Beirut

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Beirut	English
Bayrūt	Arabic	بيروت
Beyrouth	French
Bērytós	Greek	Βηρυτός
Berytus	Latin
Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus	Latin
Barut	French (Crusaders)
Baruth	French (Crusaders)
bēʾrūt	Phoenician
Biruta	Akkadian cuneiform - Amarna letters

Introduction

Beirut has a long history of occupation starting in prehistorical times. During the Byzantine period, Beirut was known as Berytus where it was renowned in the Roman world as a commercial center but most especially for its school of law, which flourished from the third to the sixth centuries CE. ( Issam Ali Khalifeh in Meyers, 1997). The Beirut Quake of 551 CE apparently caused the city to shrink in size. Archaeological excavations in the port area of Beirut where the old Roman/Byzantine city was located have been limited.

Another Introduction

from Issam Ali Khalifeh in Meyers et al (1997)

Beirut is the capital of Lebanon , located on the Mediterranean coast (33°54' N , 35°3o' E). The city's ancient name was Biruta and, in the classical period, Berytus. Th e name is generally thought to b e derived from the common Semitic word for "well" or "pit" —in Akkadian, burtu; Hebrew, be'er; Arabic, bir. Biruta is a plural form.

Berytus was renowned in the Roman world as a commercial center but most especially for its school of law, which flourished from the third to the sixth centuries CE. The earthquake of 551 CE devastated the city. In turn the medieval city fell into ruins, but its scattered granite columns impressed the Persian traveler Nasr-i-Khusraw, who visited the city in 1047. The early western visitors, Henry Moundrell (1697), Richard Pococke (early eighteenth century), F. B. Spilsbury (1799), and William Thomson (1870), all realized that the scattered remains were the ruins of Roman public buildings.

Recent Excavations

from Issam Ali Khalifeh in Meyers et al (1997)

In 1968, the Department of Antiquities commissioned Haroutine Kalayan to excavate certain monuments in Beirut.

An extensive Roman bath near the Grand Serail, with a large cistern and rooms decorated with frescoes were uncovered and partly restored.
A Roman defensive tower that had been reused in the medieval period
A stretch of a Roman street complete with its pavement, columns, capitals, and an architrave in the center of Parliament Square
A second Roman bath and part of an important municipal building (a basilica?) that probably covers the Decumanus Maximus

In 1969, the Department of Antiquities, represented by Roger Saidah, began to clear an area on the ancient tell, near the port area, where in 1954, M B and L B tombs had been found (see above). Surface finds included a Neolithic hammerstone, some EB combed ware, and MB and LB sherds. No Early Iron Age material was recovered, but some sixth century BCE jar handles were found. This excavation was the last opportunity to work on the ancient tell. Saidah's results remain unpublished, as he died soon thereafter.

In 1977, when the possibility of reconstructing the modern city was being studied, Ibrahim Kawkabani, under auspices of the Lebanese Department of Antiquities, and J. D. Forest, from the Institut Francais d'Archeologie du Proche Orient, undertook a series of soundings to look for the city's ancient law school (see above). The work stopped with the onset of Lebanon's civil war. Twenty soundings were made, producing finds from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Mamluk periods. The material culture unearthed included pottery jars, lamps, and figurines, stamped Rhodian and other jar handles, carved bone objects; metal weights, rings, and handles; sculptured and inscribed reliefs, mortars, and capitals; and weaving utensils. Glass, coins, and gold jewelry, mainly from the Byzantine period, were also recovered but remain unpublished.

In 1977 and 1982, several attempts to reconstruct and restore modern Beirut's central business district were stalled by security considerations. In 1983 and 1984, reconstruction and restoration went forward at a considerable pace. A symposium called Beirut of Tomorrow, held at the American University of Beirut in 1983, called for the protection of historic monuments and for attempts to explore the ancient tell of Beirut. UNESCO experts Ernst Will and Rolf Hachmann were invited to the city in 1983 as consultants.

Early in 1993, UNESCO consultants Philippe Marquis, John Schofield, and Jean Paul Thalmann were contracted to work with the Council for Development and Restoration and the Department of Antiquities. On 10 September 1993, work was begun in downtown Beirut in collaboration with teams from the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, Britain, France , the Netherlands, and Italy, and the Royal Museum of Belgium. Five soundings were dug in a three-month period in the downtown area, with the objective of exploring the limits of the ancient town. The teams worked during 1994 and 1995 in and around the ancient town in an area of about 500,000 sq m, expanding the number of soundings to find the Prehistoric, Canaanite, Phoenician, Roman, and medieval cities. Archaeological rescue operations accompanied the construction in the downtown area and will continue to do so.

Beirut at The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites

from The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites

Aerial Views and Plans

Aerial Views

Beirut in Google Earth

Beirut from the north

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth

Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 2 Excavation Areas

Figure 2

Excavations in Beirut's city centre, 1993-1999 (after Mikati, The Creation [cit. n. 12], p. 282)

Mordechai (2020)

in Beirut's city center city center from Mordechai (2020)
Fig. 3 Lebanese University

Figure 3

The Lebanese University Site

Mordechai (2020)

Site from Saghieh-Beidoun (1997)
Fig. 1 Suggested Location

Fig. 1

Early archaeological surveys tended to suggest that the ancient city lay in an area between the present port seaboard, delimited by rue Foch to the east, rue Allenby to the west and the place de l’Etoile to the south (Renan, 1864; Che´hab, 1939; Mouterde, 1942–1943; Lauffray, 1944–1945, 1946–48; de Vaumas, 1946; Mouterde and Lauffray, 1952; Davie, 1987).

Marriner et al (2008)

of ancient Beirut from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 7 BEY archaeological

Fig. 7

Location of BEY archaeological sites discussed in the text (base map from Curvers and Stuart, 2004).

