lost followed by a return of the sea to it's own bed.
Georgius Monachus	Greek	Biography		Last half of 9th c. CE	Constantinople	Amalgamates multiple earthquakes into one describing both an earthquake and tsunami, damage to ships, and shaking in Arabia, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Antioch. Seismic damage reported in Constantinople refers to a seperate earthquake in 554 CE.
Synopsis Historion by Cedrenus	Greek	Biography	Orthodox (Byzantium)	1050s CE	Anatolia	Provides a date of 9 July and a year which works out to 550 CE. Recounts a terrible earthquake struck all over - in Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia such that many towns and villages were destroyed or damaged and many people died. Reports a rockslide in Botrys and that the water also withdrew for a mile out to sea [at an unspecified location] and then by command flowed back.
Chronicle by Michael the Syrian	Syriac	Biography	Syriac Orthodox Church	late 12th century CE	Probably at the Monastery of Mar Bar Sauma near Tegenkar, Turkey	Provides a year of 549 CE (for July). Brief description of earthquake and tsunami - In Phoenicia the cities of Tripoli, Byblos (Pilsos), and Trovas [Tyre ?] sank and all the cities of Galilee. The sea retreated by two mils, and boats became stranded on land. May add a report of seismic damage to Laodicea. The earthquake in Laodicea and the report of the "sinking" of cities on the Phoenecian Coast, etc. is separated by two sentences where the intervening sentences describe unrelated events in Anatolia.
Chronicon by Bar Hebraeus	Syriac	Biography	Syriac Orthodox Church	13th century CE	Jazira ? Persia ?	Provides a year of 549 CE (for July). Brief description of earthquake and tsunami - The sea-coast of Phoenicia was submerged, Tripoli, Beirut, Byblus, and Troas [Tyre] (sic.), and the cities of Galilee. May add a report of seismic damage to Laodicea
Text (with hotlink)	Original Language	Biographical Info	Religion	Date of Composition	Location Composed	Notes

Textual Evidence Summary

Reports of this earthquake show up in Greek and Syriac literature along with one account in Latin. The Greek Tradition provides the more precise and accurate chronology. Three Greek sources (Theophanes, Malalas, and Fragmenta Historica Tusculana) specify the 14th indiction which dates the earthquake to 551 CE. Theophanes specifies a date of 9 July while Fragmenta Historica Tusculana specifies the date as 6 July. The Syriac Source Psuedo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, which presents a mangled chronology regarding the year, stated that the earthquake struck in June (Haziran). The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain states that the earthquake struck at the 10th hour which would specify ~4 pm if canonical hours were used (Symeon was elevated to sainthood) and ~230 pm if hours from sunrise was used (Clear Sky Tonight indicates that the sun rose in Beirut at 4:31 AM on 9 July 551 CE which indicates that the tenth hour of sunlight started around 2:30 PM).

The Syriac Tradition has a confused chronology but adds a number of details about seismic effects. The Latin text is written like a travelogue and provides what can be thought of as a post earthquake damage survey.

A number of the sources mentioned that a tsunami struck the Phoenician coast. John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius were the only sources which specifically mentioned Beirut when discussing the tsunami. Salamon et al. (2024) examined the initial ebbing of the sea described in a majority of the sources along with the estimated 80 cm. of coastal uplift (Tabarja Benches). Their models were able to reproduce both effects and suggested an offshore epicenter with a fault break on the Mount Lebanon Thrust or the Tripoli-Batroun-Jounieh-Damour Faults zone. Their models also suggest a tsunami that was fairly localized and a tsunami that, for the most part, did not inundate coastal areas. Rather their models suggest approximately 30 minutes of sea withdrawal followed by a return to original sea levels and several smaller amplitude oscillations comprised of ebbing and a return to original sea level. John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius were the only sources which described the timing of the tsunami and earthquake. They said that the tsunami hit first. If they got their timing right, this might suggest that the earthquake was preceded by an energetic foreshock.

Damage Reports are summarized below:

Location	Description	Sources	Comments
Phoenician Coast	Tsunami	Theophanes, Malalas, Cedrenus, John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Michael the Syrian, Bar Hebraaeus, Hagiography of Symeon	John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius mentioned a tsunami in Beirut; others are less geographically specific but imply the Phoenician coast was hit.
Phoenician Coast	Initial ebbing of the sea for the Tsunami	Malalas, Hagiography of Symeon, John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Theophanes, Cedrenus, Michael the Syrian	Georgius Monachus wrote that the sea rose and Bar Hebraaeus wrote that the coast of Phoenicia was submerged. Neither mentioned an initial ebbing of the sea.
Berytus (Beirut)	Destructive seismic shaking	Theophanes, Malalas, Agathias, Frag. Hist. Tusc., John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Bar Hebraaeus, Anonymous Itinerarium	Pseudo-Dionysius mentioned that after the earthquake, a fire burned in Beirut for two months and that the city's aqueduct was destroyed. Anonymous Itinerarium inspected Beirut ~10 years after the earthquake (Ambraseys, 2009) and said it was destroyed and the Bishop of Beirut reported that 30,000 died.
Phoenician Coast	Earthquake is recounted after Tsunami suggesting 2 shocks	John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Georgius Monachus	Georgius Monachus wrote that the earthquake lasted 40 days and nights
Tyre, Sidon, Tripolis, and/or Byblos	Destructive seismic shaking	Theophanes, Malalas,Frag. Hist. Tusc., Pseudo-Dionysius, Michael the Syrian, Bar Hebraeus, Anonymous Itinerarium	Anonymous Itinerarium inspected cities ~10 years after the earthquake: Byblos and Tripolis were destroyed, Sidon was partly ruined
Trieris [prob. Enfeh]	Destructive seismic shaking	Anonymous Itinerarium	Anonymous Itinerarium inspected Trieris ~10 years after the earthquake and said it was destroyed.
Botrys	Seismic shaking, landslide	Theophanes, Malalas, Cedrenus, Frag. Hist. Tusc., Pseudo-Dionysius
Sarepta, Entaradus	Destructive seismic shaking	Pseudo-Dionysius
Laodicea	Destructive seismic shaking	Michael the Syrian, Bar Hebraeus	may not be due to the same earthquake
Laodicea to Antioch	Limited Damage	Hagiography of Symeon	"only a few towers and church walls were damaged"
Tyre to Jerusalem	Limited Damage	Hagiography of Symeon	"the area to the south from Tyre to Jerusalem was also preserved"
Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and/or Phoenicia	Seismic shaking	Theophanes, Malalas, (Agathias), Cedrenus, Frag. Hist. Tusc.,John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius
Galilee	Seismic shaking	John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius, Michael the Syrian, Bar Hebraaeus
Samaria	Seismic shaking	John of Ephesus
Alexandria	felt	Agathias
Many towns and villages	destroyed or damaged	Agathias, Cedrenus, Frag. Hist. Tusc., John of Ephesus, Pseudo-Dionysius	Frag. Hist. Tusc. says 101 villages fell which may be a euphemism for a large number

Intensity Estimates

Salamon et al. (2024)

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed
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Historical Study by Darawcheh et. al. (2000)

Darawcheh et. al. (2000) examined historical sources for this earthquake to come up with some seismic parameters. Unaware of the possibility of the Mount Lebanon Thrust Fault (proposed later by Elias et al (2007)) they surmised that left-lateral slip on the Roum fault caused the earthquake. Although this may have turn out to be incorrect, the rest of their study holds up. The abstract is reproduced below:

Analysis of the Byzantine primary and secondary sources for identifying the historical earthquakes in Syria and Lebanon reveals that a large earthquake (Ms = 7.2) occurred in July 9, 551 AD along the Lebanese littoral and was felt over a very large area in the eastern Mediterranean region. It was a shallow-focus earthquake, associated with a regional tsunami along the Lebanese coast, a local landslide near Al-Batron town, and a large fire in Beirut. It caused heavy destruction with great loss of lives to several Lebanese cities, mainly Beirut, with a maximum intensity between IX–X (EMS-92). The proposed epicentre of the event is offshore of Beirut at about 34.00◦N, 35.50◦E, indicating that the earthquake appears to be the result of movement along the strike-slip left-lateral Roum fault in southern Lebanon.

They produced the following Intensity estimates:

Location	Intensity (EMS-92)
Beirut	IX-X
Sidon	VII-VIII
Botryos	IX-X
Byblos	IX-X
Tyre	IX-X
Tripolis	IX-X
Trieris	IX-X
Sarepta	VII-VII ?
Aradus (modern Arwad)	Felt
Antaradus (modern Tartus)	Felt
Antioch	Felt
Alexandria	Felt

They further noted that when the sources described shaking in Arabia, they may have been referring to what is now the western part of the modern state of Jordan. Citing Pantazis (1996), they stated that no archeoseismic evidence had been uncovered in Cyprus correlating to the 551 Beirut Quake suggesting that shaking was less intense there.

Earthquake Catalog of Sbeinati et. al. (2005)

Sbeinati et al (2005) produced the following Intensity estimates for this earthquake:

Location	Intensity
Beirut	IX-X
Sidon	VII-VIII
Sur	IX-X
Byblos	IX-X
Tripolis	IX-X
Aradus (modern Arwad)	III-V
Al-Batron	IX-X
Shaqa	IX-X
Sarfand	VII-VIII?

Earthquake Catalog of Plassard and Kojoj (1981)

Plassard and Kojoj (1981) produced the following Intensity estimates for this earthquake:

Location	Intensity
Beirut	XI
Tripoli	X
Sidon	VIII or IX
Tyre	VIII or IX

Chronographia by Johannes Malalas

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Jeffries et al (1986)

Book 18 Paragraph 112
from Jeffreys et. al. (1986:291)

In the 14th indiction a severe and tremendous earthquake occurred throughout the land of Palestine, in Arabia and in the land of Mesopotamia, Antioch, Phoenice Maritima and Phoenice Libanensis. In this terror the following cities suffered: 'Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblus, Botrys and parts of other cities. Large numbers of people were trapped in them. In the city of Botrys part of the mountain called Lithoprosopon, which is close to the sea, broke off and fell into the sea. The piece of mountain formed a harbour, in which very large ships were able to anchor. The city had not had a harbour in the past. The emperor sent money to all the provinces and restored parts of these cities. At the time of the earthquake the sea retreated for a mile and many ships were destroyed. Then at God's command the sea was restored to its original bed.

Greek with a Latin translation - embedded

See page 485
from archive.org

English from Jeffreys et al (1986) - embedded

See Book 18 Paragraph 112 on Page 291
from Jeffreys et. al. (1986:291)
from calameo.com

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
551 CE	14th indiction	none	14th indiction equates to 1 Sept. 550 to 31 Aug. 551 CE which for the month of July leads to 551 CE Calculated with CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

a severe and tremendous earthquake occurred throughout the land of Palestine, in Arabia and in the land of Mesopotamia, Antioch, Phoenice Maritima and Phoenice Libanensis
the following cities suffered: 'Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblus, Botrys and parts of other cities
Large numbers of people were trapped in them
In the city of Botrys part of the mountain called Lithoprosopon, which is close to the sea, broke off and fell into the sea
The emperor sent money to all the provinces and restored parts of these cities.
tsunami - At the time of the earthquake the sea retreated for a mile and many ships were destroyed
tsunami - Then at God's command the sea was restored to its original bed.

Locations

Palestine
Arabia
Mesopotamia
Antioch
Phoenice Maritima
Phoenice Libanensis
Tyre
Sidon
Berytus
Tripolis
Byblus
Botrys (landslide)

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

The Histories by Agathias of Myrina

Background and Biography

Excerpts

In this part of The Histories, Agathias of Myrina recollects when he was a ~21 year old student in Alexandria (Egypt) and felt weak tremors from the 551 CE Beirut Quake.

English from Frendo (1975)

Volume 2 Book 2
from Frendo (1975:47-48)

In summer time, roughly during the same period [551 A.D.] there was a violent earthquake in Constantinople and in many parts of the Empire, with the result that several cities both on the islands and the mainland were razed to the ground and their inhabitants wiped out. The lovely city of Berytus [Beirut], the jewel of Phoenicia, was completely ruined and its world famous architectural treasures were reduced to a heap of rubble, practically nothing but the bare pavements of the buildings being left.

Many of the local inhabitants were crushed to death under the weight of the wreckage, as were many cultivated young men of distinguished parentage who had come there to study the Law. There was, in fact, a long tradition of legal studies in the city, and the law schools conferred an aura of peculiar privilege and distinction on the place.

At this point, then, the professors of law moved to the neighbouring city of Sidon and the schools were transferred there, until Berytus was rebuilt. The restored city was very different from what it had been in the past, though it was not changed beyond recognition, since it still preserved a few traces of its former self. But this rebuilding of the city and the subsequent return of the schools was not to take place for some time yet.

At that time also some slight tremors were felt in the great metropolis of Alexandria on the Nile, an altogether unusual occurrence for those parts. All the inhabitants and particularly the very old were amazed at this apparently unprecedented phenomenon. Nobody stayed indoors. The populace congregated in the streets, seized with unwarranted panic at the suddenness and novelty of the event.

I myself was in Alexandria at the time completing the prescribed studies [Probably a training in rhetoric, as Mrs. Cameron points out (op. cit. pp. 140—141)] which lead to the law course proper, and I must confess I was quite overcome with fear considering the faintness of the tremors. What really worried me, though, was the fact that people's houses there are not at all strongly-built and quite incapable of standing up to even a small amount of vibration, being frail and flimsy structures consisting of a single thickness of stone.

There was alarm even among the educated section of the community not, I think, at what had actually taken place, but because it seemed reasonable to expect that the same thing would happen again

English from Heidtman (2015)

from Heidtman (2015:23)

In summer time, roughly during the same period, there was a violent earthquake in Constantinople and in many parts of the Empire, with the result that several cities both on the islands and the mainland were razed to the ground and their inhabitants wiped out. The lovely city of Berytus, the jewel of Phoenicia, was completely ruined and its world-famous architectural treasures were reduced to a heap of rubble, practically nothing but the bare pavements of the buildings being left. Many of the local inhabitants were crushed to death under the weight of the wreckage, as were many cultivated young men of distinguished parentage who had come there to study the Law. There was, in fact, a long tradition of legal studies in the city, and the law schools conferred an aura of peculiar privilege and distinction on the place. At this point, then, the professors of law moved to the neighboring city of Sidon and the schools were transferred there, until Berytus was rebuilt. The restored city was very different from what it had been in the past, though it was not changed beyond recognition, since it still preserved a few traces of its former self. But this rebuilding of the city and the subsequent return of the schools was not to take place for some time yet.

(Agathias 2.15.1-4. The Histories)

Greek with a Latin translation - embedded

see p. 95-98 starting with 15. Sub idem fere tempus
from archive.org

Chronology


Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
Summer 551 CE	Summer 551 CE	none	Year provider by translator (Frendo, 1975:47 n. 15)

Seismic Effects

there was a violent earthquake¹
Berytus [Beirut], the jewel of Phoenicia, was completely ruined and its world famous architectural treasures were reduced to a heap of rubble, practically nothing but the bare pavements of the buildings being left.
Many of the local inhabitants were crushed to death under the weight of the wreckage, as were many cultivated young men of distinguished parentage who had come there to study the Law.
the professors of law moved to the neighbouring city of Sidon and the schools were transferred there, until Berytus was rebuilt²
The restored city was very different from what it had been in the past
some slight tremors were felt in the great metropolis of Alexandria on the Nile, an altogether unusual occurrence for those parts

Footnotes

1 Agathias amalgamated another earthquake (e.g., in Constantinople - 554 CE) into his text. This should be ignored. In order to avoid confusion, some parts of Agathias' text that refer to other amalgamated earthquakes were not included in the excerpt

2 Ambraseys (2009) observed that if the Law School in Beirut was temporarily transferred to Sidon, this would mean that Sidon would have suffered less damage which in turns suggests an epicenter closer to Beirut.

Locations

Beirut²
Alexandria (slight tremors)

Footnotes

2 Ambraseys (2009) observed that if the Law School in Beirut was temporarily transferred to Sidon, this would mean that Sidon would have suffered less damage which in turns suggests an epicenter closer to Beirut.

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain

Background and Biography

Excerpts

In this excerpt, Saint Symeon's vision of an earthquake is discussed.

