Qasr al Bint

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Qasr al Bint	Arabic	قاسر ال بينت
Qasr al-Bint Fir’aun	Arabic	فرعون قاسر ال بينت

Introduction

Qasr al-Bint is one of the best preserved structures in Petra. It fronted the colonnaded street and was close to the monumental gate.

Petra - Introduction Webpage

from Petra - Introduction - click link to open new tab

Aerial Views, Plans, Drawings, Sections, 3D Drawings and Reconstructions, Sections, Torsion response, Photos, and 3D Imagery

Aerial Views

Fig. 0.1 - Photo of Qasr Bint

Fig. 0.1

Photo of the sanctuary

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Qasr Bint in Google Earth

Qasr Bint location in Google Earth

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Plans, Drawings, and Sections

Normal Size

Map of Qasr al-Bint

Qasr al-Bint in the Roman period. General plan and location of surveys

(MAFP/M. Belarbi/Th. Fournet)

Tholbecq et. al. (2021)

and environs from Tholbecq et. al. (2021)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Plan of sectors excavated during the fall 2017 campaign

(Drawing T. Fournet, ©MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2018)

excavated in 2017 from Tholbecq et. al. (2018)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Plan of sectors excavated during the fall 2018 campaign

(Drawing T. Fournet, ©MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

excavated in 2018 from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Plan of Qasr al-Bint

Plan of Qasr al-Bint

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 3.2 - Plan of staircase

Fig. 3.2

Qasr al-Bint: plan of the assembled surveys of the gutters and the staircase (scale: 1/150)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Elevation of western

Elevation of western monumental stairway

MAFP 2018, TF/MB

Fournet and Renel (2019)

monumental stairway from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Reconstruction of stairway

Reconstruction of stairway

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 0.3 - Plan of the

Fig. 0.3

General plan of the western zone

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

western zone from Augé et al. (2016)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Simplified plan of "B" building

Simplified plan of "B" building

MAFP, 2017

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 6.38 - General plan

Fig. 6.38

General plan of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos

(Zayadine et al. 2003: 8)

Rababeh (2005)

of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.40a - Detailed plan

Fig. 6.40a

Detailed plan

(Larché and Zayadine 2003: Fig.221)

Rababeh (2005)

from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52b - East-West

Fig. 6.52b

East-West section of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 15)

Rababeh (2005)

section of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 4.3 - Plan of the great altar

Fig. 4.3

The great altar: plans from the assembled surveys of P. Parr's surveys and sections (scale: 1/100)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Fig. 4.4 - Face of the great altar

Fig. 4.4

The great altar: east, west and north faces of the assembled statements (scale: 1/100)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Fig. 4 - scree of the

Fig. 4

Overall plan of the scree of the apse monument at the end of the October 2022 campaign, superposition of all the layers of blocks in the falling position. In blue the elements of marble statuary, in green the blocks from the temple of Qasr al-Bint

(T. Fournet / C. March / M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et al. (2022)

apse monument from Tholbecq et al. (2022)

Magnified

Map of Qasr al-Bint

Qasr al-Bint in the Roman period. General plan and location of surveys

(MAFP/M. Belarbi/Th. Fournet)

Tholbecq et. al. (2021)

and environs from Tholbecq et. al. (2021)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Plan of sectors excavated during the fall 2017 campaign

(Drawing T. Fournet, ©MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2018)

excavated in 2017 from Tholbecq et. al. (2018)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Plan of sectors excavated during the fall 2018 campaign

(Drawing T. Fournet, ©MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

excavated in 2018 from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Plan of Qasr al-Bint

Plan of Qasr al-Bint

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 3.2 - Plan of staircase

Fig. 3.2

Qasr al-Bint: plan of the assembled surveys of the gutters and the staircase (scale: 1/150)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Elevation of western

Elevation of western monumental stairway

MAFP 2018, TF/MB

Fournet and Renel (2019)

monumental stairway from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Reconstruction of stairway

Reconstruction of stairway

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 0.3 - Plan of the

Fig. 0.3

General plan of the western zone

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

western zone from Augé et al. (2016)
Simplified plan of "B" building

Simplified plan of "B" building

MAFP, 2017

Fournet and Renel (2019)

from Fournet and Renel (2019)
Fig. 6.38 - General plan

Fig. 6.38

General plan of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos

(Zayadine et al. 2003: 8)

Rababeh (2005)

of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.40a - Detailed plan

Fig. 6.40a

Detailed plan

(Larché and Zayadine 2003: Fig.221)

Rababeh (2005)

from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52b - East-West

Fig. 6.52b

East-West section of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 15)

Rababeh (2005)

section of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 4.3 - Plan of the great altar

Fig. 4.3

The great altar: plans from the assembled surveys of P. Parr's surveys and sections (scale: 1/100)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Fig. 4.4 - Face of the great altar

Fig. 4.4

The great altar: east, west and north faces of the assembled statements (scale: 1/100)

(© MAFP, CAD: C. March)