Marriner et al (2008)

sites from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 1 BCD archaeological

Fig. 1

Location of archeological sites (1999-2006)

Curvers et al (2007)

sites from Curvers et al (2007)
Fig. 6 General Plan of
Fig. 6

Period VIIB-C: General Plan of Berytus

Legend

Castle cliffs (BEY 003, 131)

Ras Medawer

Ras Chamiyeh

Decumanus Maximus East (BEY 133, 142, 152, 162)

Decumanus Maximus West (BEY 052, 148)

Cardo Maximus South (BEY 004, 155, 089)

Cardo Maximus North (BEY 012, 031, 087.119, 126, 127)

Imperial Thermae (BEY 045, 088, 102, 103, 126, 128)

Serail Thermae (BEY 016, 117, 122)

Hippodrome (BEY 072, 155, 159. 167)

Temple of Fortuna (?) (BEY 004)

Temple of Jupiter Heliopotanus (?) (BEY 140)

Episcopal Palace (BEY 113, 158)

Eastern Forum (BEY 158)

Central Forum (BEY 009)

Sport clubs of different factions (BEY 043, 139, 146, 159)

Sacred space (BEY 159)

Mosaic Building (BEY 159)

Eastern Harbor

Western Harbor (BEY 007, 049, 143, 147)

Southeastern Thermae (BEY 094, 160)

Serail Cliff shops (BEY 156)

Glass Tank Furnaces >> Potter’s Kilns (BEY 015)

(based on Du Mesnil du Buisson 1921; Collinet 1925; Lauffray 1944-5; Davie 1987; Asmar 1998; Perring 2003; Marquis 2004; Curvers and Stuart 2004; Saghieh-Beydoun 2005)

Curvers et al (2007)
Berytus in Period VIIB-C (the Classical Period - 300 BCE - 800 CE) from Curvers et al (2007)
Fig. 11 Port of Beirut

Fig. 11

5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004).

Marriner et al (2008)

from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 4 Port of Beirut

Fig. 4

Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004)

Marriner et al (2008)

from Marriner et al (2008)
Beirut Hippodrome

Beirut Hippodrome

Beirut Report

from Beirut Report

Magnified

Fig. 2 Excavation Areas

Figure 2

Excavations in Beirut's city centre, 1993-1999 (after Mikati, The Creation [cit. n. 12], p. 282)

Mordechai (2020)

in Beirut's city center city center from Mordechai (2020)
Fig. 3 Lebanese University

Figure 3

The Lebanese University Site

Mordechai (2020)

Site from Saghieh-Beidoun (1997)
Fig. 1 Suggested Location

Fig. 1

Early archaeological surveys tended to suggest that the ancient city lay in an area between the present port seaboard, delimited by rue Foch to the east, rue Allenby to the west and the place de l’Etoile to the south (Renan, 1864; Che´hab, 1939; Mouterde, 1942–1943; Lauffray, 1944–1945, 1946–48; de Vaumas, 1946; Mouterde and Lauffray, 1952; Davie, 1987).

Marriner et al (2008)

of ancient Beirut from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 7 BEY archaeological

Fig. 7

Location of BEY archaeological sites discussed in the text (base map from Curvers and Stuart, 2004).

Marriner et al (2008)

sites from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 1 BCD archaeological

Fig. 1

Location of archeological sites (1999-2006)

Curvers et al (2007)

sites from Curvers et al (2007)
Fig. 6 General Plan of
Fig. 6

Period VIIB-C: General Plan of Berytus

Legend

Castle cliffs (BEY 003, 131)

Ras Medawer

Ras Chamiyeh

Decumanus Maximus East (BEY 133, 142, 152, 162)

Decumanus Maximus West (BEY 052, 148)

Cardo Maximus South (BEY 004, 155, 089)

Cardo Maximus North (BEY 012, 031, 087.119, 126, 127)

Imperial Thermae (BEY 045, 088, 102, 103, 126, 128)

Serail Thermae (BEY 016, 117, 122)

Hippodrome (BEY 072, 155, 159. 167)

Temple of Fortuna (?) (BEY 004)

Temple of Jupiter Heliopotanus (?) (BEY 140)

Episcopal Palace (BEY 113, 158)

Eastern Forum (BEY 158)

Central Forum (BEY 009)

Sport clubs of different factions (BEY 043, 139, 146, 159)

Sacred space (BEY 159)

Mosaic Building (BEY 159)

Eastern Harbor

Western Harbor (BEY 007, 049, 143, 147)

Southeastern Thermae (BEY 094, 160)

Serail Cliff shops (BEY 156)

Glass Tank Furnaces >> Potter’s Kilns (BEY 015)

(based on Du Mesnil du Buisson 1921; Collinet 1925; Lauffray 1944-5; Davie 1987; Asmar 1998; Perring 2003; Marquis 2004; Curvers and Stuart 2004; Saghieh-Beydoun 2005)

Curvers et al (2007)
Berytus in Period VIIB-C (the Classical Period - 300 BCE - 800 CE) from Curvers et al (2007)
Fig. 11 Port of Beirut

Fig. 11

5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004).

Marriner et al (2008)

from Marriner et al (2008)
Fig. 4 Port of Beirut

Fig. 4

Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004)

Marriner et al (2008)

from Marriner et al (2008)
Beirut Hippodrome

Beirut Hippodrome

Beirut Report

from Beirut Report

551 CE Beirut Earthquake

Discussion

Phasing

Chronological Scheme of the BCD Archaeology Project

from Curvers et al (2007)


Period	Dates (CE)	Description
I	- 10,000 BCE	Paleolithic
II	10,000 - 6000 BCE	Pre-pottery Neolithic
III	6000 - 4500 BCE	Pottery Neolithic
IV	4500 - 3000 BCE	Chalcolithic
V	3000 - 1200 BCE	Bronze Age
VI	1200 - 300 BCE	Iron Age
VII	300 BCE - 800 CE	Classical
VIII	800 - 1700 CE	Medieval
VII	1840 - 1920 CE	The great reconstruction of Beirut in the 19th century
VIII	1920 - 1975 CE	The remains of pre-war Beirut

6th century CE Earthquake and Tsunami

Discussion

References

Notes by JW

Archaeoseismic

Figure 5

South Section

JW: Flame features are drawn in the bottom layer of the section.

Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)

In Sector BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?), Saghieh-Beydoun (1997) discovered some soft sediment liquefaction features known as flame features at the base of what appears to be be a destruction layer or debris flow deposit. This deposit may be dated to the mid 6th century CE - the date of the images above are not entirely clear in the article and I don't currently have access to the report. The flame features show up at the bottom of the drawing above. A photograph of this or a nearby section (below) also shows the flame features.

Figure 4

Seismites and Liquefactions

JW: Flame features are visible at the very bottom of the section (e.g. from the white part of the pole downward).

Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)

Flame features are diagnostic of pore fluid overpressures which are commonly caused by liquefaction during earthquakes. Their presence at the bottom of the debris layer may suggest a tsunami debris flow deposit that was then agitated by seismic shaking that then created the liquefaction features supporting observations by John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre that the tsunami preceded the earthquake suggesting further, as noted by Mordechai (2020) that the main earthquake struck after a powerful foreshock.

Mordechai (2020) surveyed archeoseismic evidence in Beirut:

A late antique layer of destruction, followed by fire in some cases, was found in several excavation sites in the city and was attributed to the 551 earthquake based on several pieces of evidence.^[54] One archaeologist described how a diagnostic sounding revealed the earthquake’s ‘horrors in an archaeological inferno over the whole [single] excavated area’ through a layer of destruction between 0.75m and 1.00m thick.^[55] This layer, however, was uneven and much thinner in other areas. Other teams asserted that the buildings in their site did not collapse immediately – as evident from the absence of smashed collections of pottery and household goods.^[56]

Footnotes

[54] The excavations revealed objects that were buried in the debris such as a wrapped coinroll (see below), a hanging bronze polykandelon and human and animal remains near a collapsed wall, and another group of coins. For the objects, see respectively Mikati & Perring,‘Metropolis to ribat’ (cit. n. 4), pp. 47–49, Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks’ (cit. n. 41), pp.21–23
, and M. Steiner, ‘The Hellenistic to Byzantine souk: results of the excavations at BEY 011’, ARAM 13–14 (2001–2002), pp. 113–127. Other teams were uncertain whether the destruction layer was to be dated to the sixth or seventh century. See P. Arnaud, E. Llopis & M. Bonifay,‘Bey 027 Rapport préliminaire’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 98–134, at p. 109.

[55] Saghieh, ‘Bey 001 & 004’ (cit. n. 46), p. 40.. M. Saghieh-Beydoun, ‘Evidence for earthquakes in the current excavations of Beirut city centre’, [in:] C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon, Beirut 2004, pp. 280–285, at p. 284 later reported finding soil liquefaction, an earthquake-related phenomenon, but did not attribute it to a dated seismic event.

[56] For layer of destruction, see for example Figure 6 in L. Badre, ‘The Greek Orthodox cathedral of Saint George in Beirut, Lebanon: The archaeological excavations and crypt museum’, JEMAHS 4 (2016), pp. 72–97, at p. 78.. For buildings not collapsing, see D. Perring et al., ‘Bey 006, 1994–1995: The souks area interim report of the AUB Project’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 176– 206, at pp. 196–198. K. Butcher & R. Thorpe, ‘A note on excavations in central Beirut 1994– 1996’, JRA 10 (1997), pp. 291–306, at p. 299, assert that ‘evidence for earthquake damage on the Souks site is virtually absent...’, and M. Heinz & K. Bartl, ‘Bey 024 “Place Debbas” preliminary report’, BAAL 2 (1997), pp. 236–257, at p. 256, similarly assert that ‘traces of violent destruction (earthquake) were not visible’.

Hall (2004) noted that:

Some archeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest rebuilding on a scale not quite the match of the previous construction (compare Agathias above). Lauffray has found columns of mismatched colors in a building he considers either a church or a basilica. He thinks these columns may represent replacement work after the earthquake. It is notable that Zacharias in his description of the church of Eustathius insists very strongly that the original columns were of purest white and were carefully matched.^[115] When summing up the archeological evidence for Berytus, Lauffray thought that some restorations were made to the civic basilica in the sixth century AD. Lauffray also suggested that after the earthquake some of the baths and certain parts of the porticos of the streets were restored. Lauffray notes the difficulty of securely identifying the churches and some other buildings.

Footnotes

[115] Lauffray (1944–6) 62, referring to a colonnade indicated by five column bases.

551 CE tsunami

Marriner et al (2008) reported on 20 cores taken in Beirut's buried ancient harbor; none of which contained apparent tsunamites. However, the tsunami may have left evidence in other parts of the city. Some of their discussion regarding tsunamogenic evidence is reproduced below:

Excavations undertaken in Beirut's harbour by Curvers et al. have revealed the presence of tree branches and considerable amounts of unabraded Roman pottery and rubble in 6-7th century AD layers (Curvers, personal communication). Surveys in the Ottoman harbour have unearthed harbour muds and silts which lie unconformably above sea-scoured bedrock (Curvers and Stuart, 2004). These have been attributed to tsunami action and indirectly infer considerable damage to the city's seaport infrastructure. This archaeological evidence, coupled with the stratigraphic data, support major changes in the port's configuration at this time. At no point during the Islamic and medieval periods do we record such a well-protected harbour. In light of this, there appears to be a clear link between the retraction of the Byzantine Empire to its Anatolian core and the catastrophic destruction of many parts of Beirut, including its harbour area, during the 551 AD earthquake and tsunami.

... Although sedimentary traces of the tsunami impacts are not observed in the cores, recent excavations suggest that the ancient sources did not exaggerate in their description of the archaeological destruction caused by the event (Curvers and Stuart, 2004). New research has yielded closely dated stratigraphic sequences at a number of dig sites that unequivocally corroborate the widespread earthquake damage (Elayi and Sayegh, 2000; Curvers and Stuart, in press). In the aftermath, Beirut underwent altering patterns of trade, production and consumption. The archaeology also shows that many parts of the city were left in partial ruin or even abandoned, with limited evidence for reconstruction. Mikati and Perring (2006) present a model of 'continuity' but degradation of urban infrastructure at post-earthquake Beirut. Dating of raised shorelines north of Beirut confirms uplift of 50-80 cm (Morhange et al., 2006).