English from Guidoboni et al (1994)

from Guidoboni et al (1994) citing Van der Ven (1962)

The next day, at about the tenth hour, the whole land was shaken by a terrible earthquake, of a kind unknown to past generations, and the towns and villages of the coast collapsed in ruins, in accordance with the vision of Symeon, and the mountains were uprooted and violently split open, and chasms opened up in the earth in various places. The sea receded for many hours, and ships broke up as they violently struck the land. However, the region to the north, from Laodicea to Antioch, remained standing, and only a few towers and church walls were damaged, but as St. Symeon had said, no buildings collapsed, and the area to the south from Tyre to Jerusalem was also preserved, just as Symeon had seen in his vision.

Chronology

Month and Year not provided but the time of day is specified - ~4 pm - the 10th hour. This is compatible with other accounts which describe a daytime earthquake.

Seismic Effects

the whole land was shaken by a terrible earthquake,
the towns and villages of the coast collapsed in ruins
the mountains were uprooted and violently split open
chasms opened up in the earth in various places
The sea receded for many hours, and ships broke up as they violently struck the land
the region to the north, from Laodicea to Antioch, remained standing, and only a few towers and church walls were damaged, but as St. Symeon had said, no buildings collapse
the area to the south from Tyre to Jerusalem was also preserved

Locations

towns and villages of the coast

Locations less affected

to the north, from Laodicea to Antioch
south from Tyre to Jerusalem

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Notes

Ex eventu Prophecies

Ecclesiastical History by John of Ephesus

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Guidoboni et al (1994)

from Guidoboni et al (1994)

In the year 870 [of the Greeks; i.e. 558-559 AD.], there was a severe earthquake, and Beirut collapsed, as did many coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria. Along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles. As for the terrible disaster and the great and remarkable portent which happened in the city of Beirut in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and the cities collapsed, we have decided to make it a warning sign for the knowing of posterity. For when the earthquake came from heaven, the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles; the dreadful depths of the sea became visible and various and amazing sights were revealed: sunken ships full of different cargoes and other ones which suddenly, when the sea withdrew from the land, were moored in the harbours, settled on the ground and they were broken to pieces when the sea left them and withdrew on God's command [.. ]

Then, by a secret command, a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth, overwhelmed and consumed all these wretched people in the depths of its swirling waters. They had rushed to find wealth in the depths of the sea and, like Pharaoh, they went down to the depths and were drowned like stones, as it is written; and God rolled the waters of the sea over them, as the flood burst forth and flowed back to its former abundance. Those who were still on the edge of the shore were hurrying to go down; when they saw the deep sea rushing back to its former position, those who were closest to the land fled out. But after they had escaped, as if from hunters, a violent earthquake took place, which overturned houses in the cities, especially at Beirut; they fell and crushed those who had escaped from the sea and so nobody survived. As the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them.

English from Heidtman (2015)

from Heidtman (2015:23)

In the year 870 [551CE], there was a severe earthquake, and Beirut collapsed, as did many coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria. Along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles. As for the terrible disaster and the great and remarkable portent which happened in the city of Beirut in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and the cities collapsed, we have decided to make it a warning sign for the knowing of posterity. For when the earthquake came from heaven, the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles; the dreadful depths of the sea became visible and various and amazing sights were revealed: sunken ships full of different cargoes, and other things too when the waters had retreated from the land. Some ships which were moored in the harbors settled on the sea-bottom since at God’s command they had been left high and dry as the water flowed away… then a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth, overwhelmed and consumed all these wretched people in the depths of its swirling waters. They had rushed to find wealth in the depths of the sea and, like Pharaoh, they went down to the depths and were drowned like stones, as it is written; and God rolled the waters of the sea over them, as the flood burst forth and flowed back to its former abundance. Those who were still on the edge of the shore were hurrying to go down; when they saw the deep sea rushing back to its former position, those who were closest to the land fled out. But after they had escaped, as if from hunters, a violent earthquake took place, which overturned houses in the cities, especially Beirut; they fell and crushed those who had escaped the sea and nobody survived. As the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them…When this report was received the emperor Justinian sent gold through several noblemen, who removed and carried out innumerable human bodies and restored the city to some extent.

[John of Ephesus, Ecclesiastical History. 2.326-7]87 ⁸⁷

Footnotes

87 The citation for this passage is problematic. It is a lengthy footnote in the text of Malalas by Jeffreys, Jeffreys& Scott (1986, 291-2). See Hall (2004, 82, fn. 108) for further explanation on the origin of this particular source. Pauses in this passage were put in for brevity and are my own.

Chronology

John of Ephesus recounts a seismic shock striking after the tsunami.

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
1 Oct. 558 to 30 Sept. 559 CE	A.G. 870	none	A.G. 870 spans from 1 Oct. 558 to 30 Sept. 559 CE calculated using CHRONOS Ambraseys (2009) noted that some of the Syriac writers gave years ranging from 553-559 CE which can be shown to be wrong (Stein, 1950 - vol. ii. 757, 828) with some of the authors duplicating the event or amalgamating it with other earthquakes in the region (Brown 1969, 126-139).

Seismic Effects

there was a severe earthquake
Beirut collapsed, as did many coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria
tsunami - Along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles
happened in the city of Beirut in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and the cities collapsed
tsunami - the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles
The dreadful depths of the sea became visible and various and amazing sights were revealed: sunken ships full of different cargoes and other ones which suddenly, when the sea withdrew from the land, were moored in the harbours, settled on the ground and they were broken to pieces when the sea left them and withdrew on God's command
a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth
after they had escaped [the tsunami surge], as if from hunters, a violent earthquake took place, which overturned houses in the cities, especially at Beirut
fell and crushed those who had escaped from the sea
so nobody survived
As the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them.

Locations

Beirut
coastal cities and villages
Galilee
Arabia
Palestine
Samaria
Along the whole Phoenician coast (tsunami)

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

The Anonymous Itinerarium (erroneously) attributed to Antoninus of Piacenza

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Stewart (1885)

from Stewart (1885:1-3)

Thence we came into the parts of Syria, to the island of Antaradus¹ and thence we came to Tripolis² in Syria, where St. Leontius rests, which city, together with some others, was destroyed by an earthquake in the time of the Emperor Justinian³. Thence we came to Byblus⁴, which city also was destroyed with its inhabitants ; and likewise to the city of Trieris⁵, which also was similarly destroyed. Next we came to the most magnificent city of Berytus⁶, in which there was recently a school of literature, and which also was destroyed. We were told by the bishop of the city, who knew the sufferers personally, that, without counting strangers, thirty thousand persons⁷, in round numbers, here miserably perished. The city itself lies at the foot of Lebanon. ... From Berytus we came to Sidon, [now Saida] which itself was partly ruined, and which is near to the slope of Lebanon. The people in it are very wicked.

Footnotes

[1] The island of Ruad, off the coast of Syria ; Antoninus has either confused Aradus, the island, with Antaradus, the town on the mainland, or the latter now Tartus, had so increased in importance, at the time of his visit, as to give its name to the earlier settlement on the island. Antoninus probably disembarked at Antaradus, and continued his journey by land.

[2] Tarabulus, on the Syrian coast.

[3] There were two great earthquakes on the Syrian coast : that of May 20, 526, which destroyed Antioch, and that of July 9, 551, which destroyed Berytus (Beirut). Tripolis appears to have been overthrown by the latter.

[4] Jebeil, on the Syrian coast ; the Gebal of Ezek. xxvii. 9. The land of the Giblites was assigned to the Israelites (Josh. xiii. 5).

[5] Trieris is misplaced here ; it should have followed Tripolis. According to Strabo, xvi. 2, § 15, Trieris lay between Tripolis and Theoprosopon (Ras Shakka); and it is apparently the same as the Tridis of the 'Itin. Hierosol.', twelve Roman miles from Tripolis ; it is now probably Enfeh.

[6] Beirut. At the time of its destruction by the earthquake of 551 A.D., Berytus was celebrated for its splendour and for its university, in which 'the rising spirits of the age' studied the civil law. After the catastrophe the school was removed for a time to Sidon.

[7] In the Antioch earthquake 250,000 persons are said to have perished.

English from Heidtman (2015)

from Heidtman (2015:23)

We came to the island of Antharidus¹ near Syria and then to Tripolis² in Syria, where St. Leontius is buried. This and other cities were reduced to ruins by an earthquake in the time of the emperor Justinian³. Then we came to Byblus⁴, which was also destroyed with its inhabitants, and so to the city of Trieris⁵, which was also reduced to ruins in the same way…. Then we came to the magnificent city of Berytus⁶, where there was recently a center for literary study. That city was also destroyed. The bishop of the city told us that, without counting foreigners who were staying there briefly, thirty thousand known people⁷ had been killed. The city itself lies at the foot of the mountain of Lebanon. From Berytus we came to Sidon, which is low lying on one side and clings to the Lebanon mountain…. From Sidon we came to Sarepta, a city of moderate size which is strongly Christian…. Departing from Sarepta we came into the city at Tyre…And from there we came to Ptolemais. The city is honorable; the monastery is good.

(Antonini Placentini Itinerarium 1-2.)

Footnotes

Footnotes come from Stewart (1885:1-3):

[1] The island of Ruad, off the coast of Syria ; Antoninus has either confused Aradus, the island, with Antaradus, the town on the mainland, or the latter now Tartus, had so increased in importance, at the time of his visit, as to give its name to the earlier settlement on the island. Antoninus probably disembarked at Antaradus, and continued his journey by land.

[2] Tarabulus, on the Syrian coast.

[3] There were two great earthquakes on the Syrian coast : that of May 20, 526, which destroyed Antioch, and that of July 9, 551, which destroyed Berytus (Beirut). Tripolis appears to have been overthrown by the latter.

[4] Jebeil, on the Syrian coast ; the Gebal of Ezek. xxvii. 9. The land of the Giblites was assigned to the Israelites (Josh. xiii. 5).

[5] Trieris is misplaced here ; it should have followed Tripolis. According to Strabo, xvi. 2, § 15, Trieris lay between Tripolis and Theoprosopon (Ras Shakka); and it is apparently the same as the Tridis of the 'Itin. Hierosol.', twelve Roman miles from Tripolis ; it is now probably Enfeh.

[6] Beirut. At the time of its destruction by the earthquake of 551 A.D., Berytus was celebrated for its splendour and for its university, in which 'the rising spirits of the age' studied the civil law. After the catastrophe the school was removed for a time to Sidon.

[7] In the Antioch earthquake 250,000 persons are said to have perished.

English from Stewart (1885)- embedded

see bottom of page 1 starting with Thence we came into the parts of Syria
from Stewart (1885:1-3)
from archive.org

Locations

This is the closest thing we have to a post earthquake survey. A summary of observations is listed below:

Location	Reported Damage
Tripolis	destroyed
Byblos	destroyed
Treiris	destroyed
Berytus (Beirut)	destroyed
Sidon	partially ruined

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Notes

Observations by Ambraseys (2009)

Ambraseys (2009) supplied the following discussion about this source:

The only original Latin source for this event is an itinerary attributed to Antoninus of Placentia (Piacenza), dating from the sixth century AD. The writer must have visited the area after AD 565, since he refers to an earthquake 'in the time of Justinian' He must have, therefore, visited not long after this, for he was told of it by the Bishop of Berytus, who was probably an eye-witness, and he also records that Sidon is described as ruined in part. In addition to noting that Tripoli and Byblus collapsed, and that at least 30,000 people died in Beirut, he mentions that a place called Trianis collapsed in the earthquake. The location of this town is not certain, but it seems to have been somewhere between Botrys and Tripoli; al-Heri in the bay of Shekka has been suggested, as has Enfe, on the coast 20 km southwest of Tripoli, or Shamarra (Stein 1950, ii, 757 n. 5).

Hymn 51 by Romanos Melodos

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Grosdidier de Matons (1981)

Hymn 51 (LI) in Volume 5
from Grosdidier de Matons (1981:310-311)

Hymn : Of the Ten Virgins
Date : Holy Tuesday

...

9

The night before the night, and before the shadows darkness has suddenly seized all men, and now we are as of old the Egyptians imprisoned in the cloud of plagues, storm of earthquakes, darkness of wars^l. And wrath will not be satisfied with this: the Red Sea awaits all men², Gehenna there, not temporarily, but for eternity. For Jesus our Savior was greatly irritated that they had not believed in him when he was working miracles. So he in return visited with scourges the iniquities of the unbelievers, so that at least at this price we are convinced and proclaim: "Open"

Footnotes

1. The words [Greek Text] correspond to the three terms that, in the Septuagint, describe the ninth plague of Egypt: [Greek Text] (Ers. 10, 22). The Hebrew text ignores this storm.

2. Ino Mikhaïlidou understands [Greek Text] as a future tense: "the Red Sea will receive us all". But [Greek Text] still has the sense of "waiting" in Romanos.

French from Grosdidier de Matons (1981)

Hymn 51 (LI) in Volume 5
from Grosdidier de Matons (1981:310-311)

HYMNE des Dix vierges (l^er hymne)
DATE : Mardi Saint

...

9

La nuit avant la nuit, et avant les ombres l'obscurité ont saisi brusquement tous les hommes, et maintenant nous sommes comme jadis les Égyptiens emprisonnés dans la nuée des plaies, la tempête des tremblements de terre, les ténèbres des guerres^l. Et de cela la colère ne sera pas satisfaite : la mer Rouge attend tous les hommes², la géhenne de là-bas, non point temporairement, mais pour l'éternité. Car Jésus notre sauveur fut grandement irrité de ce qu'on n'avait pas cru en lui alors qu'il faisait des miracles. Aussi a-t-il en retour visité avec des fouets les iniquités des incroyants, pour qu'au moins à ce prix nous soyons convaincus et clamions : « Ouvre »

Footnotes (note de bas de page)

1. Les mots [Greek Text] correspondent aux trois termes qui décrivent dans la Septante la neuvième plaie d'Égypte : [Greek Text] (Ers. 10, 22). Le texte hébreu ignore cette s tempête.

2. Ino Mikhaïlidou comprend [Greek Text] comme un futur : "la mer Rouge nous recevra tous". Mais [Greek Text] a toujours le sens de "attendre" chez Romanos.

Chronology

Grosdidier de Matons (1981) noted that the vague reference to a storm of earthquakes could refer to the 551 CE Beirut Quake as well as an earthquake which struck Constantinople in 554 CE. Gatier (1983), on the other hand, interpreted Romanos' text as alluding to the Fire in the Sky Quake which struck Akko (Ptolemais) in 502 CE.

Seismic Effects

storm of earthquakes

Locations

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Fragmenta Historica Tusculana

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Ambraseys (2009)

from Ambraseys (2009)

And in that year of the reign of our most august ruler, in the month of July, on the 6th day, in the 14th indiction, a great and terrible earthquake happened in all the Eastern region, that is in Arabia, the whole of Palestine, and in the land of Mesopotamia and of Antiochia. And many cities of the Phoenician littoral collapsed, viz. Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Biblus (sic.) and Botrys, and other cities; and of the surrounding villages 101 fell, and multitudes of men were crushed in these cities. And in the city of Botrys a part of the adjacent mountain called the Face of Stone split away, and fell into the sea, creating a harbour, so that [the greatest ships] could be moored within it. (FHT 4/1821-1824).

Machine Translation from Greek to English - from Migne (1864)

from Migne (1864 v. 85)
There may be errors in this transcription
footnotes not copied
machine translated using Google
light editing by JW

And it came to pass in the reign of our most reverend despot, in the month of July, on the sixth day, and on the 14th indiction, there was a great and terrible earthquake in all the land of Palestine, and in the land of Mesopotamia and Antioch; and many cities fell in the land of Phoenicia on the coast, that is, Tyre, and Sidon, and Beirut, and Tripolis, and Byblos, and Botryus⁵, and other cities, and the phantasms of those around their places fell, and multitudes of people and from whom they were captured in these cities; next to the sea mountain of the stone face (56) measure what of him, and entered the sea, and became a port, as they rushed from within him Glimenos might ships of all sizes

(Migne (1864), Patrologia Graeca, v. 85, pp. 1821-1824)

Latin Translation from Migne (1864)

from Migne (1864 v. 85)
There may be errors in this transcription
footnotes not copied

Eodem anno, regnante religiosissimo domino nostro, mensis Julii die sexta, indictione quarta decima, horrendus accidit terræ motus in universa Orientis regione, in Arabia, inquam, totaque Palaestina, in Mesopotamiae provincia et territorio [... Greek Text ...] Antiocheno. Corruerunt autem in Phoenice maritima urbes multa, id est Tyrus, Sidon, Berylus, Tripolis, Biblus, Botrus, aliaque civitates; atque ut præcise dicam, centum atque unum ex circumstantibus oppidis ceciderunt, magnaque hominum et jumentorum multitudo cum ipsis urbibus periit. In urbe autem Botro pars quædam montis mari adjacentis, qui dicitur Lithoprosopon, avulsa decidit in mare, portumque illic elecit, intra quem navigia maxima recipi poterant.