Augé et al. (2016)

from Augé et al. (2016)
Fig. 4 - scree of the

Fig. 4

Overall plan of the scree of the apse monument at the end of the October 2022 campaign, superposition of all the layers of blocks in the falling position. In blue the elements of marble statuary, in green the blocks from the temple of Qasr al-Bint

(T. Fournet / C. March / M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et al. (2022)

apse monument from Tholbecq et al. (2022)

3D Drawings and Reconstructions

Cover Page - Qasr al-Bint sector

Cover page

The Qasr al-Bint sector in the Roman era

(Thibaud Fournet, 2017)

Tholbecq et. al. (2017)

in the Roman era from Tholbecq et. al. (2017)
Fig. 6.52a - Axonometric drawing

Fig. 6.52a

Axonometric drawing of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 220)

Rababeh (2005)

of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.53a - Cutaway Axonometric

Fig. 6.53a

Axonometric reconstruction suggested here

Rababeh (2005)

drawing of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.41d - Isometric of southeast

Fig. 6.41d

Isometric of southeast angle showing the cavity walls including the stairs

(Wright 1961a: Fig. 5)

Rababeh (2005)

corner showing the cavity walls and stairs from Rababeh (2005)

Sections

Fig. 10 - Section of western

Fig. 10

East-west section of the western peribole.

(M. Bélarbi, C. Besnier, F. Renel)

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 3 - E-W section

Fig. 3

East-west section of the fill of the western peribole of the Qasr al-Bint temple.

(© M. Belarbi, MF-PQB)

Renel (2013)

of the fill of the western peribole with an earthquake destruction layer from Renel (2013)
Fig. 9 - Reconstruction of

Fig. 9

Proposal for the restitution in principle of the southern half of the main facade of the apse monument, simplified working hypothesis

(T. Fournet, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

southern half of the main facade of the apse monument from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Torsion response

Fig. 5.30b - Torsion response

Fig. 5.30b

The torsion response through as-symmetrical building

(Arnold 1989: Fig.5.17)

Rababeh (2005)

through as-symmetrical building from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 5.30c - Torsion response

Fig. 5.30c

The torsion response in the Qasr el-Bint as symmetrical building.

Rababeh (2005)

of Qasr el-Bint as symmetrical building from Rababeh (2005)

Photos

Fig. 11 - Stratigraphy at the base

Figure 11

Stratigraphy at the base of the western péribole (περίβόλος) of the Temple

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

of the western péribole (περίβόλος) from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)
Fig. 12 - View of the Stratum F1082

Figure 12

View of the Stratum F1082

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)
Fig. 4 - Blocks from collapse

Fig. 4

View of the pile of blocks linked to the fall of the elevations of the apse monument during the earthquake of 363.

(© L. Borel, MFPQB)

Renel (2013)

of the apse from Renel (2013)
Fig. 3 - Destruction layers

Fig. 3

The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

of the western peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 10 - Overview of

Fig. 10

Overview of the ancient destruction level

(F. Renel, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

destruction layer from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 18 - Upper stratigraphic

Fig. 18

view of the upper stratigraphic sequence of space P15, southern section

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sequence of P15 in the palace sector from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 19 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 19

the level of fallen blocks B2165-2173, towards the northeast

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 24 - Fallen capitals

Fig. 24

detail of the elements of Corinthian capitals in fallen position in destruction layer B2165-2173

(T. Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 40 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 40

fallen blocks (B2171) present in the upper filling of room P16

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

in room P16 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 41 - Fallen architecture

Fig. 41

detail of a stucco preserved on its facing block (B2171)

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Links to 3D Images

3D image of Qasr Bint from Zamani Project - click link to open in a new tab

3D panorama tour of Qasr Bint from Zamani Project - click link to open in a new tab