Salamon et al. (2024:Section 1.3) summarized 551 CE tsunamigenic evidence in Beirut as follows:

We focused on Marriner et al. (2008, and references therein), who conducted extensive geoarchaeological investigations in the area of the ancient harbor of Beirut and integrated a wealth of information from previous studies. They unearthed and discovered unique findings dated to the Byzantine and later periods. A notable finding is the transition from fine-grained to coarser-grained sediments, which is usually associated with a partial or total abandonment of harbors and/or economic and political decline. They also uncovered sea-scoured bedrock that can be attributed to erosion due to strong tsunami currents. In addition, they noted the spread of ruins, the relative absence of seaport infrastructure, partial abandonment, and limited rebuilding across the city area of Beirut at that time. Furthermore, these authors were able to reconstruct the location of the Romano-Byzantine harbor coastline of Beirut at the time of the earthquake (Fig. 11 dashed blue line, in Marriner et al. 2008). They also inferred that westward and eastward, the harbor coastline appeared to merge with the pre-1840 coastline, which has not changed much since antiquity. Overall, Marriner et al. (2008) concluded that these discoveries echo a catastrophic event, most likely the 551 earthquake and tsunami.

551 CE Beirut Earthquake

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls (Collapsed Houses) Fatalities (indicates collapsed walls) Tsunami Destroyed Aqueduct (Arch Damage) Fire Funds sent to restore city	Beirut		"a severe and tremendous earthquake occurred throughout the land of Palestine, in Arabia and in the land of Mesopotamia, Antioch, Phoenice Maritima and Phoenice Libanensis. In this terror the following cities suffered: 'Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblus, Botrys and parts of other cities. Large numbers of people were trapped in them. ... The emperor sent money to all the provinces and restored parts of these cities. " - Johannes Malalas "there was a violent earthquake ... Berytus [Beirut], the jewel of Phoenicia, was completely ruined and its world famous architectural treasures were reduced to a heap of rubble, practically nothing but the bare pavements of the buildings being left. ... Many of the local inhabitants were crushed to death under the weight of the wreckage, as were many cultivated young men of distinguished parentage who had come there to study the Law. ... the professors of law moved to the neighbouring city of Sidon and the schools were transferred there, until Berytus was rebuilt. ... The restored city was very different from what it had been in the past, though it was not changed beyond recognition, since it still preserved a few traces of its former self. But this rebuilding of the city and the subsequent return of the schools was not to take place for some time yet." - Agathias of Myrina "there was a severe earthquake, and Beirut collapsed ... Along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles. As for the terrible disaster and the great and remarkable portent which happened in the city of Beirut in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and the cities collapsed, we have decided to make it a warning sign for the knowing of posterity. For when the earthquake came from heaven, the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles; the dreadful depths of the sea became visible and various and amazing sights were revealed: sunken ships full of different cargoes, and other things too when the waters had retreated from the land. Some ships which were moored in the harbors settled on the sea-bottom since at God’s command they had been left high and dry as the water flowed away… then a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth, overwhelmed and consumed all these wretched people in the depths of its swirling waters. They had rushed to find wealth in the depths of the sea and, like Pharaoh, they went down to the depths and were drowned like stones, as it is written; and God rolled the waters of the sea over them, as the flood burst forth and flowed back to its former abundance. Those who were still on the edge of the shore were hurrying to go down; when they saw the deep sea rushing back to its former position, those who were closest to the land fled out. But after they had escaped, as if from hunters, a violent earthquake took place, which overturned houses in the cities, especially Beirut; they fell and crushed those who had escaped the sea and nobody survived. As the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them…When this report was received the emperor Justinian sent gold through several noblemen, who removed and carried out innumerable human bodies and restored the city to some extent." - John of Ephesus "we came to the magnificent city of Berytus, where there was recently a center for literary study. That city was also destroyed. The bishop of the city told us that, without counting foreigners who were staying there briefly, thirty thousand known people had been killed." - The Anonymous Itinerarium (erroneously) attributed to Antoninus of Piacenza "a great and terrible earthquake happened ... many cities of the Phoenician littoral collapsed, viz. Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Biblus (sic.) and Botrys, and other cities" - Fragmenta Historica Tusculana "a severe and powerful earthquake occurred, in addition to the other ones. Numerous cities collapsed, as did the cities of Phoenicia — that is Arabia and Palestine, Beirut, Tripolis, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta, Byblos, Antarados, and the rest of their towns, villages and districts fell and were ruined. Because of sins, many people were buried in their houses in the wrath, as were the cattle and other things. ... As for Justinian the Emperor, he sent ample gold to all the cities that had collapsed in the earthquake. And little by little they were rebuilt and their walls were repaired ... A powerful earthquake took place, and Beirut as well as many other coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria collapsed. Also the sea retreated and drew back for about two miles, all along Phoenicia. We wanted to put into writing, for the instruction of future generations, account of the terrible disaster and the great and wondrous sign that occurred in Beirut, a city in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and cities collapsed. /p.134/ For when the terrible earthquake suddenly happened, the sea from the city of Beirut and the other cities along the seashore of Phoenicia, fell back, withdrew, retreated and fled away as far as two miles in distance, at God's command. Thus the awesome depths of the sea became visible, and many great and amazing objects were seen. Ships loaded with various cargoes sunk. Others, moored in the harbours, due to the sudden withdrawal of the sea from the land, went down and settled on the bottom, after they had collided and broken up, when the sea left them and pulled back at the command of its Lord. ... While some were rushing down to the bottom, /p.135/ and while others were busy above, and still others were doing their best in between, and while all of them without distinction were walking along proudly, then, at an invisible sign, the immensity of the terrible sea suddenly ran to return to its former depths, engulfing and burying in the abyss of its immense depths all those wretched ones, who pursued wealth from the great deep. ...While they were trying to escape, as it were from hunters, a severe earthquake occurred, which shook the buildings of the cities, especially those of Beirut. They collapsed and crushed those who fled from the sea while not one of them survived. For when the sea rose up against them from behind, the earthquake shook the city before them. ... Thus those who went down after wealth were reduced to complete destruction. They destroyed the breath of their lives and their corpses were found floating on the surface of the water like litter. Then when the city collapsed, fire at God's command kindled its ruins and burned /p.136/ and blazed inside the ruins for up to two months, until even the stones burned it and turned into lime. Afterwards, God sent down rain from the sky for three days and three nights and extinguished the fire that blazed in the city of Beirut. And those who had escaped from drowning in the sea and from the downfall of the city, were cast away in the city, while injured, troubled and tormented by thirst because its aqueduct was destroyed. When the merciful Emperor Justinian heard about (this), he sent gold and some of his well-known people, and they uncovered and exhumed countless human corpses; they also rebuilt part of the city." - Pseudo‑Dionysius of Tell-Mahre "there was a severe and frightful earthquake throughout Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia. The following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytos, Tripolis, and Byblos ... The emperor sent money for restoring what had fallen in these cities. The sea retreated one mile towards the deep and many ships were lost. Later, at God's command, it returned to its own bed." - Theophanes "the city of Tripoli was submerged, as well as Beirut, Biblos, Botrys and the towns of Galilee" - Michael the Syrian "the sea-coast of Phoenicia was submerged, Tripoli, Berut, Byblos, and Troas, and the cities of Galilee." - Bar Hebraeus