(Migne (1864), Patrologia Graeca, v. 85, pp. 1821-1824)

Greek from Migne (1864)

from Migne (1864 v. 85)
There may be errors in this transcription
footnotes not copied

Καὶ τῷ αὐτῷ ἔτει ἐπὶ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ αὐτοῦ εὐσεβεστάτου ἡμῶν δεσπότου, μηνὶ Ἰουλίῳ, ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἕκτῃ, Ινδικτιῶνι τεσσαρεσκαιδεκάτῃ δὲ ἐγένετο σεισμός μέγας καὶ φοβερὸς ἐν πάσῃ τῇ χώρᾳ τῆς Παλαιστίνῃ, καὶ ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ τῆς Μεσοποταμίας καὶ Αντιοχείας· καὶ ἔπεσαν ἐν τῇ τε χώρᾳ τῆς Φοινίκης τῆς παράλου πόλεις πολλαί, τουτέστιν Τύρος, καὶ Σιδών, καὶ Βηρυτος, καὶ Τρίπολις, καὶ Βίβλος, καὶ Βότρυς 5, καὶ ἄλλαι πόλεις, καὶ φάναι ρα' τῶν περι χώρων αὐτῶν ἔπεσαν, καὶ πλήθη ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἀπό γων συνελήφθησαν ἐν ταῖς αὐταῖς πόλεσιν· ἐν τῇ δὲ Βότρυος πόλει ἀπέσπασεν ἀπὸ τοῦ παρακειμένου τῇ θαλάσσῃ ὅρους τοῦ ἐπίκλην Λιθοπροσώπου (56) μέτ ρος τι ἀπ' αὐτοῦ, καὶ εἰσῆλθεν εἰς τὴν θάλασσαν, καὶ ἀπετέλεσεν λιμένα, ὡς ὁρμεῖν ἔσωθεν τοῦ αὐτοῦ Γλιμένος δύνασθαι πλοῖα παμμεγέθη.]

(Migne (1864), Patrologia Graeca, v. 85, pp. 1821-1824)

Greek and Latin from Migne (1864)- embedded

see 2/3 of the way down on left page in section C which starts in Latin with Eodem anno, regnante religiosissimo domino nostro, mensis Julii die sexta, indictione quarta and in Greek with Καὶ τῷ αὐτῷ ἔτει ἐπὶ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ αὐτοῦ
from Migne (1864 v. 85 pp. 1821-1824)
from archive.org

Chronology

Fragmenta Historica Tusculana provides a date of 6 July which differs from the 9 July provided by other authors. For a July earthquake, the 14th indiction places the earthquake in 551 CE,

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
6 July 551 CE	in the month of July, on the 6th day, in the 14th indiction	none	14th indiction equates to 1 Sept. 550 to 31 Aug. 551 CE which for the month of July leads to 551 CE Calculated with CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

a great and terrible earthquake happened in all the Eastern region, that is in Arabia, the whole of Palestine, and in the land of Mesopotamia and of Antiochia
many cities of the Phoenician littoral collapsed, viz. Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Biblus (sic.) and Botrys, and other cities;
of the surrounding villages 101 fell, and multitudes of men were crushed in these cities
in the city of Botrys a part of the adjacent mountain called the Face of Stone split away, and fell into the sea

Locations

Arabia
the whole of Palestine
Mesopotamia
Antiochia
Tyre
Sidon
Berytus
Tripolis
Biblus (sic.)
Botrys
other cities
of the surrounding villages 101 fell

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Chronicle of Zuqnin by Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Harrak (1999)

Parts 3 and 4
from Harrak (1999:125-131)

The year 864 [552-553]:

Extensive and severe earthquakes took place in which many |cities and villages| in the land of Syria collapsed¹

In the month of Haziran (June) of this year, a severe and powerful earthquake occurred, in addition to the other ones. Numerous cities collapsed, as did the cities of Phoenicia — that is Arabia and Palestine, Beirut, Tripolis, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta, Byblos, Antarados, and the rest of their towns, villages and districts fell and were ruined. Because of sins, many people were buried in their houses in the wrath, as were the cattle and other things.

...

The year 868 [556-557]:²

A powerful earthquake took place in which the city of Botrys³ collapsed.⁴ And the great mountain that was called the "Stone Face"⁵ broke off and fell in the sea. So when Botrys of Phoenicia, which is on the seashore, collapsed in the powerful earthquake, the great mountain close to it, called the "Stone Face," suddenly shook and was rent from the violence of the quake. A big portion detached from it and fell in the sea, and the earthquake sent it out further to sea. It came down and obstructed much of the front of the city, with the sea moving inside it. It had one passage on one side that became a great and admirable harbour; /p.133/ neither centenaria of gold nor the diligence of kings could build one like it. It became such a great and spacious harbour that accommodated inside it great ships, that everyone was marvelling and admiring God's providence, for even in his wrath graces are mixed. As for Justinian the Emperor, he sent ample gold to all the cities that had collapsed in the earthquake. And little by little they were rebuilt and their walls were repaired, while the evil will of those who survived neither changed nor weakened substantially.

...

The year 870 [558-559]:⁶

A powerful earthquake took place, and Beirut as well as many other coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria collapsed. Also the sea retreated and drew back for about two miles, all along Phoenicia.

We wanted to put into writing, for the instruction of future generations, an account of the terrible disaster and the great and wondrous sign that occurred in Beirut, a city in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and cities collapsed. /p.134/ For when the terrible earthquake suddenly happened, the sea from the city of Beirut and the other cities along the seashore of Phoenicia, fell back, withdrew, retreated and fled away as far as two miles in distance, at God's command. Thus the awesome depths of the sea became visible, and many great and amazing objects were seen. Ships loaded with various cargoes sunk. Others, moored in the harbours, due to the sudden withdrawal of the sea from the land, went down and settled on the bottom, after they had collided and broken up, when the sea left them and pulled back at the command of its Lord.

Since this terrible disaster was meant to shock people, in order that it might lead them to grief and repentance, they should have despised not only material things but especially their own lives, in view of this horrible spectacle of wrath, that they witnessed. But they behaved like Pharaoh; their hearts were hardened like Pharaoh's, not by God, as it is written,⁷ but here by Satan. The inhabitants of coastal cities and villages, with determined insolence and hardness of heart, rushed into the great sea in order to pillage impressive, hidden treasures that were at the bottom of the sea, because of the beguiling avarice that was destroying their lives. As thousands of people, with fatal passion, rushed to the bottom of the sea and began to carry off treasures, hurrying to bring them up, others, when they saw those carrying the wealth of their perdition, rushed with great eagerness so as not to be deprived of the hidden treasures that had suddenly come to light because of the earthquake.

While some were rushing down to the bottom, /p.135/ and while others were busy above, and still others were doing their best in between, and while all of them without distinction were walking along proudly, then, at an invisible sign, the immensity of the terrible sea suddenly ran to return to its former depths, engulfing and burying in the abyss of its immense depths all those wretched ones, who pursued wealth from the great deep. Like Pharaoh, they went down to the bottom and sank like stones, as it is written.⁸ The Lord brought the waters of the sea back over them, when the stream resumed its way and returned to its former depth. When those who were still on the outer shore began a hasty descent, those close to the dry land retreated, upon seeing the immense height of the sea rushing back to its former bed. While they were trying to escape, as it were from hunters, a severe earthquake occurred, which shook the buildings of the cities, especially those of Beirut. They collapsed and crushed those who fled from the sea while not one of them survived. For when the sea rose up against them from behind, the earthquake shook the city before them. Because of their evil avarice, they were caught in the middle of two horrors, for the priestly word is also fulfilled upon them: Though they were saved from the sea, justice did not allow them to live.⁹

Thus those who went down after wealth were reduced to complete destruction. They destroyed the breath of their lives and their corpses were found floating on the surface of the water like litter. Then when the city collapsed, fire at God's command kindled its ruins and burned /p.136/ and blazed inside the ruins for up to two months, until even the stones burned*t and turned into lime. Afterwards, God sent down rain from the sky for three days and three nights and extinguished the fire that blazed in the city of Beirut. And those who had escaped from drowning in the sea and from the downfall of the city, were cast away in the city, while injured, troubled and tormented by thirst because its aqueduct was destroyed. When the merciful Emperor Justinian heard about (this), he sent gold and some of his well-known people, and they uncovered and exhumed countless human corpses; they also rebuilt part of the city.

Footnotes (re-numbered from Harrak)

1 Michael IV 320 [II 262]: Earthquake dated to the 28th year of Justinian (554-555). It seems that this earthquake and the one of the year 564-565 (see below) are doublets. It is quite possible that these doublets are part of the same earthquake described in the years 556-557 and 558-559 (see below).

2 Michael IV 310-311 [II 246-247]. Malalas 485 [291]: (550-551). Theophanes 227-228: 14th indiction, 9 July A.M. 6043 (551). This earthquake is a doublet of the one described in a previous account (see the year 558-559 below, and Stein, Bas-Empire II, 757 and n. 5, 828). The earthquake of 558-559 seems to be the same as the ones of the year 552-553 (see this date above) and 564-565 (see below).

3 | |: Sic. A | | was added later to conform it with | | found elsewhere. Bar Hebraeus mentioned | | and other cities in Phoenicia that fell in the earthquake, thus confusing Botrys with Troas, the city in Northwest Anatolia; Chr., 81 [76]. Botrys is modern Batrun, between Tripolis and Jubayl in northern Lebanon.

4 A very inaccurate translation of this account is found in the monograph by J. P. Brown, The Lebanon and Phoenicia, I, Beirut, 1969, 132-35; see Brock's review of this monograph in JSS 16 (1971) pp. 111-13.

5 | |: Syriac translation of | | in Malalas and Theophanes;

6 Land, Anecdota II, 326:15-328:18. Michael IV 311 [II 247]: 31st year of Justinian (557-558). This earthquake and the one dated to 556-557 (see above) are doublets; see Stein, Bas-Empire II, 757 and n. 6, 828. This earthquake seems to be also the same as the ones described in the year 552-553 (see above) and the year 564-565 (see below).

7 Cf Exodus 10:20 etc.

8 Exodus 15:5.

9 Acts 28:4.

Syriac - embedded

not bookmarked
manuscript copy made for Chabot at the end of the 19th century CE
from archive.org

Chronology

Pseudo Dionysius of Tell-Mahre managed to outdo John of Ephesus in mangling the chronology by repeating the same earthquake three times with three different years; all of which are apparently incorrect. Like John of Ephesus, he recounts a seismic shock striking after the tsunami.

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
June 553 CE	Haziran (June) A.G. 864	none	A.G. 864 runs from 1 Oct. 552 to 30 Sept. 553 CE (Calculated with CHRONOS) Haziran is June which dates the earthquake to 553 CE
1 Oct. 556 to 30 Sept. 557 CE	A.G. 868	none	Calculated with CHRONOS
1 Oct. 558 to 30 Sept. 559 CE	A.G. 870	none	Calculated with CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

a severe and powerful earthquake occurred, in addition to the other ones
Numerous cities collapsed, as did the cities of Phoenicia — that is Arabia and Palestine, Beirut, Tripolis, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta, Byblos, Antarados, and the rest of their towns, villages and districts fell and were ruined
many people were buried in their houses
the cattle and other things [were buried]
A powerful earthquake took place in which the city of Botrys collapsed - the great mountain that was called the "Stone Face" broke off and fell in the sea
when Botrys of Phoenicia, which is on the seashore, collapsed in the powerful earthquake, the great mountain close to it, called the "Stone Face," suddenly shook and was rent from the violence of the quake
A big portion detached from it and fell in the sea, and the earthquake sent it out further to sea. It came down and obstructed much of the front of the city, with the sea moving inside it
It had one passage on one side that became a great and admirable harbour
Justinian the Emperor [] sent ample gold to all the cities that had collapsed in the earthquake
little by little they were rebuilt and their walls were repaired
A powerful earthquake took place, and Beirut as well as many other coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria collapsed
the sea retreated and drew back for about two miles, all along Phoenicia.
Beirut, a city in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and cities collapsed
when the terrible earthquake suddenly happened, the sea from the city of Beirut and the other cities along the seashore of Phoenicia, fell back, withdrew, retreated and fled away as far as two miles in distance
the awesome depths of the sea became visible, and many great and amazing objects were seen
Ships loaded with various cargoes sunk
Others, moored in the harbours, due to the sudden withdrawal of the sea from the land, went down and settled on the bottom, after they had collided and broken up, when the sea left them and pulled back at the command of its Lord
the immensity of the terrible sea suddenly ran to return to its former depths
While they were trying to escape [the tsunami], as it were from hunters, a severe earthquake occurred, which shook the buildings of the cities, especially those of Beirut
collapsed and crushed those who fled from the sea while not one of them survive
when the sea rose up against them from behind, the earthquake shook the city before them
their corpses were found floating on the surface of the water like litter
when the city collapsed, fire at God's command kindled its ruins and burned and blazed inside the ruins for up to two months
even the stones burned and turned into lime (a reaction which requires a very high temperature - ~900-1000 °C)
Afterwards, God sent down rain from the sky for three days and three nights and extinguished the fire that blazed in the city of Beirut
its [Beirut's] aqueduct was destroyed
[Emperor Justinian] sent gold and some of his well-known people, and they uncovered and exhumed countless human corpses; they also rebuilt part of the city

Locations

Arabia
Palestine
cities of Phoenicia
all along Phoenicia (tsunami)
Beirut
Tripolis
Tyre
Sidon
Sarepta
Byblos
Antarados
Botrys of Phoenicia
the rest of their towns, villages and districts

Background Information

Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre vs. Dionysius of Tell-Mahre

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Chronicle of Theophanes

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Mango and Scott (1997)

from Mango and Scott (1997:331-332)

[AM 6043, AD 550/551]

Justinian, 24th year
Chosroes, 26th year
Vigilius, 13th year
Menas, 14th year
Peter, 6th year
Apolinarios, 2nd year
Domnus, 6th year

In April [1] of this year, of the 14th indiction, Narses, the cubicularius, was sent to Rome with instructions to make war on the Goths who had regained Rome. For after Belisarius had won the city, the Goths had risen up and recaptured it. [2] On 9 July [3] there was a severe and frightful earthquake throughout Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia. The following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytos, Tripolis, and Byblos, and a great many people perished therein. In the city of Botrys, a large piece of the mountain called Lithoprosopon, which lies close to the sea, was broken off and thrown into the sea, so forming a harbour big enough for many large ships to moor there,- for previously that city had not had a harbour. The emperor sent money for restoring what had fallen in these cities. The sea retreated one mile towards the deep and many ships were lost. Later, at God's command, it returned to its own bed.

Footnotes

[a] Mai. 484. 22-485. 3, frag. Tusc. iv. 26.

[b] Mai. 485. 8-23; cf. Mich. Syr. ii.244, 246-7; Chi. 724, 100. 4-5.

[1] Mai. frag. Tusc. iv. 26 gives the date as April of the 13th indiction, and Mai.'s indiction dates (esp. those from the Tusculan frags.) should normally be preferred. In that case Narses went to Italy in 550 and not 551 (as Bury, Stein, and PLRE maintain, all ultimately dependent on O. Korbs, Untersuchungen zur ostgotischen Geschichte, vol. i (Jena, 1913), 81, 84-6) and the chronology of Narses' campaign in Italy needs revision. Prok.'s detailed narrative, however, linking Narses' movements with the death of Germanus, provides strong support for 551. Assuming Theoph.'s source here did read indiction 13 (rightly or wrongly), he will have changed the indiction number because he had already reached June of the 13th indiction (the dedication of the Holy Apostles) and so puts a following April into the next year. Cf. AM 6040 for the same technique.

