| Aqaba/Eilat - Introduction |
n/a |
n/a |
n/a |
| Aqaba - Aila |
definitive |
≥ 8 |
Earthquake VI - 1st half of 4th century CE -
Thomas et al (2007) identified earthquake destruction (Earthquake VI) in a collapse layer which they dated to the 4th century but before the southern
Cyril Quake of 363 CE. In describing the Phase 2 layer below the collapse
layer they provided a terminus post quem of ca. 320 CE
During the early fourth century, the monumental building was expanded and concluded with the final addition of Rooms 11 and 12 constructed after
ca. A.D. 320. The upper sequences of floors contained Early Byzantine pottery of the mid to late fourth century.
The terminus ante quem is 363 CE when the southern Cyril Quake
is presumed to have created the damage observed in Earthquake V.
This seismic event must have occurred at some point in the mid to
late fourth century A.D. but before the final extensive collapse of the complex in Earthquake V [363 CE].
|
| Masada |
possible |
≥ 8 |
2nd - 4th century CE Earthquake - Netzer (1991:655) reports that a great earthquake [] destroyed
most of the walls on Masada sometime during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE.
In an earlier publication, Yadin (1965:30) noted that the
Caldarium was filled as a result of earthquakes by massive debris of stones .
Yadin concluded that the finds on the floors of the bath-house represent the last stage in the stay of the Roman garrison at Masada .
The stationing of a Roman Garrison after the conquest of Masada in 73 or 74 CE
was reported by Josephus in his Book
The Jewish War where he says in Book VII Chapter 10 Paragraph 1
WHEN Masada was thus taken, the general left a garrison in the fortress to keep it, and he himself went away to Caesarea; for there were now no enemies
left in the country, but it was all overthrown by so long a war.
Yadin (1965:36)'s evidence for proof of the stationing of the Roman garrison follows:
We have clear proof that the bath-house was in use in the period of the Roman garrison - in particular, a number of "vouchers" written in Latin and coins
which were found mainly in the ash waste of the furnace (locus 126, see p. 42). Of particular importance is a coin from the time of Trajan,
found in the caldarium, which was struck at Tiberias towards the end of the first century C.E.*
The latest coin discovered from this occupation phase was found in one of the northern rooms of Building VII and dates to 110/111 CE (Yadin, 1965:119)**.
Yadin (1965:119) interpreted this to mean that, this meant that the Roman garrison stayed at Masada at least till the year 111 and most probably several years later.
Russell (1985) used this 110/111 coin as a
terminus post quem for the
Incense Road Earthquake while using a dedicatory inscription at Petra for a
terminus ante quem of 114 CE.Masada may be subject to seismic amplification due to a
topographic or ridge effect as well as a slope effect for those structures built adjacent to the site's steep cliffs. |
| Petra - Introduction |
n/a |
n/a |
n/a |
| Petra - Petra Theater |
possible |
≥ 8 |
Mid 4th century CE Earthquake - Russell (1980) reports that during the 1961-1962 seasons,
Hammond (1965:13-17)
found evidence of 4th century AD architectural collapse while excavating the Main Theater. From the
stratigraphic evidence and the recovery of two coins of Constantine I (ruled 306 - 337 AD) and one of
Constantius II (ruled 337-361 AD), he was able to date this event to the mid 4th century.
Hammond (1964) labeled the destruction period as Period IV noting that
In this period the
scaena
and its stories,
blockade walls,
the tribunalia(e),
and other built parts of the Theater were all cataclysmically destroyed.
likely due to southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE |
| Petra - Khubtha Cliff |
possible |
|
Cave abandonment could be due to an Earthquake
Zayadine, F. (1973) excavated on the western slope of Khubta Cliff; uncovering a small dwelling in a cave
in "Area A". Inside the cave, Zayadine (1973), found objects dated to the beginning of the 4th century AD noting that "it was tempting to consider that the cave was abandoned after an earthquake."
|
| Petra - Wadi Sabra Theater |
possible |
≥ 8 |
Phase 4 earthquake - Late Roman/Early Byzantine - not precisely dated
Tholbecq et al (2019) reports destruction of the northern masonry of the orchestra during this phase. They deduce that this event (earthquake?) occurs shortly after the late
Roman period, or even during this period.
|
| Petra - Jabal Khubthah |
possible |
≥ 8 |
End of Phase 2 Earthquake - 4th century CE ? -
Fiema in Tholbecq et al (2019) acknowledged difficulties in dating this presumed seismic destruction but suggested that the southern
Cyril Quake of 363 CE was responsible. |
| Petra - Qasr Bint |
possible |
≥ 8 |
3rd-4th century CE Earthquake -
Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37) attributed a destruction layer (see Figures 11 and 12) to the southern
Cyril Quake of 363 CE based on excavations of the western
Temple Staircase (peribola) in Zone F of Qasr al Bint. The dating is approximate - to the 3rd or 4th century CE - apparently based on pottery fragments
(North African Sigillata) and oil lamps.
Colluvium atop the destruction layer suggests partial abandonment of the site after the destructive earthquake. |
| Petra - Jabal Harun |
possible |
≥ 8 |
Pre-Monastic Phasing Destruction Event (IV) - 363 CE or an earthquake from around that time - In Appendix C of the
Petra - the mountain of Aaron : the Finnish archaeological project in Jordan., one can find Pre-Monastic Phasing.