6th century CE Earthquake and Tsunami

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
flame features at the bottom of a collapse layer	South section BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?) Figure 3 The Lebanese University Site Mordechai (2020)	Figure 5 South Section JW: Flame features are drawn in the bottom layer of the section. Saghieh-Beydoun (2004) Figure 4 Seismites and Liquefactions JW: Flame features are visible at the very bottom of the section (e.g. from the white part of the pole downward). Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)	JW: In Sector BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?), Saghieh-Beydoun (1997) discovered some soft sediment liquefaction features known as flame features at the base of what appears to be be a destruction layer or debris flow deposit. This deposit may be dated to the mid 6th century CE - the date of the images above are not entirely clear in the article and I don't currently have access to the report. Flame features are diagnostic of pore fluid overpressures which are commonly caused by liquefaction during earthquakes. Their presence at the bottom of the debris layer may suggest a tsunami debris flow deposit that was then agitated by seismic shaking that then created the liquefaction features supporting observations by John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre that the tsunami preceded the earthquake suggesting further, as noted by Mordechai (2020) that the main earthquake struck after a powerful foreshock.
Collapse layer	Various locations (?) including South section BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?) Figure 3 The Lebanese University Site Mordechai (2020)	Figure 5 South Section JW: Flame features are drawn in the bottom layer of the section. Saghieh-Beydoun (2004) Figure 4 Seismites and Liquefactions JW: Flame features are visible at the very bottom of the section (e.g. from the white part of the pole downward). Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)	A late antique layer of destruction, followed by fire in some cases, was found in several excavation sites in the city and was attributed to the 551 earthquake based on several pieces of evidence.^[54] One archaeologist described how a diagnostic sounding revealed the earthquake’s ‘horrors in an archaeological inferno over the whole [single] excavated area’ through a layer of destruction between 0.75m and 1.00m thick.^[55] This layer, however, was uneven and much thinner in other areas. Other teams asserted that the buildings in their site did not collapse immediately – as evident from the absence of smashed collections of pottery and household goods.^[56] Footnotes [54] The excavations revealed objects that were buried in the debris such as a wrapped coinroll (see below), a hanging bronze polykandelon and human and animal remains near a collapsed wall, and another group of coins. For the objects, see respectively Mikati & Perring,‘Metropolis to ribat’ (cit. n. 4), pp. 47–49, Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks’ (cit. n. 41), pp.21–23, and M. Steiner, ‘The Hellenistic to Byzantine souk: results of the excavations at BEY 011’, ARAM 13–14 (2001–2002), pp. 113–127. Other teams were uncertain whether the destruction layer was to be dated to the sixth or seventh century. See P. Arnaud, E. Llopis & M. Bonifay,‘Bey 027 Rapport préliminaire’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 98–134, at p. 109. [55] Saghieh, ‘Bey 001 & 004’ (cit. n. 46), p. 40.. M. Saghieh-Beydoun, ‘Evidence for earthquakes in the current excavations of Beirut city centre’, [in:] C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon, Beirut 2004, pp. 280–285, at p. 284 later reported finding soil liquefaction, an earthquake-related phenomenon, but did not attribute it to a dated seismic event. [56] For layer of destruction, see for example Figure 6 in L. Badre, ‘The Greek Orthodox cathedral of Saint George in Beirut, Lebanon: The archaeological excavations and crypt museum’, JEMAHS 4 (2016), pp. 72–97, at p. 78.. For buildings not collapsing, see D. Perring et al., ‘Bey 006, 1994–1995: The souks area interim report of the AUB Project’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 176– 206, at pp. 196–198. K. Butcher & R. Thorpe, ‘A note on excavations in central Beirut 1994– 1996’, JRA 10 (1997), pp. 291–306, at p. 299, assert that ‘evidence for earthquake damage on the Souks site is virtually absent...’, and M. Heinz & K. Bartl, ‘Bey 024 “Place Debbas” preliminary report’, BAAL 2 (1997), pp. 236–257, at p. 256, similarly assert that ‘traces of violent destruction (earthquake) were not visible’. - Mordechai (2020)
Fallen Columns (inferred)	?		Some archeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest rebuilding on a scale not quite the match of the previous construction (compare Agathias above). Lauffray has found columns of mismatched colors in a building he considers either a church or a basilica. He thinks these columns may represent replacement work after the earthquake. It is notable that Zacharias in his description of the church of Eustathius insists very strongly that the original columns were of purest white and were carefully matched.^[115] When summing up the archeological evidence for Berytus, Lauffray thought that some restorations were made to the civic basilica in the sixth century AD. Lauffray also suggested that after the earthquake some of the baths and certain parts of the porticos of the streets were restored. Lauffray notes the difficulty of securely identifying the churches and some other buildings. Footnotes [115] Lauffray (1944–6) 62, referring to a colonnade indicated by five column bases. - Hall (2004)