[2] This is confused. Belisarius had originally captured Rome in Dec. 536. The Goths recaptured it in Dec. 546 but lost it again to Belisarius early in 547. Totila had recaptured Rome in Jan. 550.

[3] Frag. Tusc. iv. 27-8 gives the date as 6 July of the 14th indiction. Agathias records an earthquake in Alexandria too for 551.

Chronology

Theophanes provided a date (9 July) which is incorporated into the Chronology Table below. In typical fashion, Theophanes' regnal years are chronologically inconsistent. Despite the large spread in possible years, 550 and 551 CE receive the most support and agree with the A.M._a and Indiction which, for Theophanes, are usually the most chronologically accurate time markers.

Chronology Table

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
9 July 550 or 551 CE	On 9 July A.M._a 6043	none	A.M._a 6043 corresponds to 25 Mar. 550 to 24 Mar. 551 CE using Grumel's MA synchronism. For the month of July this puts the year in 550 CE. If, however, Theophanes used the MB synchronism, as may be suggested by the indiction, A.M._a 6043 corresponds to 1 Sept. 550 to 31 Aug. 551 CE. For the month of July this would put the year in 551 CE. Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 551 CE	14th indiction	none	14th indiction equates to 1 Sept. 550 to 31 Aug. 551 CE which for the month of July leads to 551 CE Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 550 CE	Justinian, 24th year	none	Justinian's reign began on 1 April 527 CE which places his 24th year to between 1 Apr. 550 and 30 Mar. 551 CE. For the month of July, this equates to 550 CE Calculated with CHRONOS Russell (1985), for reasons unstated and unknown, calculated that the 24th year of Justinian's reign spanned from Aug. 550 - July 551 Ambraseys (2009) noted that the 24th year of Justinian's reign is one year too low (ie 550 CE).
9 July 557 CE	Chosroes, 26th year	none	Reign began on 13 September 531 CE. 26th year would span from 13 Sept. 556 to 12 Sept. 557 CE and lands on 557 CE in July Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 549 CE	Vigilius, 13th year	none	Papacy began 29 March 537. 13th year would span from 29 Mar. 549 to 28 Mar. 550 CE and lands on 549 CE in July Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 549/550 CE	Menas, 14th year	none	Patriarch of Constantinople starting in 536 CE. 14th year could span from 1 Jan. 549 to 30 Dec. 530 CE which makes 549 and 550 CE both possible Calculated with CHRONOS
severe outlier - useless date	Peter, 6th year	none	Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem 524-552 CE but died in 544 CE (?). 6th year of a reign starting in 524 CE could span from 1 Jan. 529 to 30 Dec. 530 CE which makes no sense Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 552/553 CE	Apolinarios, 2nd year	none	Greek Patriarch of Alexandria ruled from 551-569 CE. 2nd year could span from 1 Jan. 552 to 30 Dec. 553 CE which makes 552 and 553 CE both possible Calculated with CHRONOS
9 July 551/552 CE	Domnus, 6th year	none	Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch ruled from 546-561 CE. 6th year could span from 1 Jan. 551 to 30 Dec. 552 CE which makes 551 and 552 CE both possible Calculated with CHRONOS
550/551 CE	Narses sent to Rome	none	See Footnote 1 from Mango and Scott (1997)'s translation (repeated below) Footnote 1 from Mango and Scott (1997)'s translation [1] Mai. frag. Tusc. iv. 26 gives the date as April of the 13th indiction, and Mai.'s indiction dates (esp. those from the Tusculan frags.) should normally be preferred. In that case Narses went to Italy in 550 and not 551 (as Bury, Stein, and PLRE maintain, all ultimately dependent on O. Korbs, Untersuchungen zur ostgotischen Geschichte, vol. i (Jena, 1913), 81, 84-6) and the chronology of Narses' campaign in Italy needs revision. Prok.'s detailed narrative, however, linking Narses' movements with the death of Germanus, provides strong support for 551. Assuming Theoph.'s source here did read indiction 13 (rightly or wrongly), he will have changed the indiction number because he had already reached June of the 13th indiction (the dedication of the Holy Apostles) and so puts a following April into the next year. Cf. AM 6040 for the same technique.

Seismic Effects

there was a severe and frightful earthquake throughout Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia¹
The following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytos, Tripolis, and Byblos, and a great many people perished therein
In the city of Botrys, a large piece of the mountain called Lithoprosopon, which lies close to the sea, was broken off and thrown into the sea
The emperor sent money for restoring what had fallen in these cities
tsunami² - The sea retreated one mile towards the deep and many ships were lost. Later, at God's command, it returned to its own bed.

Footnotes

1 Guidoboni et al (1994) suggested that the other more distant areas listed (e.g. Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia) can be expected to have suffered secondary effects.

2 Though unlocated, it can be assumed to be on the Phoenician littoral.

Locations

Palestine
Arabia
Mesopotamia
Syria
Phoenicia
Tyre
Sidon
Beirut
Tripolis
Byblos
many towns and villages
Botrys³

Footnotes

3 Russell (1985) noted that one codex (10th century Paris Codex Gr. 1710) refers to Botryos as Bostra, the then Byzantine capital of Arabia which is clearly in error as a landslide related to an existing landmark (Lithoprosopon) is described at Botryos. Russell (1985) added that Classen (1839: vii, 352) pointed out that the 12th century Vatican Codex 154 referred instead to Botryos.

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Notes

Theophanes' Calendar

Volume IV of the Chronicle by Georgius Monachus

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from von Muralt (1863)

from von Muralt (1863:794)

The greatest and most universal earthquake struck such that almost the entire uninhabited earth shook. The sea rose two miles and the waters attacked very many - innumerable - ships. The earthquake struck in Arabia and Palestine and Mesopotamia and in Antioch. Many cities and forts were swallowed up and with them, many humans and animals. At the same time, many churches and houses in Constantinople fell along with the greater part of the fortifications of the city. Innumerable people died in this calamity. The earthquake lasted 40 days and nights.

Latin from von Muralt (1863)

from von Muralt (1863:794)

Sed el terrae motus factus est maximus et universalis, ita ut tota fere inhabitata terra contremisceret et mare ad duo millia ascenderet, destruerenturque in aquarum impetu permulta innumeraque navigia, et in Arabia, et Palaestina et Mesopotamia, et Αntiochia multae urbes vicique absorberentur. Et multitudo hominum el animalium simul correpta est, et Coustantinopoli multae ecclesiae ac domus cum majori parte moenium urbis corruerunt. Et mortua est in hac calamitate innumera multitudo. Et duravit terrae motus dies noctesque quadraginta.

Seismic Effects

The greatest and most universal earthquake struck such that almost the entire uninhabited earth shook
The sea rose two miles and the waters attacked very many - innumerable - ships
The earthquake struck in Arabia and Palestine and Mesopotamia and in Antioch
Many cities and forts were swallowed up and with them, many humans and animals
The earthquake lasted 40 days and nights

Locations

Arabia
Palestine
Mesopotamia
Antioch

This account amalgamates seismic destruction from the 551 CE Beirut Quake with seismic destruction in Constantinople. Destruction in Constantinople would likely have been caused by an earthquake which was described by multiple authors as striking the city in 554 CE. By describing the earthquake as universal, Monachus may have amalgamated in yet another earthquake which was described by Procopius as striking Greece in 551 CE. This Greek earthquake was, according to Procopius, accompanied by a tsunami. Only locations which could have been affected by the 551 CE Beirut Quake are included in the lists above.

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Synopsis Historion by Cedrenus

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English translated from Niebuhr (1839)

from Niebuhr (1839:659)

Year 24

... On the 9th day of July, a terrible earthquake struck all over - in Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia such that many towns and villages were destroyed or damaged and many people died. In the City of Botryos which means "cluster of grapes" a large part of Lithoprosopus, the name of the mountain next to the city, slid down into the sea and created a harbor capable of receiving many large ships that could not dock there before. The water also withdrew for a mile out to sea and then by command flowed back.

Latin from Niebuhr (1839)

from Niebuhr (1839:659)

Anno 24 missus est Narses cubicularius Romam ad debellandum Gotthos. name post receptan Romam a Belisario Gotthi denuo rebellarant urbemque occuparant. nona Iulii dio terribilis motus terrae fuit per universam Palaestinam Arabiam Mesopotamiam Syriam et Phoeniciam, qui multis urbibus damna intulit permultosque mortales perdidit. in urbe uae Botryos (hoc est uvae) dicitur, magna pars mentis qui mari adiacet, nomine Lithoprosopos, avulsa in mare decidit magnumque effecit portum, multis magnis navibus recipiendis ideneum, cum ante urbs ea portu caruisset. mare quoque in altum recessit ad mille passus rursumque dei iussu refluxit. Augusto mense nuntius Roma de victoria Narsetis allatus est, nempe Romanos rege Totila oociso Roman recepisse.

Greek and Latin from Niebuhr (1839) - embedded

see p. 659 starting with Anno 24
from Niebuhr (1839:659)
from archive.org

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
9 July 550 CE	On the 9th day of July in Justinian's 24th year	none	Justinian's reign began on 1 April 527 CE which places his 24th year to between 1 Apr. 550 and 30 Mar. 551 CE. For the month of July, this equates to 9 July 550 CE Calculated with CHRONOS Russell (1985), for reasons unstated and unknown, calculated that the 24th year of Justinian's reign spanned from Aug. 550 - July 551. Ambraseys (2009) noted that the 24th year of Justinian's reign is one year too low (ie 550 CE).

Seismic Effects

a terrible earthquake struck all over - in Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia such that many towns and villages were destroyed or damaged and many people died
In the City of Botryos which means "cluster of grapes" a large part of Lithoprosopus, the name of the mountain next to the city, slid down into the sea
tsunami - The water also withdrew for a mile out to sea and then by command flowed back.

Locations

Palestine
Arabia
Mesopotamia
Syria
Phoenicia
many towns and villages
City of Botryos which means "cluster of grapes" (landslide)

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Chronicle by Michael the Syrian

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Chabot (1899-1910)

from Chabot (1899-1910:244)

At the same time, on the coast of Phoenicia, the city of Tripoli was submerged, as well as Beirut, Biblos, Botrys and the towns of Galilee. The sea withdrew two miles on itself, and ships lay on the ground.

French from Chabot (1899-1910)

from Chabot (1899-1910:244)

A la même époque', sur le littoral de la Phénicie, la ville de Tripoli fut engloutie, [309] ainsi que Beirout, Biblos, Botrys² et les villes de Galilée. La mer se retira à deux milles sur elle-même, et des navires gisaient sur le sol.

Footnotes

2. Rest. : [Syriac Text]

English Translation by Bedrosian (1870-1871) of an Armenian version of Michael the Syrian

Section 101
from Bedrosian (1870-1871:section 101)

Background

Michael the Syrian's Chronicle was also translated into Armenian twice in the first half of the 13th century. Over 60 Armenian manuscripts have survived. These manuscripts are, however, abridged and edited. The fact is we don't have an original copy of Michael the Syrian's Chronicle. We have multiple differing versions. An Armenian translation to English is included below. The excerpt was translated into English from Classical Armenian editions found in Jerusalem by Robert Bedrosian in the years 1870 and 1871. In section 101 we can read a short passage which mentions the earthquake:

In the 23rd year of Justinian the river at Tarsus rose and flooded the city. In the same period the city of Laodicea with 7,000 on its inhabitants was destroyed in an earthquake. The city of Pompeiopolis (or, Pentapolis ) in Mysia sank and its inhabitants, still living, were sucked into the pit. Their cries were heard for days, but no one could help them. In Phoenicia the cities of Tripoli, Byblos (Pilsos), and Trovas [Tyre ?] sank and all the cities of Galilee. The sea retreated by two mils, and boats became stranded on land.

French translation by Chabot (1899-1910) - embedded

see left side of page 244 in Volume 2, Book IX, Chapter XXIX starting with A la même époque
from Chabot (1899-1910:244)
from archive.org

English Translation by Bedrosian (1870-1871) of an Armenian version of Michael the Syrian - embedded

see left page top paragraph last two sentences starting with In Phoenicia the cities of Tripoli
from Bedrosian (1870-1871:section 101)
from archive.org

Syriac - embedded

not bookmarked
from archive.org

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
1 Apr. 549 - 30 Mar. 550 CE	Justinian, 23th year (from Armenian Version)	none	Justinian's reign began on 1 April 527 CE which places his 23th year to between 1 Apr. 549 and 30 Mar. 550 CE Calculated with CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

the city of Tripoli was submerged, as well as Beirut, Biblos, Botrys and the towns of Galilee (Chabot)
In Phoenicia the cities of Tripoli, Byblos (Pilsos), and Trovas [Tyre ?] sank and all the cities of Galilee (Bedrosian)
The sea withdrew two miles on itself, and ships lay on the ground
the city of Laodicea with 7,000 on its inhabitants was destroyed in an earthquake - The Armenian version may add a report of seismic damage to Laodicea noting 7000 deaths. The earthquake in Laodicea and the report of the "sinking" of cities on the Phoenician Coast, etc. is separated by two sentences where the intervening sentences describe unrelated events in Anatolia.

Locations

Tripoli
Beirut
Biblos
Botrys
towns of Galilee
Laodicea?¹
Trovas²

References

1 The Armenian version may add a report of seismic damage to Laodicea noting 7000 deaths. The earthquake in Laodicea and the report of the "sinking" of cities on the Phoenician Coast, etc. is separated by two sentences where the intervening sentences describe unrelated events in Anatolia.

2 Trovas may refer to Tyre or Batrun.

According to Ambraseys (2009), Troas refers to Tyre

According to Harrak (1999:128 Footnote 4), Troas refers to Botrys - modern Batrun.

Troas is a city in northwest Anatolia that obviously would have been unaffected by this earthquake.

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Chronicon by Bar Hebraeus

Background and Biography

Excerpts

English from Budge(1932)

from Budge(1932:76)

And in the 23rd year of Justinianus, Tarsus in Cilicia was inundated by the river which flowed by it, and Ladikia was overwhelmed, and 7000 people died therein. And the sea-coast of Phoenicia was submerged, Tripoli, Berut, Byblos, and Troas, and the cities of Galilee.

English from Budge(1932) - embedded

see p. 76 starting with And in the twenty-third year of JUSTINIANUS
from Budge(1932:76)
from archive.org

Chronology

Year	Reference	Corrections	Notes
1 Apr. 549 - 30 Mar. 550 CE	Justinian, 23th year	none	Justinian's reign began on 1 April 527 CE which places his 23th year to between 1 Apr. 549 and 30 Mar. 550 CE Calculated with CHRONOS

Seismic Effects

the sea-coast of Phoenicia was submerged, Tripoli, Beirut, Byblus, and Troas [Tyre] (sic.), and the cities of Galilee

Locations

sea-coast of Phoenicia
Tripoli
Beirut
Byblus
Troas¹
cities of Galilee
Laodicea?²

Footnotes

1 Troas may refer to Tyre or Batrun.

According to Ambraseys (2009), Troas refers to Tyre

According to Harrak (1999:128 Footnote 4), Troas refers to Botrys - modern Batrun.

Troas is a city in northwest Anatolia that obviously would have been unaffected by this earthquake.