Phase IV is listed as a destruction layer attributed to the 363 CE earthquake. However, if one considers the dates for the
phases before and after Phase IV in Appendix C, it appears that other earthquakes are also plausible candidates
such as the Aila Quake of the 1st half of
the 4th century and the Monaxius and Plinta Quake of 419 CE.
Some of the reasoning behind assigning a 363 CE date to this presumed seismic destruction was based on the
southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE being assigned to seismic destruction at other sites in Petra. |
| Haluza |
possible |
≥ 8 |
1st Earthquake - late 3rd - mid 6th century CE - perhaps around 500 CE
Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) surmised that the first earthquake struck in the Byzantine period
between the end of the 3rd and the mid-6th centuries A.D. . Citing Avraham Negev, they discussed this evidence further
Negev (1989) pointed out that
one earthquake, or more, shattered the towns of central Negev between the end of the 3rd and mid-6th centuries A.D..
Literary evidence is scarce, but there is ample archeological evidence of these disasters. According to Negev a decisive factor is that
the churches throughout the whole Negev were extensively restored later on. Negev found at the Haluza Cathedral indications of two constructional phases.
One room of the Cathedral was even not cleaned after an event during which it was filled with fallen stones and debris from the collapsed upper portion of a wall.
In the other room the original limestone slabs of the floor had been removed but the clear impression of slabs and ridges in the hard packed earth beneath
suggests that they remained in place until the building went out of use (Negev, 1989:135).
The dating of the discussed ancient strong earthquake may be 363 A.D., as has been concluded for other ancient cities around Haluza,
e.g. Avdat37,
Shivta38,
and Mamshit39.
However, Negev (1989:129-142)
noticed inscriptions on walls and artifacts.
The inscriptions Negev noticed were discovered at Shivta which
Negev (1989)
discussed as follows:
A severe earthquake afflicted Sobata [aka Shivta].
...
The epigraphic evidence of Sobata may help in attaining a close as possible date both for the earthquake and for the subsequent reconstruction of the North Church. One of
these inscriptions, that of 506 A.D., is clearly a dedicatory inscription of a very important building, which justified the participation of a Vicarius, a man of the highest
rank, in the dedication of this building. This inscription was not found in situ. However, there is no question about the inscription of A.D. 512, in which year the mosaic
floor of one of the added chapels was dedicated by a bishop and the local clergy. It is thus safe to assume that the whole remodeling of the North Church began in the first
decade of the sixth century.
Although Negev (1989) and
Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) suggested the
Fire in the Sky Earthquake of 502 CE as the most
likely candidate, its epicenter was too far away to caused widespread damage throughout the region. This suggests that the causitive earthquake
is unreported in the historical sources - an earthquake which likely struck at the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th century CE. This hypothesized earthquake
is listed in this catalog as the Negev Quake.
|
| Mampsis |
possible |
≥ 8 |
First Earthquake - Early Byzantine ? - Negev (1974) dated the first earthquake to late
3rd/early 4th century via coins and church architectural styles however he dates construction of the East Church, where some archaeoseismic
evidence for the first earthquake was found, to the 2nd half of the 4th century CE. Given this apparent contradiction, I am labeling the date
of the first earthquake at Mamphis as "Early Byzantine ?".
Korzhenkov and Mazor (2003) characterized this as a strong earthquake with an epicenter at the north, and an EMS-98 scale intensity of
IX or more with an epicenter some distance away
Kamai and Hatzor and
Kamai and Hatzor (2007) estimate Intensity of ~7 - 8 based on
DDA of a dropped keystone in an arch in Mampsis. |
| Khirbet Tannur |
possible |
5-8 |
Two possibilities
End of Period II Earthquake (?) - 3rd century CE - The end of Period II would have occurred shortly before Period III construction which
McKenzie et al (2013:62) suggests
probably began in the 3rd century CE in association with other repairs after an earthquake . It appears that this date is
extrapolated from the date for Period II construction which is chronologically anchored by pottery found in stratigraphic position.
McKenzie et al (2002:73)
noted similarities in the sculpture of Period III with late antique sculpture in Egypt which suggests the
possibility of a date in the third century A.D. .
Glueck (1965:106) was not entirely sure that Period II ended with an earthquake
stating that earthquake tremors or age or both may have brought about the collapse of the Period II Altar-Base.
Glueck (1965:106) characterized Altar-Base II as aesthetically
attractive but architecturally weak noting shoddy internal construction particularly the bottom foundation stones
(Glueck, 1965:107).
"Further" Earthquake of McKenzie et al (2013) - 3rd - 4th century CE - McKenzie et al (2013:62) reports a further earthquake after Period II construction
damaged the colonnades of the Court and that the steps of the Altar Platform were repaired using column drums.
|
| el-Lejjun |
possible |
≥ 7 |
Possible predecessor earthquake in the early 4th century CE - Lain and Parker (2006:144) report that a beaten earth floor and ash layer in Room A.13 which ante-dated the
1st earthquake (Stratum VI-VB) was chock-full of tile fragments suggesting an apparent roof collapse due to an unknown cause. Such "collapse" debris was
not found in any other excavation areas. The floor would have been built after initial construction of the fort which
Parker (2006) dates to around 300 CE based on ceramic evidence. |