6th century CE Earthquake and Tsunami

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
tree branches and considerable amounts of unabraded Roman pottery and rubble in 6-7th century CE layers	Beirut's harbour at one of the BCD sites (?) Fig. 1 Location of archeological sites (1999-2006) Curvers et al (2007) Fig. 11 5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004). Marriner et al (2008) Fig. 4 Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004) Marriner et al (2008)		Excavations undertaken in Beirut's harbour by Curvers et al. have revealed the presence of tree branches and considerable amounts of unabraded Roman pottery and rubble in 6-7th century AD layers (Curvers, personal communication). - Marriner et al (2008)
harbour muds and silts lying unconformably above sea-scoured bedrock	Ottoman harbour at one of the BCD sites (?) Fig. 1 Location of archeological sites (1999-2006) Curvers et al (2007) Fig. 11 5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004). Marriner et al (2008) Fig. 4 Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004) Marriner et al (2008)		Surveys in the Ottoman harbour have unearthed harbour muds and silts which lie unconformably above sea-scoured bedrock (Curvers and Stuart, 2004). These have been attributed to tsunami action and indirectly infer considerable damage to the city's seaport infrastructure. - Marriner et al (2008)

551 CE Beirut Earthquake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls (Collapsed Houses) Fatalities (indicates collapsed walls) Tsunami Destroyed Aqueduct (Arch Damage) Fire Funds sent to restore city	Beirut		"a severe and tremendous earthquake occurred throughout the land of Palestine, in Arabia and in the land of Mesopotamia, Antioch, Phoenice Maritima and Phoenice Libanensis. In this terror the following cities suffered: 'Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblus, Botrys and parts of other cities. Large numbers of people were trapped in them. ... The emperor sent money to all the provinces and restored parts of these cities. " - Johannes Malalas "there was a violent earthquake ... Berytus [Beirut], the jewel of Phoenicia, was completely ruined and its world famous architectural treasures were reduced to a heap of rubble, practically nothing but the bare pavements of the buildings being left. ... Many of the local inhabitants were crushed to death under the weight of the wreckage, as were many cultivated young men of distinguished parentage who had come there to study the Law. ... the professors of law moved to the neighbouring city of Sidon and the schools were transferred there, until Berytus was rebuilt. ... The restored city was very different from what it had been in the past, though it was not changed beyond recognition, since it still preserved a few traces of its former self. But this rebuilding of the city and the subsequent return of the schools was not to take place for some time yet." - Agathias of Myrina "there was a severe earthquake, and Beirut collapsed ... Along the whole Phoenician coast, too, the sea withdrew and retreated nearly two miles. As for the terrible disaster and the great and remarkable portent which happened in the city of Beirut in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and the cities collapsed, we have decided to make it a warning sign for the knowing of posterity. For when the earthquake came from heaven, the sea withdrew and retreated from Beirut and the other coastal cities of Phoenicia for a distance of nearly two miles; the dreadful depths of the sea became visible and various and amazing sights were revealed: sunken ships full of different cargoes, and other things too when the waters had retreated from the land. Some ships which were moored in the harbors settled on the sea-bottom since at God’s command they had been left high and dry as the water flowed away… then a tremendous surge of the sea rushed up to return to its original depth, overwhelmed and consumed all these wretched people in the depths of its swirling waters. They had rushed to find wealth in the depths of the sea and, like Pharaoh, they went down to the depths and were drowned like stones, as it is written; and God rolled the waters of the sea over them, as the flood burst forth and flowed back to its former abundance. Those who were still on the edge of the shore were hurrying to go down; when they saw the deep sea rushing back to its former position, those who were closest to the land fled out. But after they had escaped, as if from hunters, a violent earthquake took place, which overturned houses in the cities, especially Beirut; they fell and crushed those who had escaped the sea and nobody survived. As the sea was rising up against them from behind, the earthquake brought down the city in front of them…When this report was received the emperor Justinian sent gold through several noblemen, who removed and carried out innumerable human bodies and restored the city to some extent." - John of Ephesus "we came to the magnificent city of Berytus, where there was recently a center for literary study. That city was also destroyed. The bishop of the city told us that, without counting foreigners who were staying there briefly, thirty thousand known people had been killed." - The Anonymous Itinerarium (erroneously) attributed to Antoninus of Piacenza "a great and terrible earthquake happened ... many cities of the Phoenician littoral collapsed, viz. Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Biblus (sic.) and Botrys, and other cities" - Fragmenta Historica Tusculana "a severe and powerful earthquake occurred, in addition to the other ones. Numerous cities collapsed, as did the cities of Phoenicia — that is Arabia and Palestine, Beirut, Tripolis, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta, Byblos, Antarados, and the rest of their towns, villages and districts fell and were ruined. Because of sins, many people were buried in their houses in the wrath, as were the cattle and other things. ... As for Justinian the Emperor, he sent ample gold to all the cities that had collapsed in the earthquake. And little by little they were rebuilt and their walls were repaired ... A powerful earthquake took place, and Beirut as well as many other coastal cities and villages in Galilee, Arabia, Palestine and Samaria collapsed. Also the sea retreated and drew back for about two miles, all along Phoenicia. We wanted to put into writing, for the instruction of future generations, account of the terrible disaster and the great and wondrous sign that occurred in Beirut, a city in Phoenicia, when the earthquake took place and cities collapsed. /p.134/ For when the terrible earthquake suddenly happened, the sea from the city of Beirut and the other cities along the seashore of Phoenicia, fell back, withdrew, retreated and fled away as far as two miles in distance, at God's command. Thus the awesome depths of the sea became visible, and many great and amazing objects were seen. Ships loaded with various cargoes sunk. Others, moored in the harbours, due to the sudden withdrawal of the sea from the land, went down and settled on the bottom, after they had collided and broken up, when the sea left them and pulled back at the command of its Lord. ... While some were rushing down to the bottom, /p.135/ and while others were busy above, and still others were doing their best in between, and while all of them without distinction were walking along proudly, then, at an invisible sign, the immensity of the terrible sea suddenly ran to return to its former depths, engulfing and burying in the abyss of its immense depths all those wretched ones, who pursued wealth from the great deep. ...While they were trying to escape, as it were from hunters, a severe earthquake occurred, which shook the buildings of the cities, especially those of Beirut. They collapsed and crushed those who fled from the sea while not one of them survived. For when the sea rose up against them from behind, the earthquake shook the city before them. ... Thus those who went down after wealth were reduced to complete destruction. They destroyed the breath of their lives and their corpses were found floating on the surface of the water like litter. Then when the city collapsed, fire at God's command kindled its ruins and burned /p.136/ and blazed inside the ruins for up to two months, until even the stones burned it and turned into lime. Afterwards, God sent down rain from the sky for three days and three nights and extinguished the fire that blazed in the city of Beirut. And those who had escaped from drowning in the sea and from the downfall of the city, were cast away in the city, while injured, troubled and tormented by thirst because its aqueduct was destroyed. When the merciful Emperor Justinian heard about (this), he sent gold and some of his well-known people, and they uncovered and exhumed countless human corpses; they also rebuilt part of the city." - Pseudo‑Dionysius of Tell-Mahre "there was a severe and frightful earthquake throughout Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Phoenicia. The following cities suffered: Tyre, Sidon, Berytos, Tripolis, and Byblos ... The emperor sent money for restoring what had fallen in these cities. The sea retreated one mile towards the deep and many ships were lost. Later, at God's command, it returned to its own bed." - Theophanes "the city of Tripoli was submerged, as well as Beirut, Biblos, Botrys and the towns of Galilee" - Michael the Syrian "the sea-coast of Phoenicia was submerged, Tripoli, Berut, Byblos, and Troas, and the cities of Galilee." - Bar Hebraeus	VIII+ VIII+ IX+ VI+ ? ?