2 May add a report of seismic damage to Laodicea noting 7000 deaths in the sentence before describing the 551 CE Beirut Quake

Sources

Online Versions and Further Reading

References

Archaeoseismic Evidence

Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes
Beirut	probable	≥ 8	Scattered evidence for seismic destruction shows up in various reports.
Msaylḥa Bridge	possible		Petersen (2020:200-201) speculated that an early Roman version of the Msaylha Bridge may have collapsed in the 551 CE earthquake. Although the Msaylha Bridge shows evidence of an earlier, perhaps Roman, construction, none of this evidence is dated nor is a seismic origin for an earlier destruction affirmed.
Hosn Niha	possible		Paturel, S. (2019:185) reports potential archaeoseismic evidence at the Sanctuary of Hosn Niha in the Bekka Valley. Late Roman: Church The Large Temple may have been modified prior to its destruction in a large earthquake, probably the earthquake of 551CE that devastated Berytus (Yasmine 2009, 140, 2013, 703). At the end of the sixth century, monumental blocks were reused to construct a Byzantine church on the sanctuary terrace in front of the remains of the Large Temple.
Bosra	possible	≥ 8	Major Modifications Earthquake (?) - 6th century CE - Dentzer et al. (2002:91) documented major architectural modifications to the large centrally planned church at Bosra (also referred to as the cathedral, central church, or large church), originally constructed in the late 5th century CE. Ceramic evidence dated these alterations to the end of the 6th century CE, and the authors suggest that the reconstruction was likely triggered by seismic damage from a mid-6th century earthquake, potentially the 551 CE Beirut Quake. Dentzer et al. (2002:91 n. 49) further observed that such an earthquake might explain the cracks in the ground embankment observed near the south-eastern exedra. Dentzer et al. (2002:92) further speculated that the large pipe crossing the central church may have been constructed during the late 6th century CE modifications.
Jerash - Introduction	possible - needs investigation		Russell (1985) reports that Crowfoot (1938: 233) suggested that at Jerash the mid-6th century construction of the Propylae Church occurred after the 551 earthquake had caused the collapse and abandonment of the bridge whose approach had been blocked by this church.
Mount Nebo	possible		Piccirillo (1982) noted that the memorial to Moses underwent a complete reconstruction from the the middle of the 6th century to the first years of the 7th century CE.
Gush Halav	possible - debated chronology		Meyers, Strange, Meyers, and Hanson (1979) attributed seismic destruction at the end of Stratum VII phase b to the 551 CE Beirut Quake however their chronology is debated. Magness (2001a) performed a detailed examination of the stratigraphy presented in the final report of Meyers, Meyers, and Strange (1990) and concluded, based on numismatic and ceramic evidence, that a synagogue was not built on the site until no earlier than the second half of the fifth century. Meyers, Strange, Meyers, and Hanson (1979) dated construction of the first sysnagogue on the site to ~250 CE. While Magness (2001a) agreed that earthquake destruction evidence was present in the excavation, she dated the destruction evidence to some time after abandonment of the site in the 7th or 8th centuries CE. Strange (2001) and Meyers (2001) went on to rebut Magness (2001a) to which Magness (2001b) responded again. One point of agreement is that earthquake destruction evidence does appear to be present. Although based on epicentral distance and the magnitude of the earthquake, is very possible that Gush Halav suffered seismic destruction during the 551 CE Beirut Quake, the chronology from this excavation is not clear.
Sepphoris	possible	≥ 8	6th century CE Earthquake - Waterman et al. (1937:34) speculated on the demise of a building on the northwest corner of the summit which was exposed in Trench S II and which Waterman et al. (1937:34) suggested may have been a Basilica. Waterman et al. (1937:34) noted that the architectural remains (shafts and capitals of the columns, parts of the masonry, and the like) all seem to be fallen in one line running east-west and suggested that a 6th century CE earthquake may have caused this damage. Waterman et al. (1937:34) noted that similar east-west oriented collapse was discovered at the synagogue at Beit-Alpha. Waterman et al. (1937:31) did not provide dates for the demise of the "basilica" and merely noted that the summit seems to have been abandoned after the 6th century CE and was not occupied again until the Crusaders built a fort on the Summit. Although the synagogue at Beit-Alpha did exhibit east-west oriented collapse which appears to have a seismic origin, the dating of this damage to the 6th century CE is not so precise. The excavator Sukenik (1932) merely provided a terminus post quem of the early 6th century CE for the collapse.
Deir 'Aziz	possible	≥ 8	Zingboym (2011) suggest that the trough of the spring structure downslope from the synagogue shifted 8 cm. to the south during an earthquake or landslide - probably due to the 551 CE Beirut Quake.
Areopolis	unlikely		Zayadine (1971) published a translation of a dedicatory inscription at Areopolis which was found out of context and re-used in a structure (Rucker and Niemi, 2010). The inscription referred to an earthquake which struck Areopolis before 597 CE (likely within a decade or so). This indicates that any archeoseismic evidence from Areopolis which is dated with no more precision than 6th century CE was likely due to the Inscription at Areopolis Quake and not to the distant 551 CE Beirut Quake. Further details can be found in the Archeoseismic Evidence section of the Inscription at Areopolis Quake.
el-Lejjun	unlikely		Although Parker (2006) attributed the 3rd earthquake to the 551 CE Beirut Quake, this is unlikely as the epicenter was far away - near Beirut. One of the sources for the 551 CE Beirut Quake (The Life of Symeon of the Wondrous Mountain) states that damage was limited south of Tyre and there are no reports of earthquake destruction in Jerusalem which is 121 km. closer to the epicenter than el-Lejjun. The most likely candidate for this earthquake is the Inscription at Areopolis Quake which struck Aeropolis - a mere ~12 km. from el-Lejjun - in the late 6th century - before 597 CE.
Damietta	possible - needs investigation		Based on the contemporaneous account of Myrinaei Historiarum by Agathias which described seismic shaking in the Nile Delta during to the 551 CE Beirut Quake, Damietta, which is the closest part of the Delta to Beirut and may be subject to a site effect due to liquefaction, could contain archaeological evidence of 551 CE seismic destruction.
Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes

Beirut

Msaylḥa Bridge

Hosn Niha

Bosra

Jerash - Introduction

Mount Nebo

Gush Halav

Sepphoris

Deir 'Aziz

Areopolis

el-Lejjun

Damietta

Tsunamogenic Evidence

Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes
Beirut	some evidence
Tyre	no evidence
Sidon	no evidence
Byblos	no evidence		Although tsunamigenic evidence has not been found for a 6th century CE event, Morhange et al (2006:91) reported the possibility of 10th or 11th century CE coastal uplift in Byblos.
Caesarea and Jisr al-Zakra	indeterminate		Goodman-Tchernov et al (2009) identified tsunamites in cores taken immediately offshore of the harbor of Caesarea which Goodman-Tchenov and Austin (2015) dated to the 5th - 8th century CE and associated with tsunamis generated by the Beirut Quake of 551 CE and one of the Sabbatical Year Quakes. Although earlier works assigned this 5th - 8th century tsunamite deposit solely to the Beirut Quake of 551 CE, later revisions assigned this offshore deposit mostly to one of the Sabbatical Year Quakes with the suggestion that the Sabbatical Year Quake tsunami deposit contained some reworked tsunamites from the 551 CE Beirut Quake.
Location (with hotlink)	Status	Intensity	Notes

Beirut

Tyre

Sidon

Byblos

Caesarea and Jisr al-Zakra

Paleoseismic Evidence

Location (with hotlink)

Status

Intensity

Notes

al-Harif Aqueduct

unlikely

≥ 7

Sbeinati et. al. (2010) report a seismic event X which they dated to 335 AD ± 175 years at a displaced aqueduct at al-Harif, Syria (close to Masyaf, Syria). The 551 Beirut Quake is slightly outside modeled ages.

Tabarja Benches

probable

M_w = ~7.4-7.6

Elias et al (2007) examined uplifted benches on the Lebanese coast between Sarafand and Tripolis; some in the vicinity of Tabarja (~20 km. NE of Beirut). They estimated ~80 cm. of uplift took place on the lowest bench (B1) in the 6th century CE which they attributed to the 551 CE Beirut Quake. From their geophysical surveys, they also discovered a previously unknown thrust fault system offshore which they called the Mount Lebanon Thrust. They surmised that the 551 CE Beirut Quake was a result of fault movement on these thrust faults.

Qiryat-Shemona Rockfalls

possible to unlikely

Kanari, M. (2008) examined rockfalls in Qiryat-Shemona which were attributed to earthquakes. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating was performed on soil samples beneath the fallen rocks. Kanari et al (2019) proposed that rockfalls QS-3 and QS-11 were most likely triggered by the northern Cyril Quake of 363 CE. Their discussion is quoted below:

QS-3 (1.6±0.1 ka) and QS-11 (1.7±0.2 ka) fit the historical earthquakes of 363 and 502 CE, and only lack 40 years in error margin to fit the one of 551 CE. Since the 502 CE earthquake was reported on shoreline localities only in the DST area, we find the 363 CE earthquake to be a better rockfall-triggering candidate. We suggest that the two ages are clustered around one of these earthquakes, hence suggesting they represent one rockfall event in the 363 CE earthquake. However, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that these were two separate rockfall events, both triggered by large earthquakes in 363 and 502/551 CE.

Bet Zayda

probable

≥ 7

Wechsler at al. (2014) may have seen evidence for this earthquake in Event CH3-E2 (Modeled Age 505-593 CE).

Dead Sea - Seismite Types

n/a

The table below shows projected PGA and Intensity at 3 Dead Sea Sites and 1 Araba site for the 551 CE Beirut Earthquake where the Magnitude (7.5) and Epicenter come from Elias et al (2007). Also included are calculated intensities for the seismites in question at the sites. En Feshka is the only site where projected intensity from the 551 CE Beirut Earthquake matches up well with the estimated Intensity from the seismite. There is a mismatch at En Gedi and a large mismatch at Nahal Ze'elim. The closer late 6th century CE Inscription at Areopolis Quake seems a better candidate than the 551 CE Beirut Earthquake at En Gedi, Nahal Ze 'elim, and in the Taybeh Trench. However, if one considers that Lu et al (2020a) estimated a minimum PGA of 0.13 g and Williams (2004) estimated a minimum PGA of 0.23 g to generate a seismite in the Dead Sea, it isn't impossible that the 551 CE Beirut Earthquake generated seismites at En Feshka, En Gedi, and Nahal Ze'elim. A calculator is provided for experimentation.

Location	Assumed Distance (km.)	Projected PGA (g)	Projected Intensity	I_Est. from site
Dead Sea - En Feshka	273	0.21	6.8	5.6-7.0
Dead Sea - En Gedi	304	0.18	6.6	7.9-8.8
Dead Sea - Nahal Ze'elim	320	0.17	6.5	8.4-9.3
Araba - Taybeh Trench	421	0.11	5.8	≥ 7

Calculator

Seismic Attenuation

Attenuation Relationship is from Hough and Avni (2009)
Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)

Variable	Input	Units	Notes
Magnitude			Magnitude
R		km.	Distance to earthquake producing fault
Variable	Output - Site Effect not considered	Units	Notes
I		unitless
PGA		unitless	Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)

Approximate distances to the epicenter of the 551 CE Beirut Quake

551 CE Beirut Quake
(Epicenter from Elias et al, 2007)
Location	Approx. Distance to 551 CE Epicenter (km.)
En Feshka	273
En Gedi	304
Nahal Ze 'elim	320
Taybeh Trench	421

Dead Sea - En Feshka

possible

5.6-7.0

Kagan et. al. (2011) identified a 1 cm. thick "seismite" at a depth of 186.5 cm. (Modeled Ages ±1σ - 591 AD ± 48, ±2σ - 579 AD ± 103) which they assigned to the 551 CE Beirut Quake. However, the Inscription at Areopolis Quake appears to be a better match. It better matches the date range and appears to have had a much closer epicenter. That said, the "seismite" was labeled as questionable; indicating that it may not have been a result of seismic activity.

Dead Sea - En Gedi

unlikely to possible

7.9-8.8

Migowski et. al. (2004) assigned a 551 CE date to a 0.3 cm. thick Type 4 mixed layer seismite at a depth of 220.33 cm. (2.2033 m) in the 1997 GSI/GFZ core in En Gedi.

Dead Sea - Nahal Ze 'elim

unlikely

8.4-9.3

At site ZA-2, Kagan et. al. (2011) assigned a 551 CE date to a 17 cm. thick brecciated seismite at a depth of 315 cm. (Modeled Ages ±1σ - 537 AD ± 70, ±2σ - 540 AD ± 88). Due to distance from the epicenter, this date assignment for such a thick and brecciated seismite is extremely unlikely. The Inscription at Areopolis Quake is a better candidate.

Araba - Introduction

n/a

Araba - Taybeh Trench

unlikely

Event E3 (Modeled Age 551 AD ± 264) in the Taybeh Trench (LeFevre et al., 2018) matches well with a 551 CE date however the spread of ages for this event is quite large and a number of other earthquakes with closer epicenters are better candidates for causing the deformation seen in Event E3 (e.g the Inscription at Areopolis Quake).

Araba - Qatar Trench

no evidence

Klinger et. al. (2015) didn't date any events which match with this earthquake. The closest event would likely be Event E6 which was dated to 251 CE ± 251.

Location (with hotlink)

Status

Intensity

Notes

Displaced Aqueduct at al Harif, Syria

Tabarja Benches

Qiryat-Shemona Rockfalls

QS-3 (1.6±0.1 ka) and QS-11 (1.7±0.2 ka) fit the historical earthquakes of 363 and 502 CE, and only lack 40 years in error margin to fit the one of 551 CE. Since the 502 CE earthquake was reported on shoreline localities only in the DST area, we find the 363 CE earthquake to be a better rockfall-triggering candidate. We suggest that the two ages are clustered around one of these earthquakes, hence suggesting they represent one rockfall event in the 363 CE earthquake. However, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that these were two separate rockfall events, both triggered by large earthquakes in 363 and 502/551 CE.

Bet Zayda (aka Beteiha)

Wechsler at al. (2014) may have seen evidence for this earthquake in Event CH3-E2 (Modeled Age 505-593 CE).

Dead Sea Seismite Types

Dead Sea - En Feshka

Dead Sea - En Gedi

Migowski et. al. (2004) assigned a 551 CE date to a 0.3 cm. thick Type 4 mixed layer seismite at a depth of 220.33 cm. (2.2033 m) in the 1997 GSI/GFZ core in En Gedi.

Dead Sea - Nahal Ze 'elim

Araba - Introduction

Araba - Taybeh Trench

Araba - Qatar Trench

Klinger et. al. (2015) didn't date any events which match with this earthquake. The closest event would likely be Event E6 which was dated to 251 CE ± 251.

Notes

Salamon et al. (2024)

Article Summary

Salamon et al. (2024) engaged in database preparation and synthesis which led to an isoseismal map followed by seismic modeling and tsunami simulation as outlined below

Database preparation and synthesis

Search, collect and construct a database of macroseismic, tsunami and environmen tal effects from documentary data, geomorphological, and geoarchaeological stud ies, and marine surveys

Assign intensity degrees to the assembled effects

Identify the potential seismogenic and tsunamigenic sources proposed by previous researchers for the 551 events and define their source parameters

Assemble bathymetry and topography grid and reconstruct Beirut paleo-coastline at the time of the 551 events.

Modeling and simulation

Construct iso-seismal map of the 551 event on the base of the intensities assigned to its various effects

ACompute the coseismic deformation (Okada 1985) of the proposed sources. Here, Okada’s (1985) half-space elastic deformation theory is used to simulate the static vertical dislocation produced by the rupture of each 551-like earthquake scenario. The derived rupture fault parameters (i.e., location, dimensions, dip, rake, strike and slip) form the input for Okada’s model

ASelect the most favorable earthquake source that best explains the spread of earth quake effects, including the uplifted marine-cut terraces. This source can also be a tsunamigenic source.

ASimulate the tsunami generation and wave propagation according to the proposed tsunamigenic sources. The tsunami initial wave is derived by transferring the simu lated coseismic deformation to the free sea surface with the assumption that the sea disturbance mimics the seafloor deformation. This initial wave is then propagated using a validated nonlinear shallow water equations code

AProduce time series of the tsunami waves at selected locations along the Beirut coast. This approach involves simulating synthetic tsunami waveforms to analyze the temporal evolution of tsunamis in offshore coastal areas

ASelect the most favorable tsunamigenic source that best explains the reported tsu nami effects. The obtained simulation results (coastal uplift, leading wave, wave height, etc.) are directly compared with the available reports, evidence and observa tions to help infer the best candidate source for the 551 event.