Although the archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of IX (9) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), descriptions of near total devastation in Beirut suggest an Intesnity of X (10). Some parts of the harbour area of Beirut may be subject to liquefaction.

6th century CE Earthquake and Tsunami

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
flame features at the bottom of a collapse layer indicating liquefaction	South section BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?) Figure 3 The Lebanese University Site Mordechai (2020)	Figure 5 South Section JW: Flame features are drawn in the bottom layer of the section. Saghieh-Beydoun (2004) Figure 4 Seismites and Liquefactions JW: Flame features are visible at the very bottom of the section (e.g. from the white part of the pole downward). Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)	JW: In Sector BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?), Saghieh-Beydoun (1997) discovered some soft sediment liquefaction features known as flame features at the base of what appears to be be a destruction layer or debris flow deposit. This deposit may be dated to the mid 6th century CE - the date of the images above are not entirely clear in the article and I don't currently have access to the report. Flame features are diagnostic of pore fluid overpressures which are commonly caused by liquefaction during earthquakes. Their presence at the bottom of the debris layer may suggest a tsunami debris flow deposit that was then agitated by seismic shaking that then created the liquefaction features supporting observations by John of Ephesus and Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre that the tsunami preceded the earthquake suggesting further, as noted by Mordechai (2020) that the main earthquake struck after a powerful foreshock.	VII +
Collapse layer indicating collapsed walls	Various locations (?) including South section BEY 004 (Lebanese University Site ?) Figure 3 The Lebanese University Site Mordechai (2020)	Figure 5 South Section JW: Flame features are drawn in the bottom layer of the section. Saghieh-Beydoun (2004) Figure 4 Seismites and Liquefactions JW: Flame features are visible at the very bottom of the section (e.g. from the white part of the pole downward). Saghieh-Beydoun (2004)	A late antique layer of destruction, followed by fire in some cases, was found in several excavation sites in the city and was attributed to the 551 earthquake based on several pieces of evidence.^[54] One archaeologist described how a diagnostic sounding revealed the earthquake’s ‘horrors in an archaeological inferno over the whole [single] excavated area’ through a layer of destruction between 0.75m and 1.00m thick.^[55] This layer, however, was uneven and much thinner in other areas. Other teams asserted that the buildings in their site did not collapse immediately – as evident from the absence of smashed collections of pottery and household goods.^[56] Footnotes [54] The excavations revealed objects that were buried in the debris such as a wrapped coinroll (see below), a hanging bronze polykandelon and human and animal remains near a collapsed wall, and another group of coins. For the objects, see respectively Mikati & Perring,‘Metropolis to ribat’ (cit. n. 4), pp. 47–49, Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks’ (cit. n. 41), pp.21–23, and M. Steiner, ‘The Hellenistic to Byzantine souk: results of the excavations at BEY 011’, ARAM 13–14 (2001–2002), pp. 113–127. Other teams were uncertain whether the destruction layer was to be dated to the sixth or seventh century. See P. Arnaud, E. Llopis & M. Bonifay,‘Bey 027 Rapport préliminaire’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 98–134, at p. 109. [55] Saghieh, ‘Bey 001 & 004’ (cit. n. 46), p. 40.. M. Saghieh-Beydoun, ‘Evidence for earthquakes in the current excavations of Beirut city centre’, [in:] C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon, Beirut 2004, pp. 280–285, at p. 284 later reported finding soil liquefaction, an earthquake-related phenomenon, but did not attribute it to a dated seismic event. [56] For layer of destruction, see for example Figure 6 in L. Badre, ‘The Greek Orthodox cathedral of Saint George in Beirut, Lebanon: The archaeological excavations and crypt museum’, JEMAHS 4 (2016), pp. 72–97, at p. 78.. For buildings not collapsing, see D. Perring et al., ‘Bey 006, 1994–1995: The souks area interim report of the AUB Project’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 176– 206, at pp. 196–198. K. Butcher & R. Thorpe, ‘A note on excavations in central Beirut 1994– 1996’, JRA 10 (1997), pp. 291–306, at p. 299, assert that ‘evidence for earthquake damage on the Souks site is virtually absent...’, and M. Heinz & K. Bartl, ‘Bey 024 “Place Debbas” preliminary report’, BAAL 2 (1997), pp. 236–257, at p. 256, similarly assert that ‘traces of violent destruction (earthquake) were not visible’. - Mordechai (2020)	VIII +
Fallen Columns (inferred)	?		Some archeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest rebuilding on a scale not quite the match of the previous construction (compare Agathias above). Lauffray has found columns of mismatched colors in a building he considers either a church or a basilica. He thinks these columns may represent replacement work after the earthquake. It is notable that Zacharias in his description of the church of Eustathius insists very strongly that the original columns were of purest white and were carefully matched.^[115] When summing up the archeological evidence for Berytus, Lauffray thought that some restorations were made to the civic basilica in the sixth century AD. Lauffray also suggested that after the earthquake some of the baths and certain parts of the porticos of the streets were restored. Lauffray notes the difficulty of securely identifying the churches and some other buildings. Footnotes [115] Lauffray (1944–6) 62, referring to a colonnade indicated by five column bases. - Hall (2004)	V +
tsunami indicated by tree branches and considerable amounts of unabraded Roman pottery and rubble in 6-7th century CE layers	Beirut's harbour at one of the BCD sites (?) Fig. 1 Location of archeological sites (1999-2006) Curvers et al (2007) Fig. 11 5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004). Marriner et al (2008) Fig. 4 Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004) Marriner et al (2008)		Excavations undertaken in Beirut's harbour by Curvers et al. have revealed the presence of tree branches and considerable amounts of unabraded Roman pottery and rubble in 6-7th century AD layers (Curvers, personal communication). - Marriner et al (2008)	IX+
tsunami indicated by harbour muds and silts lying unconformably above sea-scoured bedrock	Ottoman harbour at one of the BCD sites (?) Fig. 1 Location of archeological sites (1999-2006) Curvers et al (2007) Fig. 11 5000 years of coastal deformation in Beirut’s ancient harbour. Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline from a natural indented morphology to an increasingly rectilinear disposition during later periods (base image: DigitalGlobe, 2006). Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004). Marriner et al (2008) Fig. 4 Location of core sites at Beirut. Archaeological data from Elayi and Sayegh (2000) and Marquis (2004) Marriner et al (2008)		Surveys in the Ottoman harbour have unearthed harbour muds and silts which lie unconformably above sea-scoured bedrock (Curvers and Stuart, 2004). These have been attributed to tsunami action and indirectly infer considerable damage to the city's seaport infrastructure. - Marriner et al (2008)	IX+