Intensity Data Points

Data points for the database combined intensity scales of EMS-98 macroseismic (Grünthal 1998), PI-2001 tsunami (Papadopoulos and Imamura 2001) and ESI-2007 environmental (Serva et al. 2016) under the same umbrella. These datapoints were compiled into Tables 2-4 as well as Tables SP 1.1, SP 1.2, and SP 1.3 in the Supplemental Appendices. A total of 55 spatial data points were created of which 24 came from reported macroseismic effects, 25 came from environmental effects, and 6 came from tsunami effects. Reliability and uncertainty of assigned intensities were ranked in one of two ways depending on the table. The ranking scales are either High (H), moderate (M), or poor (P) or High (H), moderate (M), or low (L). For details on how these reliability assessments were made, see Salamon et al. (2024)

Table 2 - EMS-98 macroseismic intensities assigned to localities affected by the 551 earthquakes

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 3 - Intensity degrees assigned to tsunami effects related to the 551 event according to the Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) tsunami intensity scale

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed

Table 4 - Intensity degrees assigned to environmental effects associated with the 551 event according to the ESI-2007 Scale (Serva et al. 2016)

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed

Isoseismal Maps

Salamon et al. (2024) then used an Ordinary Kriging prediction to construct the isoseismal map and locate the potential Imax region (e.g., de Rubeis et al. 2005; Teves-Costa et al. 2019). Two isoseismal maps were created which are described and shown below:

Fig. 2a (left) is based on macroseismic and EMS-98 intensities only
Fig. 2b (right) integrates macroseismic, environmental and tsunami effects

In both maps, 12 lags were applied (that is, the bins in which pairs of data points are being com pared and inspected) in which the minimum and maximum participating neighboring data points for prediction were set to 2 and 10, respectively. The isoseismal map containing all data points (Fig. 2b to the right) is the preferred interpretation. With the addition of a point representing offshore uplift and a number of points representing coastal uplift, It suggests an offshore epicenter. Bet Zeyda is excluded from the input datapoints likely because the Bet Zeyda event represents a different unconnected fault break.

Fault Rupture Scenarios

In Section 3.4, Salamon et al. (2024) discussed possible fault rupture candidates which they summarized in Table 5.

Table 5 - Fault rupture parameters of potential 551 seismogenic sources

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed

Salamon et al. (2024) also briefly discussed the rupture candidates as shown in the table below.

Name	Description
MLT and TBJD	MLT and TBJD represent offshore Lebanon sources characterized by parameters that have already been suggested in the published literature (Elias 2006, and Elias et al. 2007; and Faysal et al. 2023). This source strikes more or less parallel to the coast, with a shallow depth, relatively high dip, thrust or transpression mechanism, and considerable magnitude.
Roum Fault	We followed Nemer and Meghraoui (2006a, b), who identified 35 km long and shallow, mainly left-lateral strike-slip, fault and estimated an Ms of 7.1 for the 1837 historical event. This source also represents Ambraseys’s (2009) opinion that 551 was pos sibly on land on the Roum fault. In addition, Darawcheh et al. (2000, Figs. 1, 2 in there) located the source on land along a 50 km long trace of the strike-slip Roum fault, even though they mapped the 551 epicenter offshore of Beirut.
Lebanon flexure	This source is part of the structural system that thrusts the Lebanon mega-anticline (Fig. 4–2 in Elias 2006). It is a generic analog of the on-land MLT and TBJD and has similar mechanical characteristics.
The Kelb-Bikfaya scenario	Dahr el Baidar represents the seismotectonic potential of the E–W-striking normal fault system on-land Lebanon (Hancock and Atiya 1979), as has already been demonstrated by modern activity (Salamon et al. 2003). Its parameters were generalized accordingly to reflect the full rupture of such faults.
Kelb-Bikfaya	The Kelb-Bikfaya scenario exhibits yet another structural system that takes part in the deformation process associated with the restraining bend of the DST (see Fig. 2–43 in Elias 2006). This reference was used to characterize the source parameters of the maximal magnitude event.
Latakia Ridge	We omitted the Latakia Ridge transpressive scenario (Nemer et al. 2023) for the reasons explained above. The computed coseismic deformation of the MLT and TBJD scenarios (discussed in Sect. 4.1.2) supports the view that the Latakia Ridge contribute negligible uplift of the marine-cut terraces along the Lebanese coast.
Bet-Zayda, Jordan Gorge Fault	The Bet-Zayda, Jordan Gorge Fault (proposed by Wechsler et al. 2014), is a segment of the DST and is ~ 100 km south of Beirut and even south of the Roum Fault. Thus, as a strike-slip mechanism, the Bet-Zayda fault is expected to induce an insignificant coseismic effect along the Lebanese coast.

Seismic Modeling

Rupture candidates were then seismically modeled using Okada’s (1985) half-space elastic equations. Since only the MLT-TBJD scenario (Fig. 2a in the upper left) reproduced the ~80 cm. of coseismic uplift dated to the 551 CE Beirut Quake, it was concluded that this represents the most likely rupture scenario.

Latakia Ridge

The Latakia Ridge rupture scenario proposed by Faysal et al. (2023) was not considered in the seismic and subsequent tsunami modeling for the following reasons

Because Hall et al. (2005) suggested that this fault is largely a left-lateral strike-slip source, the expected vertical effect is negligible.
Seismic profiles across the Latakia Ridge (in Hall et al. 2005) show that its northwestern side is expected to be uplifted, whereas the southeastern side that faces Beirut is expected to subside. This is opposite to the observed uplift of marine-cut terraces on the Lebanese coast.
If the southeastern side of the Latakia Ridge is uplifted by an earthquake equivalent to that in the MLT scenario, the associated coseismic effect should have faded out within ~ 50 km of the ridge, hardly affecting the Lebanese coast.

Tsunami Simulation

Tsunami generation was simulated for the same five rupture scenarios using the nonlinear shallow water wave approximation NSWING (Miranda et al. 2014). The results (Figure 4) show that only the MLT-TBJD scenario (Fig. 4a upper left) produces significant tsunamigenic effects. Thus both seismic modeling and tsunamigenic simulation points towards a MLT-TBJD fault rupture scenario.

Initial Ebbing of the Sea

Equally interesting is the synthetic tsunami time series that was simulated for the MLT-TBJD scenario. All four synthetic mareograms (Fig. 5 below) show an immediate sea level rise of a few tens of cm followed by a rapid and sharp ~3 m decrease in sea level which lasts for roughly half an hour. This matches fairly well with descriptions of an initial ebbing of the sea in the sources. The synthetic mareograms also show that coastal cities were not heavily inundated, which is largely compatible with descriptions in all the contemporaneous and near-contemporaneous sources. Only the late source Bar Hebraeus states that the Phoenician coast was submerged.

Main article

from Salamon et al. (2024)
CC BY 4.0 Deed
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Supplementary Material

from Salamon et al. (2024)
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Faysal et al. (2023)

Abstract

from Faysal et al. (2023)

The tectonic setting of Lebanon in the eastern Mediterranean region is a restraining bend along the Dead Sea Transform Fault, which is the plate boundary between Arabia and Africa. Within the Lebanese Restraining Bend, the plate boundary splays into several fault branches that are mapped onshore Lebanon and known to have contributed to the evolution of the Lebanese structural framework. Different models have been proposed about the geological structures offshore Lebanon, and how those structures could relate to the onshore tectonics. Based on 2D seismic reflection data, a previously interpreted thrust fault system offshore Lebanon referred to as ‘‘Mount Lebanon thrust’’ was suggested to be responsible for the 9 July 551 M 7.2 earthquake, which was one of the most destructive in the history of the Levant. This thrust system has been accepted as the main structure behind the offshore seismic activity. The objective of this paper is to use current 3D seismic reflection data in order to interpret the main tectonic structures offshore Lebanon, and to differentiate features formed by tectonic activity from others caused by different mechanisms such as subsurface salt movement. Such information is very useful in understanding the tectonic framework of the region from the earthquake geology perspective. A bathymetric map of the Lebanese offshore area was generated and used to delineate the seafloor features. Major and minor faults were interpreted and used to identify and understand the behavior of potential tsunami-generating structures. After careful investigation of the offshore area using the available 3D seismic data, the authors were not able to confirm the existence of Mount Lebanon thrust. Instead, they propose that the Latakia ridge that lies between Lebanon and Cyprus is a major and prominent structure that can trigger high magnitude tsunamigenic earthquakes.

Maps and Seismic Lines

Fig. 1 - Wide View Location Map

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 2 - Location Map with Seismic Lines

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 3 - Bathymetric Map

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 4 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 5 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 6 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 7 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 8 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 9 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 10 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 11 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 12 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Fig. 13 - Seismic Line

from Faysal et al. (2023)

Nemer et al. (2023)

Abstract

from Nemer et al. (2023)

The Lebanese Restraining Bend is an active bend along the Dead Sea Transform Fault in the eastern Mediterranean region where several destructive earthquakes have occurred throughout history. In this paper, we assess the gross features of the seismic hazard of the Lebanese Restraining Bend by applying a neo-deterministic method that involves the generation of synthetic seismograms distributed on a regular grid over the study area. We use the regional seismicity, seismic source zones, focal mechanism solutions, and velocity structural models. We present maps of ground displacement, velocity, and acceleration. This is the first study that generates neo-deterministic seismic hazard maps for the Lebanese Restraining Bend using representative ground motion modeling. Our results show that displacement values of 15–30 cm and velocity values of 30–60 cm/s can be expected along most of Lebanon. In addition, 0.15–0.30 g acceleration values can dominate most of the Lebanese territory and surrounding areas. It is evident from these results that the study area in general and Lebanon in particular constitute a high seismic hazard area, which necessitates further attention from the authorities regarding the precaution measures needed to mitigate the effects of potential catastrophic seismic events; in addition, more detailed investigations are needed at local scale for specific sites of interest.

Tectonic setting

from Nemer et al. (2023)

The LRB is about 170 km long and involves two mountain chains, Mount Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, separated by the Beqaa Valley, with the Anti-Lebanon being extended further east by the ENE-trending Palmyride fold belt (Fig. 1). The latter is an approximately 400 x 100 km² intra-plate fold belt that lies in the northern Arabian platform.

Mount Lebanon extends NNE between the Yam mouneh fault to the east and the Roum fault and Coastal flexure to the west until the latitude of Beirut (Beydoun, 1977). Further north, Mount Lebanon occupies the area bounded by the coast line and the Beqaa Valley and attains a width of about 40 km, before it dies out to the west of the Homs plain (Fig. 1c).

Anti-Lebanon extends NE from north of the Hula basin in the south to the Homs plain in the north. It is about 30 km in width and bounded by the Beqaa Valley to the west, and by the Haouran plateau and the southern Palmyrides to the east (Fig. 1c).

The Beqaa Valley is an approximately 130-km long flat-floored depression that is covered with Tertiary and Quaternary deposits and has a width that ranges from 7 to 20 km (Dubertret, 1955; Fig. 1c).

Southwest of Mount Lebanon lies the Coastal plateau that is a low-lying flat plateau (its highest elevation is about 750 m a.s.l.) gently dipping toward the coast. It acquires a north-tapering wedge shape whereby it is bounded to the east by the Roum fault and the Coastal flexure, and to the west by the coastline (Beydoun, 1977; Fig. 1c).

Between latitudes 33.2 N and 34.7 N, the DTSF bends rightward and splits into the Yammouneh fault and four auxiliary faults: the Roum, Hasbaya, Rachaya, and Serghaya faults (Fig. 1; Fedorik et al., 2022). Beyond the LRB, the Yammouneh fault connects with the Missyaf segment of the northern section of the DTSF (Fig. 1).

The Yammouneh fault is the principal fault within the LRB. It has an obvious ~170-km-long trace (Fig. 1c). It is an active fault having a slip rate of 5.0 ± 1.1 mm/year (e.g. Gomez et al., 2007; Nemer et al., 2008b).

The Roum fault is about 35 km long and it is active with a slip rate of 0.95 ± 0.10 mm/year (Nemer & Meghraoui, 2006).

The Rachaya and Serghaya faults form one active fault system having a slip rate of 1.4 ± 0.2 mm/ year (Gomez et al., 2003; Nemer et al., 2008a; Fig. 1c)

The Hasbaya fault is an about-50-km-long non active structure (Butler et al., 1998; Nemer & Meghraoui, 2020; Fig. 1c).

Maps and Tables

Fig. 1 - Faults and Geologic Features of Lebanon and vicinity

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 2 - Faults, Folds, and seismicity of Lebanon and vicinity

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Fig. 4 - Faults, Folds, and focal mechanism solutions of Lebanon and vicinity

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Focal Mechanisms

from Focal Mechanisms - Wikipedia

Focal Mechanisms vs. Fault Type

from Focal Mechanisms - Wikipedia

Development of Beach Ball

from Focal Mechanisms - Wikipedia

Fig. 5 - Velocity Polygons and Geological Map of Lebanon and vicinity

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Table 2 - Geological Map of Lebanon and vicinity

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Table 2 - Velocity Parameters

from Nemer et al. (2023)

Conflation Errors in Ancient Documents

Russell (1985) noted that a number of earthquakes struck in 551 CE or thereabout leading to a host of catalog errors in those catalogs that did not examine source documents.

Both the dating and geographic extent of this earthquake became confused in later earthquake accounts and catalogs. The confusion appears to have occurred because there were several earthquakes in the eastern Mediterranean during the later reign of Justinian.

In the autumn of 551, another earthquake caused extensive damage in Greece around the Corinthian Gulf and in Boetia and Achaea; a consequent tidal wave destroyed two cities at the upper end of the Maliac Gulf. The historian Procopius (ca. 500-ca. 562) documented this latter earthquake but totally excluded that of July 9th (1928: 322-23), as did Evagrius Scholasticus (1964: 170-71).

On August 15, 554, yet another earthquake occurred in the regions of Byzantium and Bithynia. Aftershocks were felt for 40 days, and the event left such an impression on the affected populations that it was remembered annually in a festival held. appropriately, in an open field. This event is documented in Theophanes' Chronographia (1839: 354-55) and in the Anastasii Bibliothecarii Historia Ecclesiastica, an abridged Latin version of Theophanes' Chronographia made by the papal librarian Anastasius in the second half of the 9th century (1841: 105).

Finally, an earthquake in 561 severely damaged Anazarbus, the capitol of Cilicia II, as well as Antioch and Seleucia in the province of Syria I (Cedrenus 1838:678-79; Procopius 1954:224-27; Theophanes 1839: 364).

Cedrenus, writing in the early 12th century, also provided an account of the earthquake of August 15, 554. However, while most of his account reiterated the earlier narrative of Theophanes. he further stated that Antioch was also damaged at this time. along with cities in Arabia, Palestine. and Mesopotamia (1838: 674). Apparently. Cedrenus. or later editors of his work, 'conflated accounts of the July 9. 551 earthquake with those of 554 and 561.

A similar conflation of mid-6th century earthquakes appears in the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (1901). written in Syriac in the mid- to late 12th century. Michael also recorded the earthquake of July 9, 551, noting damage to the cities of the Phoenician coast as well as villages in the Galilee (1901: 244). However, his subsequent account of the August 554 earthquake is apparently split in two, and one narrative appears at the end of his account of events in 551, while the other was placed within his account of events for 558 (190 I: 245-46). Further, his description of the collapse of Mount Lithoprosopus at Botryos and the damage incurred at Beirut during the 551 earthquake was conflated with the 554 earthquake narrative erroneously placed among the events of 558 (1901: 246-47).

Catalog Errors

Russell (1985) noted some of the catalog errors associated with the 551 CE Beirut Quake.

When Clinton compiled the tables for his Fasti Romani (1845), he apparently correlated the account of the July 9, 551 earthquake given by Agathius with the corrupt account of the 554 earthquake presented by Cedrenus. Both these accounts, along with Theophanes' narrative for 554, were then collectively used to document a 554 earthquake that ostensibly caused damage from Constantinople through Palestine (Clinton 1845: 802). However, Clinton did not record any earthquakes for the year 551 (1845: 792-96).

This temporal and geographic confusion has subsequently appeared in modern earthquake catalogs. Avranitakis noted (1903: 179) a 554 earthquake in Thrace, Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, and Palestine while Willis (1928: 79) apparently added the account of Procopius for the 551 earthquake in Greece to document a 554 earthquake in "Greece, Syria, Mesopotamia, etc." Amiran (1950- 51: 226) subsequently included a 554 earthquake in his catalog by reference to Clinton, Arvanitakis, and Willis, stating that "Cedrenus mentions Palestine, Agathius Beirut."

Other Earthquakes in 551 CE

Guidoboni et al (1994) and Ambraseys (2009) list other separate earthquakes in 551 CE based on the writings of Procopius and Agathias.

Ambraseys (2009)

[AD 543 Corinth]

An earthquake occurred in Greece and destroyed almost completely the walls of Corinth. This earthquake is mentioned only by later Syrian sources and dated to 854 a.S. (Eli. Nis. BR 120). It is probably the earthquake mentioned by earlier writers (Procop. A. 225; B. 239) and possibly a duplicate of the earthquake of AD 551 (see below).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

[AD 544 Black Sea]

A destructive sea wave in the Black Sea flooded the coast of Thrace, inundating Odessus (now Varna), Dionysopolis (now Balchik) and Aphrodisium by advancing four miles inland, drowning many people before retiring.

This event is mentioned by Theophanes, who places it in a.M. 6037 (September 544 to August 545), or in the 18th year of Justinian (Cedr. CS 657), which commenced in April 544. He does not mention, however, whether this event was associated with an earthquake. Only an eighth-century Syrian chronicle, which is not so reliable, says briefly that in 855 a.S. there was an earthquake and a submersion by the sea of many cities (Chron. 724, 111).

However, Guidoboni et al. associate this event with a seismic sea wave (Guidoboni et al. 1994, 329), but no earthquake is mentioned by any of the local sources.

Note

a.M. 6037: In that year the sea rose up against Thrace and covered it for four miles [inland] around the parts of Odyssus and Dionysopolis, and also Aphrodisium. And many people drowned in the waters. And then, at the divine command, the sea flowed back into its own limits.’ (Theoph. 224).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

AD 551 >July 9 Cos

An earthquake and a seismic sea wave, which caused great damage on the island of Cos. The town of Cos was almost completely destroyed, as was all but a small part of the island, and the death toll was heavy. Houses of unbaked brick or mud survived, but most houses, built of stone, were reduced to rubble and drinking water was also polluted by the sea wave.

Agathias visited Cos, in the course of a voyage from Alexandria to Constantinople, shortly after the event, and was thus able to see the effects (although of course there may be some exaggeration). His chronology is so confused that the date of the event is uncertain. Agathias says ‘at around that time’ just after narrating the earthquake of July 551, but in ii. 15 and ii. 16 he regresses four years in his time sequence.

Modern authors amalgamate this earthquake with the event of AD 551 that destroyed the Phoenician coast, 800 km away from Cos (McCail 1967, 243).

Agathias also visited the island in AD 558, on his return from Constantinople, but Guidoboni et al. (1994, 338–339) note that this visit was before the Constantinople earthquake of AD 557 and date the event between AD 554 and 558 on the assumption that Egypt was affected by an earthquake in AD 554 (Guidoboni 1989, 703).

Note

And at the same time [as the earthquake in Syria and Lebanon] the island of Cos, which lies on the edge of the Mediterranean, was shaken by an earthquake, and while a small part of it was preserved, all the rest collapsed, in what was a complex and unprecedented disaster.

The sea rose up to an incredible height and engulfed all the buildings by the shore, destroying the property and people in them. Such was the size of the wave, and so extraordinary, that whatever its surging crests could not ride over, it dashed down and destroyed.

Almost all its citizens were killed in the confusion, whether they happened to have fled to sanctuaries, or stayed at home, or gathered elsewhere.

At that time I happened to be sailing from Alexandria to Byzantium, and I disembarked on the island, which lies en route: as soon as I stepped on to the shore I was confronted by the most pitiful sight which was beyond the power of words to describe. For almost the entire city was reduced to a pile of rubble, with stones and bits of broken pillars and wooden beams scattered everywhere, and the air was darkened with great clouds of dust, so that one could hardly discern the thoroughfares but only dimly perceive them.

A few houses remained standing, unharmed, but these were not built of gypsum or stone, or of any similar material which might seem more durable, but were built in peasant-fashion from unbaked brick or mud. Here and there a few men could be seen, whose expressions were of despondency, despair and dejection, as if this were the end, and also of apathy. For in addition to all the other ills, the drinking water from the river had been polluted by the sea, being thus rendered undrinkable . . . (Agath. ii. 16).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

AD 551 Schisma, Boeotia

During AD 551, three separate earthquakes struck Boeotia, involving the areas around the Maliac and Crissean Gulfs in central Greece. Eight cities were destroyed, the worst hit being Patrae, Naupactus, Chaeronea and Coronea, which were destroyed, with loss of life.

Procopius’s contemporary and only account of these events in AD 551 says that at this time a (series) of extraordinary earthquakes occurred throughout Greece, affecting both Boeotia and Achaea and the country around the Crisean Gulf, as a result of which many towns and eight cities, which are not named, were levelled to the ground, among which were Chaeronea, Coronea, Patrae and all of Naupactus where there was also great loss of life.

It adds that the earth was ‘rent asunder’ to the extent that in many places the people were not able to travel from one place to another without making many detours.

It goes on to say that, at Echinus and at Scarphea in Boeotia in the Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia, there was a sudden influx of the sea, which levelled both towns. The sea flooded the mainland for a long time, so that for a very considerable period it was possible for men to walk to the islands, which are inside this gulf, since the sea had abandoned its proper place and spread over the land as far as the mountains. When the sea returned to its proper place, fish were left on the ground.

It also adds that at the locality of the so-called Schisma there was a tremendous earthquake, which caused more loss of life than in all the rest of Greece, particularly since a festival was being celebrated there (in October?), for which many people had gathered from all over Greece.

It is important to recognise that Procopius places earthquakes in the plural, in the context of more than one earthquake in more than one place. The time of which he is speaking is about that of the defeat of the Gepaedes, perhaps December 550 to January 551 and he clearly refers to more than one, probably three, distinct earthquakes in central Greece, that is (1) a destructive shock in Boeotia that caused great loss of life in Schisma and destroyed Coronea and Chaeronea, probably damaging Corinth; (2) a destructive sea wave at Echinus and Scarpheia, which was probably associated with a second earthquake about 70 km away in the Maliakos Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia; and (3) a damaging shock more than 100 km to the west of Schisma in the Gulf of Corinth and in Achaea, which heavily damaged Nafpaktos and Patra. Much of what has been said above is based on a study of source credibility by White (2001a).

The sequence of these events is not possible to establish, but it is possible, on physical grounds, to exclude the possibility of a single earthquake being associated with an epicentral area of radius more than 100 km. Many important centres, which are not recorded as having suffered in this earthquake, would have also been utterly destroyed, such as Chalcis, Aegeum, Amphissa and Delphi, for which there is no evidence.

Insofar as the first earthquake is concerned, the name of the festival on which it occurred, which could have helped with the reckoning of the date, is not given. It is unlikely that this was the festival of Dionysus, which was held in historical times on Mt Parnassus, and it could have been a local affair.

This earthquake affected Schisma most seriously, its name meaning a place cleft or rent. This may be the place where the ground deformation described by Procopius took place, most probably as the result of surface faulting and landslides. This locality may be the ‘Schisti hodos’ mentioned by earlier writers, which is the name of the junction of the road from Delphi that crosses the spurs of Mt Parnassus–Xeromeri with the route to Levadia south of Daulia. This locality is only a few kilometres from Cheronea and 15 km from Coronea, sites that were totally destroyed by the earthquake.

Procopius mentions Corinth separately as having suffered from more than one earthquake and notes that its walls were repaired within his lifetime. However, when he enumerates other cities that were renewed by Justinian after AD 553, he says explicitly that the restoration of the walls of Plateae and Athens, which are between Schisma and Corinth, was necessitated not because of damage sustained by earthquakes, but because these cities had suffered from the long passage of time. It is probable, therefore, that the same earthquake as that at Schisma damaged Corinth to some degree.

There are no other primary sources for this earthquake, and later sources either repeat some of this information or amalgamate it with that from other earthquakes in the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Procopius refers to a series of ‘extraordinary earthquakes’ (seismoi) that occurred in Greece and Asia Minor during the reign of the Emperor Justinian. While seismoi can mean ‘shocks’, this translation is valid only in the context of an obvious single earthquake in one place.

If the ordering of events in Procopius’s narrative can be trusted, this earthquake must have occurred shortly after Narses’s march against the Goth Totila (about March 551). Since the festival held in Schisma is likely to have been the great June event, the Thesmophoria, it is probable that the earthquake happened during that month.

Locating Schisma has proved difficult. It is not mentioned in any contemporary sources. However, Pausanias says that ‘Going forward from there [the road to Delphi] you will arrive at a road called the Branch (“Schiste”)’ (Paus. X. v. 1/LCL. iv. 388–390). Of particular interest is a passage from Sophocles’s Oedipus Tyrannus. Jocasta says to Oedipus, in the course of his questioning her about the death of his father Laeus, ‘The land is called Phocis, and the branch road (“schiste hodos”) to it leads from Delphi and Daulia.’ (Soph. OT l.733/LCL. i. 400). Kammerbeek describes a road which runs southeast–northwest through Greece from Thebes to Lebadea (modern Livadia), just north of which it splits, a branch road (“schiste hodos”) running west to Delphi and the main road continuing northwest to Daulia. By association the point at which the Delphi road split off (actually a crossroads, since another road joined the main road there, too) came to be known as “Schiste” (Kammerbeek 1967, iv. 153). This road remains substantially the same today, although the crossroads has been moved so that now Levadia is on the Delphi branch.

A report on excavations at the crossroads in 1907 describes extremely dilapidated buildings, one of them being a fort on a rounded hill (Fossey 1986). Their condition was attributed to hurried construction in the second century AD. Unfortunately, the article does not describe their state in any detail, so it is possible only to conjecture how the buildings came to be so dilapidated.

Regarding the alleged festival at Schisma, there was a biennial festival at nearby Parnassus to celebrate the rebirth of Dionysus, so it may be that the Thesmophoria of AD 551 was held there.

In his Buildings Procopius mentions terrible earthquakes that had occurred in Corinth, as a result of which Justinian repaired the city walls. This may refer to many earthquakes over a long period, or to those which occurred only during the reign of Justinian. However, in the Anecdota he lists many cities, mostly Asian, but including Corinth, that were ruined by earthquakes during Justinian’s reign. Modern writers claim that an inscription from Corinth honours one Theodosius as ‘rebuilder of the town’ after the earthquake of AD 551, but the source is not quoted (Bousquet and Pechoux ´ 1983, 33).

It goes without saying that this could not have been, as some modern writers claim, the same earthquake as that which struck Asia Minor in July 551 since it would have damaged an area of two million km2, and many important cities between Greece and Asia Minor would have been wiped out

Notes

‘It was at this time that extraordinary earthquakes occurred throughout Greece, both Boeotia and Achaea and the country on the Crisaean Gulf being badly shaken. And countless towns and eight cities were levelled to the ground, among which were Chaeronea and Coronea and Patrae and all of Naupactus, where there was also great loss of life. And the earth was rent asunder in many places and formed chasms. Now some of these openings came together again so that the earth presented the same form and appearance as before, but in other places they remained open, with the consequence that the people in such places are not able to intermingle with each other except by making use of many detours. But in the gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia there was a sudden influx of the sea at the city called Echinus and at Scarphea in Boeotia. And advancing far over the land it deluged the towns there and levelled them immediately. And for a long time the sea thus visited the mainland, so that for a very considerable period it was possible for men on foot to walk to the islands which are inside this gulf, since the water of the sea, obviously, had abandoned its proper place, and, strange to say, spread over the land as far as the mountains which rise there. But when the sea returned to its proper place, fish were left on the ground, and since their appearance was altogether unfamiliar to the people of the country, they seemed a kind of prodigy. And thinking them edible they picked them up to boil them, but when the heat of the fire touched them the whole body was reduced to a liquid putrefaction of an unbearable sort. But in that locality where the so-called Cleft (Schisma) is located there was a tremendous earthquake which caused more loss of life than in all the rest of Greece, particularly on account of a certain festival which they happened to be celebrating there and for which many had gathered in that place from all Greece.’ (Procop. Bell. VIII. xxv. 16–24/LCL. v. 324)

‘He [Justinian] also rendered secure all the cities of Greece which are inside the walls at Thermopylae, renewing their circuit-walls in every case. For they had fallen into ruin long before, at Corinth because of terrible earthquakes which had visited the city; and at Athens and Plataea and the towns of Boeotia they had suffered from the long passage of time, while no man in the whole world took thought for them.’ (Procop. Aed. IV. ii. 23–24/LCL. vii. 238).

He [the Emperor Justinian], after he had accomplished all this, learned that all the cities of the Peloponnesus were unwalled, he reasoned that obviously a long time would be consumed if he attended to them one by one, and so he walled the whole Isthmus securely, because much of the old wall had already fallen down.’ (Procop. Aed. IV. ii. 27–28/LCL. vii. 238)

And one might add to the list [of cities destroyed in earthquakes during Justinian’s reign] Ibora and also Amasia, which chanced to be the first city in Pontus, also Polybotus in Phrygia, which the Pisidians call Philomede, and Lychnidus in Epirus, and Corinth, all of which cities have from ancient times been most populous. For it befell all these cities during this period to be overthrown by earthquake and their inhabitants to be practically all destroyed by them.’ (Procop. Anecd. xviii. 42/LCL. vi. 224–226).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

AD 551 Maliakos Gulf

The second event in AD 551 mentioned by Procopius is the sea wave in the Maliakos Gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia, about 70 km to the north of Schisma, which destroyed the towns of Echinus and Scarpheia. He does not mention any damage to these or other towns due to an earthquake (see the previous entry).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

AD 551 Nafpaktos, Patra

The third earthquake in AD 551 occurred more than 100 km to the west of Schisma in the western part of the Gulf of Corinth and in Achaea, damaging Nafpaktos and Patra (see AD 552 June entry).

The archaeological evidence that the collapse of the temple of Zeus in Olympia was due to this earthquake is very dubious (Decker 2000). It is based on Boetticher’s argument that, according to the Scholiast of Lucian, the temple of Zeus in Olympia remained standing during the period of Theodosius (AD 408–450). As a result of the edict of Theodosius in AD 426 the temple was burned; but Boetticher believes that this should have affected only the wooden construction of the temple (Boetticher 1883; cf. Meyer 1979). On the other hand, he points out that near the eastern front of the temple, within a wall dating from late antiquity, an early Byzantine hoard of more than 1000 coins of the period of Justinian II (AD 527–565) has been found buried under large fragments of the temple of Zeus. This implies, according to Boetticher, that the final destruction of the temple took place sometime between AD 426 and 565. Owing to the enormous size, but also due to the way the columns had fallen, he suggests that only an earthquake could have been responsible for the collapse of the structure. After mentioning all the earthquakes which took place in the period between AD 426 and 565, Boetticher concludes that only two of the most disastrous earthquakes during that period could have been responsible: the earthquake of AD 522 and/or the earthquake of AD 551.

Guidoboni (1989, 698–699) and Guidoboni et al. (1994, 331–332) amalgamate the three earthquakes of AD 551 in Greece to create an enormous earthquake.

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

AD 554 Aug 16 Constantinople, Nicomedea

A destructive earthquake in the eastern part of the Sea of Marmara.

In Constantinople many houses were ruined and people were killed, especially in the southern part of the city around the Golden Gate. Some churches and baths as well as part of the city wall near the Golden Gate were damaged. The spear of the statue of Constantine at the Forum fell and penetrated three cubits into the ground. The repair of the walls is recorded in extant inscriptions.

At least part of Nicomedea was destroyed, although the sources vary about the extent of the destruction: according to one source, the city was completely destroyed and part of it fell into the sea.

Part of Nicaea may also have been damaged, although this is mentioned by only one source. Other towns, which are not named, were also damaged. Damaging aftershocks continued for 40 days (Malal. CS 489; Sym. Styl. 1061).

This event was commemorated in Constantinople annually with prayers in the Campus in the district of Hebdomon (Sym. Styl. 1061; Mich. Syr. CH ii. 245).

Later authors say that also the sea flooded the coast and advanced inland two miles, sinking many ships (Cedr. CS 674), but this detail seems to belong to the earthquakes of AD 551 in Beirut, which they conflate with this event.

According to Malalas, this earthquake happened in Constantinople and Nicomedea in August of the second indiction (AD 554).

The contemporary Victor of Tunnuna lists a damaging earthquake in Constantinople in AD 553, and Agathias syncretises what is probably this event with the earthquakes of AD 551, including that on the island of Cos, and adds no information apart from corroborating the earthquake’s occurrence.

The Life of Symeon the Stylite the Younger (late sixth or early seventh century) records that six days after the great earthquake of AD 551, Constantinople, Nicomedea, Nicaea, Rhegium ‘and most of the cities close to Illyricum’ suffered a damaging earthquake during the night. Obviously this is an amalgamation of this event with the earthquake that affected cities close to Illyricum in February 548.