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of IX (9) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Some parts of the harbour area of Beirut may be subject to liquefaction.

References

Articles and Books

Badre, L., ‘The Greek Orthodox cathedral of Saint George in Beirut, Lebanon: The archaeological excavations and crypt museum’, JEMAHS 4 (2016), pp. 72–97, at p. 78.

Butcher, K. and R. Thorpe, R. (1997) ‘A note on excavations in central Beirut 1994– 1996’, JRA 10 (1997), pp. 291–306

Curvers, Hans H. and Stuart, Barbara (2004) “BCD Archeology Project 1994 – 2003: issues and results” in: Claude Doumet-Serhal et al. Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon, The Lebanese British Friends of the National Museum, London; Beirut: 248–265.

Curvers, Hans H. and Stuart, Barbara (2007) ” The BCD Archaeology Project, 2000–2006” , Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises 9: 189–221.

Lauffray (1944–6) Forums et monuments de Béryte BMB 7 62

Marriner, N., et al. (2008). "Geoarchaeology of Beirut's ancient harbour, Phoenicia." Journal of Archaeological Science 35(9): 2495-2516.

Marquis, Philip and Ortali-Tarazi, Renata (1996) « Bey 009 L’immeuble de la Banco di Roma ». Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises 1:148–175.

Mordechai, L. (2020). "Berytus and the aftermath of the 551 earthquake." Studies in Source Criticism.

Perring, D. et .al. (1996) ‘Bey 006, 1994–1995: The souks area interim report of the AUB Project’, BAAL 1 (1996), pp. 176– 206, at pp. 196–198.
Saghieh-Beydoun, M. (1997) Evidence of Earthquakes in the Current Excavations of Beirut City Centre. National Museum News, 5th issue, Spring 1997

Saghieh, M. (1996). "BEY 001 & 004 preliminary report." 1: 23-59.

Saghieh-Beydoun, M. (2004) ‘Evidence for earthquakes in the current excavations of Beirut city centre’, [in:] C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon, Beirut 2004, pp. 280–285

Websites

Plans and Descriptions of the Garden of Forgiveness from Gustafson, Porter, and Bowman

Bibliography from Meyers et. al.(1997)

Badre, Leila. "The Historic Fabric of Beirut." In Beirut of Tomorroio, edited by Friedrich Ragette, pp . 65-76 . Beirut, 1983. Historical outline and review of archaeological remains unearthed to the date of publication.

Forest, J. D . "Fouilles a municipalite de Beyrouth, 1977. " Syria 59 (1982): 1-26. Primarily the results of soundings that produced Roman, Byzantine, and later material. Jidejian, Nina. Beirut through the Ages. Beirut, 1973. Useful history of Beirut.

Mouterde , Rene , and Jean Lauffray. Beyrouth ville romaine: Histoire et monuments. Beirut, 1952. Helpful study of the history and archaeology of Beirut in the Roman period. Mouterde , Rene. Regards sur Beyrouth; Phinicienne, hellenislique et romaine. Beirut, 1966. Good review of Beirut's historical and archaeological monuments and remains.

Saidah, Roger. "Archaeology in the Lebanon, 1968-1969. " Berytus 18 (1969): 119-142 . Useful information on archaeological activities in the late 1960s.

Saidah, Roger. "The Prehistory of Beirut." In Beirut: Crossroads of Cultures, pp . 1-13 . Beirut, 1970. Good review of archaeological evidence for the prehistoric periods.

Turquety-Pariset, Francoise. "Fouille de la municipalite de Beyrouth, 1977: Les objects." Syria 59 (1982): 27-76 . Good catalog of objects from the Roman, Byzantine, and later periods.

Ward, William A. "Ancient Beirut." In Beirut: Crossroads of Cultures, p p . 14-42 . Beirut, 1970. Uses the scant archaeological remains to reconstruct the history of Beirut, with some freewheeling interpretations.

Wikipedia Pages

Beirut