The evidence from other sources suggests that the earthquake of AD 554 affected Constantinople and the area east to Nicomedea, whereas the AD 557 earthquake affected Constantinople and the region to the west including Rhegium, so it is likely that they have been syncretised in the Life. The pattern of subsequent earthquakes makes it probable that Nicaea was affected by the ‘eastward’ earthquake, that of AD 554.

Pseudo-Dionysius, probably copying John of Ephesus, gives a detailed and somewhat rhetorical account, dating the event to 7 Ab (August), a.S. 1862 (obviously an error for 862, thus AD 551), and claims that part of Nicomedea was swallowed into the sea.

Theophanes dates the earthquake to the second indiction, 15 August a.M. 6046 August (AD 554), adding that the event occurred ‘as Sunday was dawning’, i.e. Sunday 16 August.

Michael the Syrian claims that aftershocks were felt for only twenty days, but this may be a confusion with the earthquake of AD 557.

Millingen confirms the damage to the Golden Gate, where an inscription records its restoration by Justin II (Meyer-Plath and Schneider 1943). See also Cyr. Scyth. 199; John Eph. NA 489; Leo Gramm. CS 128; McCail (1967, 242) and Downey (1955, 598)

Later writers syncretise this earthquake with the AD 551 event and others (Cedr. 674/736; Glyc. 269/504; Abu’l Faraj 76/81). Guidoboni (1989, 700–701) associates this earthquake with the shock felt in Alexandria in AD 551

Notes

‘In the month of August, in the 2nd indiction, there was a terrible earthquake, so that many houses and baths and churches and parts of the walls of Byzantium were damaged. In this terror also fell the spear which was held by the statue in the forum, and it penetrated the ground to a depth of three cubits. Other cities suffered in this terror, among which was Nicomedea, part of which collapsed. After a few days some survivors were pulled from the ruins of Nicomedea. This earthquake lasted for forty days.’ (Malal. 486–487/704–705).

‘a.553 While these things were going on [Justinian’s synod and anathemas] an earthquake shook the Imperial City and threw down many buildings and porticoes, and the arcades of many basilicas were flattened.’ (Vict. Tunn. 553/203).

At the same time [as the Frankish invasions], in summer, there was a great earthquake in Byzantium and in many parts of the Roman Empire, so that numerous cities, both on islands and the mainland were completely razed to the ground and their inhabitants all killed . . .’ (Agath. ii. 15).

And after six days a great earthquake occurred in Constantinople, and in various districts many houses partially collapsed, and many people were killed. Nicomedea also collapsed, as did the [suburb] called Rhegium, and part of Nicaea and the most of the cities close to Illyricum. And these things were known in the city of Antioch, and there was great mourning there, and they prayed night and day.’ (Vit. Sym. Iun. 106).

In the year 1862 (sic.) a great earthquake happened in the Imperial City, on the first day of the week.

On 7 Ab [August] there was a terrible quake, severe and ¯ violent, in the Imperial City during part of the night, at dawn of the first day of the week, and numerous houses were overthrown in this [event] and became awful tombs for their inhabitants. Many churches, baths and town walls collapsed, and above all the wall of the Imperial City, which is called the Gates (sic.) of Gold. And again many people died everywhere in this earthquake. Many towns were overthrown and razed, so that Nicomedea, capital of Bithynia, collapsed and was completely destroyed; and a good part of it was swallowed up in the sea and all the rest was buried in the collapse. Many of those who were found alive in the destruction were found alive; some were unharmed but others were injured. These earthquakes had been terrifying, as they went on, one after another, for forty days. Since those who loved God were filled with His mercy, they also called men to lives of penitence. And thus it was that everywhere men persevered in prayer in the churches and stayed there. It was in suffering and tears of penitence that the memorials of these earthquakes were born, seven miles from the city. And every year, during the days over which [the earthquake] had taken place, prayers went up, which were followed by prayers for the entire city to say; and all he way down from the nobles, [everyone] followed the prayers on the plain with zeal.’ (Ps.Dion. ii. 126/94).

‘a.M.6046. In that year on 15th August, in the 2nd indiction, in the middle of the night, as Sunday was dawning, there was a terrible earthquake, so that many houses and baths and churches and part of the walls of Constantinople were damaged, especially around the Golden Gate. And many people died. A large part of Nicomedea fell too. And this earthquake continued for forty days. And after a little, men kept vigil, supplicating and watching and going to the churches, and when God’s love for man was [manifested] again (i.e. when the earthquake stopped), they were worse. This earthquake is commemorated each year in the Campus (Hebdomon Plain) when the people pray.’ (Theoph. 229).

‘There was another, very violent, earthquake in the imperial city [Constantinople] in the month of ‘Ab [August]: many houses were overturned and became their inhabitants’ tombs. Churches, baths, and the wall, which used to be called the “Golden Gate” also collapsed. In this earthquake Nicomedea was completely destroyed. These earthquakes carried on for 20 days, as if to call men to repentance. They were commemorated each year by rogations, on a great plain seven miles from the imperial city.’ (Mich. Syr. ix. 29/ii. 245).

The outwork of the Theodosian Wall was restored under Justin and Sophia, our most pious Sovereigns, by Narses, the most glorious Spatharius and Sacellarius, and Stephen, who belonged to the servide, a servant of the most pious Sovereigns.’ (Millingen 1899, 96).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

[AD 554 Oct 14 Alexandria]

On the authority of Agathias (CS 96–97) and John Nikiou (143), Guidoboni et al. (1994, 337–338) amalgamate two earthquakes in Egypt to AD 554.

Agathias, who was born c. AD 531 (OCD 25), says that there was an earthquake in Alexandria, which caused much panic but no damage. This, he adds, happened at the time he was preparing himself to enter the law school, presumably when he was about 20 years old, and what he describes should have been the far-field/distant effects of the earthquake in Lebanon in AD 551.

John of Nikiu, a seventh-century writer, reports an unidentified earthquake that was felt in Egypt during the reign of Justinian (AD 527–565) that he says was an event commemorated on 17 Teqempt (14 October). This event occurred during Justin’s reign, in AD 520 (see 14 October 520).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

[AD 554–558 Cos]

This is a duplicate of the earthquake of c. AD 551 in Cos (see above). Guidoboni dates it to AD 558 or within the period AD 554–558 (Guidoboni 1989, 703; Guidoboni et al. 1994, 338–339).

References

Ambraseys, N. N. (2009). Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East: a multidisciplinary study of seismicity up to 1900.

Guidoboni et al (1994)

551 Greece

551 *Chaeronea, •Coronea, •Echinus, •Naupactus, • Patras [Patrae], •Scarphe, Achaia, Boeotia, the Crisaean Gulf seismic sea-wave, surface faulting

sources

Procop. bell. 8.25.16-23

literature

Meyer (1979)

catalogues

Ligorio [1574-7]
Bonito (1691)
von Hoff (1840)
Mallet (1853)
Schmidt (1881)
Galanopoulos (1961)
Ambraseys (1962 b)
Shebalin et al. (1974)
Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
Guidoboni (1989)Guidoboni (1989)

Procopius describes a great earthquake which struck central Greece, causing serious damage, substantial changes to the terrain and a seismic sea-wave: "It was at this time that extraordinary earthquakes occurred throughout Greece, both Boeotia and Achaia and the country on the Crisaean Gulf being badly shaken. Countless towns and eight cities were levelled to the ground, among them Chaeronea and Coronea and Patrae and all of Naupactus, where there was also great loss of life. The earth was split open in many places and chasms formed. Now some of these openings came together again so that the earth presented the same form and appearance as before, but in other places they remained open, with the consequence that the people in such places are not able to intermingle with each other except by making many detours. But in the gulf between Thessaly and Boeotia there was a sudden influx of the sea at the city called Echinus and at Scarphe in Boeotia. Advancing far over the land it deluged the towns there and levelled them immediately. And for a long time the mainland was flooded in this way, so that for a very considerable period it was possible for people to walk to the islands in the gulf, since the waters of the sea, obviously, had abandoned their proper place, and spread over the land in this strange way, as far as the mountains which rise there. But when the sea returned to its proper place, fish were left on the ground [...]. But in the locality where the so-called Cleft is located there was a tremendous earthquake which caused more loss of life than in all the rest of Greece, particularly on account of a certain festival which they happened to be celebrating there and for which many had gathered from all Greece"

References

Guidoboni, E., et al. (1994). Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century. Rome, Istituto nazionale di geofisica.

554 Constantinople

(219) the night of 15 August 554 *Constantinople, •Nicea?, • Nicomedia

sources1

Mal. 486-7
Ioh. Ephes. 325-6
Agath. 2.15.1 ff.
Vita s. Sym. Stil. Iun. 106
Theoph. 229
Anth. Pal. 9.425-7

sources2

[Dion. Tellmahr.1 126
Georg. Mon. 642
Cedren. 679

literature

Cameron (1970)

catalogues

Bonito (1691)
von Hoff (1840)
Mallet (1853)
Capelle (1924)
Downey (1955)
Grumel (1958)
Hermann (1962)
Shebalin et al. (1974)
Ben-Menahem (1979)
Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
Guidoboni (1989)

Malalas describes a violent earthquake in Asia Minor in August 554 as follows: "In the month of August of the second indiction there was a tremendous earthquake and many houses, baths and churches were damaged, and also parts of the walls at Byzantium. During this shock, the spear, which the statue in the Forum of Constantine was holding, fell and drove itself into the ground to a depth of three cubits. Many were trapped in the rubble. During this shock other cities were also damaged, amongst them Nicomedia, part of which collapsed. Days later people were brought up alive out of the rubble at Nicomedia. The earthquake lasted for 40 days".

Agathias records this earthquake at Constantinople along with that of 551 at Berytus (see entry ( 218 )): "In summer time, roughly during the same period, there was a violent earthquake in Constantinople and in many parts of the Empire, with the result that several cities both on the islands and the mainland were razed to the ground and their inhabitants wiped out".

Pseudo-Dionysius of Tellmahre dates the earthquake at Constantinople and Nicomedia to 550/551.

The earthquake is also recorded by Theophanes, who gives the specific date of 15 August: "In this year [of the world 6046, i.e. 554], on 15 August, in the second indiction, at midnight, as Sunday began, there was a dreadful earthquake in Constantinople, which caused particular damage to many houses, baths and churches, and a section of the walls, especially in the districts near the Golden Gate. Many people were killed. A large part of Nicomedia was also reduced to ruins. This one earthquake lasted for forty days. For a while men devoted themselves to penitence, saying prayers and spending long periods in church, until the love of God manifested itself again in these people who had been plunged into misfortune. Every year this earthquake is commemorated in the Campus, where the people gather in prayer".

The Life of St.Symeon the Stylite the Younger mentions an earthquake at Nicomedia which also "partly" affected Nicea. This was probably a single occurrence, though the nature of the source makes it difficult to be quite certain. Hermann (1962, co1.1111) identifies two earthquakes, one on 15 August 553 and the other in August 554. For the date of the evidence provided by Agathias, see Cameron (1970, p.138 ff.).

References

Guidoboni, E., et al. (1994). Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century. Rome, Istituto nazionale di geofisica.

554 Alexandria, Egypt

(220) 14 October 554 Alexandria, •Egypt

sources

Agath. 2.15.1 ff.
Ioh. Nik. 90.81-3 (p.159 [2791/393 [5131 Zotenberg = p.143 Charles)

catalogues

von Hoff (1840)
Sieberg (1932 a)

Agathias records a slight tremor which he himself felt at Alexandria in Egypt. His account is particularly important for its analysis of the reactions of the inhabitants: "At that time also some slight tremors were felt in the great metropolis of Alexandria on the Nile, an altogether unusual occurrence for those parts. All the inhabitants and particularly the very old were amazed at this apparently unprecedented phenomenon. Nobody stayed indoors. The populace congregated in the streets, seized with unwarranted panic at the suddenness and novelty of the event. I myself was in Alexandria at the time, completing the prescribed studies which lead to the law course proper, and I must confess that I was quite overcome with fear considering the faintness of the tremors. What really worried me, though, was the fact that people's houses there are not at all strongly built and quite incapable of standing up to even a small amount of vibration, being frail and flimsy structures consisting of a single thickness of stone. There was alarm even among the educated section of the community — not, I think, at what had actually taken place, but because it seemed reasonable to expect that the sarr e thing would happen again".

John of Nikiu (quoted here in the Ethiopic translation) describes an earthquake in Egypt. In this case his source is a local one, not another Byzantine chronicle: "In the days of the emperor Justinian [527-565] there was a great earthquake in the land of Egypt, and many cities and villages were swallowed up in the abyss. Those who lived in the country made prayers and many intercessions with tears, being grieved on account of the destruction that had occurred. [82] After a year, the wrath (of heaven) ceased and the earthquakes which had persisted everywhere came to an end. The Egyptians commemorate this day every year on the 17th of Teqemt [14 October]. And the memory of this calamity had been preserved for us by our fathers, the god-bearer Egyptian monks. For these earthquakes were due to the change in the orthodox faith brought about by the emperor Justinian, who had hardened his heart more than his father's brother [i.e. Justin I], who had preceded him".

The context of the above passage seems to suggest that the mention here of religious measures taken by Justinian is almost certainly a reference to those which he took against the Monophysites at the council of Constantinople in May-June 553 and which were definitively approved by Pope Vigilius in Rome in the Constitutum of 23 February 554. The repression which followed was certainly more severe than that imposed by Julian, who had abandoned the repression of anti-Chalcedonite beliefs in Egypt.

References

Guidoboni, E., et al. (1994). Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century. Rome, Istituto nazionale di geofisica.

554-558 the island of Cos seismic sea-wave

(221) 554-558 •the island of Cos seismic sea-wave

sources

Agath. 2.16.1-6

literature

Cameron (1970)

catalogues

von Hoff (1840)
Schmidt (1881)
Sieberg (1932 a)
Galanopoulos (1960)
Ambraseys (1962 b)
Ben-Menahem (1979)
Comninakis and Papazachos (1982)
Papazachos and Papazachos (1989)
Guidoboni (1989)

Agathias records that the island of Cos was struck by a violent earthquake followed by a seismic sea-wave: "At that time [Agathias had been speaking about the earthquake at Alexandria in 554 (see entry ( 220 )) and went on to a general consideration of the causes of earthquakes] the island of Cos which lies at the southern end of the Aegean was almost completely destroyed. Indeed, except for one small part of the island practically nothing was left standing, and the disaster was unprecedented in its scale and complexity. The sea rose up to a fantastic height and engulfed all the buildings near the shore, destroying them together with their contents and inhabitants. The heaving mass was of such enormous proportions that it flung down everything there that its surging crests could not ride over. Almost all the inhabitants perished indiscriminately, whether they happened to have taken refuge in places of worship or to have stayed in their homes or gathered together in some other spot. I happened to have occasion to disembark there myself just after the disaster, when I was sailing back from Alexandria to Constantinople (the island is of course on the route). When I set foot on shore I was confronted with a spectacle that beggared description. Practically the whole city was reduced to a gigantic heap of rubble, littered with stones and fragments of broken pillars and beams, and the air was murky with thick clouds of dust, so that on could barely surmise the existence of what had once been streets from a few vague hints of their presence. A mere handful of houses stood intact, and they were not th. ones that had been built with stones and mortar or some such seemingly more solid and durable substance, but only those made in peasant style out of unbaked bricks or mud. Here and there could be seen a few men whose haggard and dejected faces wore a look of hopeless apathy. On top of all their other ills the entire local water-supply had been contaminated with sea-water and rendered undrinkable. All was ruin and desolation. The only vestige of distinction left the city was the famous name of the Asclepiadae and its proud boast of having been the birthplace of Hippocrates".

The date of the earthquake is debated. Agathias visited the area in 558, at the time of his return journey from Constantinople, but in his narrative he dates the earthquake to before the great 557 earthquake at Constantinople (see entry ( 225 )). However, since he had earlier talked of the 554 earthquake at Constantinople (see entry ( 219 )) before that of 551 (see entry ( 218 )), it is not possible to draw many conclusions about the precise chronology. For a general consideration and further information, see Cameron (1970, p.138 ff.).

References

Guidoboni, E., et al. (1994). Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century. Rome, Istituto nazionale di geofisica.

Paleoclimate - Droughts

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Ancient Texts