Phasing

from Augé et al. (2016)
proposed for the entire central sector of Petra

Phase	Dates	Label	Description
0		Occupation before Hellenistic occupation of the site ?	Description Wadi Musa turns towards the north at the foot of the cliffs which delimit the basin where the future city of Petra would be built. Then it returns to an east-west direction (Wadi Siyyagh). This bend forms a deep and wide hollow towards which several passable paths converge. The slopes of the southern hill, against the Al-Habis cliff, offer locations sheltered from westerly winds and protected from floods⁸⁴. In this sector, the thickness of the sediments and the embankments and human constructions have profoundly modified the relief. A few sporadic finds in deep levels, in contact with the ancient bed of the wadi - cut flints, fragments of Iron Age ceramics - could constitute indications of human presence, but their low number does not make it possible to determine its duration or nature. The first proven traces of occupation in this sector date back to the Hellenistic era. Footnotes 84. Mouton, Renel & Kropp 2008 ; Renel, Mouton, Augé et al. 2012.
1	4th-3rd c. BCE	Terraced developments	Description Deep borings carried out to the east and west of the imperial apse monument (sectors C9 and C4) revealed a surficial layer of reddish aeolian sand in several locations - vestiges of terraced developments made with stone blocks bound with clay. To this phase belong traces of tent stakes, a silo (FR C4250), and a hearth associated with remains of circulation levels materialized by thin layers of packed earth mixed with ashes (FR C4030). These developments, hitherto recognized in isolation, cannot be attributed to a specific occupation. No trace of wadi flooding was detected within these levels, confirming the existence of a middle terrace at this location.
2	end 2nd-mid-3rd c. BCE	Oblique constructions	Description Identified over 30 m long under the temenos and to the west of the imperial monument, these buildings are distinguished by their distinct difference from the religious complex of the following phase. Their walls, leveled during this phase, are preserved in one or two courses with the associated floors. They rest on deep foundations, made of uncut blocks and pebbles bound with clay. The small surface area of the surveys does not make it possible to restore an overall plan of these constructions or to determine their function. Domestic use seems most likely, but it is still difficult to specify the mode of establishment of the dwellings: juxtaposition of small separate units around a central space or gradual formation of a large house by successive extensions and partitions. Three architectural phases have been recognized there⁸⁵. The associated material and the available radiocarbon dates make it possible to anchor the chronology⁸⁶. These first constructions should be compared with the discoveries made by the “Hellenistic Petra Project”⁸⁷ and those of Al-Katuteh. Footnotes 85. Mouton, Renel & Kropp 2008 86. This associated dating suite includes black varnish imports, Ptolemaic coins and a coin from Arados from the 3rd century BCE as well as Nabataean coins from the “anonymous series” (second half of the 2nd century BC): Mouton, Renel & Kropp 2008; Renel, Mouton, Augé et al. 2012. 87. Graf 2013.
3	mid-1st c. BCE	Construction of the large Nabataean residence (Building C, zone C4)	Description 3a — Remains of a first construction along a N-S axis in the classic Nabataean style. All of the “oblique constructions” are leveled, apparently in a planned manner⁸⁸. It is assumed that religious installations already existed at the location of the large altar, the small altar, and perhaps Qasr al-Bint itself⁸⁹. The first state of the eastern complex (Building B) could also relate to this phase (between approx. 50 BCE and approx. 10 BCE). 3b — Rearrangements and growth of the residence. Footnotes 88. Mouton, Renel & Kropp 2008 89. Parr 1968.
4	mid-1st c. BCE - early 2nd c. CE	Planning of a large sanctuary and transformation of its surroundings	Description 4a — A major program implemented for the creation of a monumental sanctuary with a general north-south orientation was established following a metrological grid in large Egyptian cubits of 0.525 m; it led to the definitive razing of the Hellenistic remains. It includes the construction of the temple known as “Qasr al-Bint”⁹⁰, as well as changes to its surroundings, including its western limit marked by a north-south wall which truncates the facade of the Nabataean residence (Building C) inducing the backfilling of its southern rooms to connect to a new access higher up, to the south, through a terraced building. During this phase (around 10 BC - around 40 AD), the east building (Building B) was built, in direct relation to the sanctuary. This monumental organization corresponds to the reign of Aretas IV, to whom major developments are attributed in the large buildings of the city center of Petra (phase II of the pseudo-"Great Temple" and construction of the "Temple of the Winged Lions". 4b — The sanctuary and neighboring buildings were frequented and used. During this period, we detect some alterations in the east and west buildings (around 40 AD - around 106 AD or shortly after). Footnotes 90. Zayadine, Larché & Dentzer-Feydy 2003.
5	Roman takeover (106 CE) - 1st half of 4th c. CE	The Roman Province	Description 5a — Building C to the west and Building B to the east were abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century AD⁹¹ 5b — Start of construction of the apse monument. Its function may have changed during construction: it may have been originally intended as a water monument, but it does not seem to have been used as such (first half of the 2nd century AD - years 165-169). The western face of the great altar was probably equipped with a particular hydraulic arrangement during this period. 5c — Reoccupation, after a difficult to estimate chronological hiatus, of Building C to the West. We can think that this as a project related to the implementation of the apse monument at the western limit of the esplanade. 5d — The apse monument is inaugurated to the glory of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus during their common reign, more precisely between 165 and 169 AD. The entire cult complex, sanctuary and adjacent buildings, were frequented and used until the first half of the 3rd century AD. Footnotes 91. To explain this phenomenon observed elsewhere on the site, S. T. Parker concludes that two events, an earthquake and the annexation of the Nabatean kingdom occurred in a short period of time: Parker 2009, p. 1590.
6	mid 3rd - 1st half of 4th c. CE	Destruction and abandonment	Description We observe a sandy layer in the western part of the temenos which could correspond to a phase of abandonment or neglect. Then, a fire destroyed the frame of the temple, causing the roof to collapse⁹². The pediment and the columns of the facade undoubtedly fell later. Much of the sanctuary went out of use. We observe a probable phase of recovery of materials (debris of the statue of Marcus Aurelius). At the same time, the dwellings which developed in contact with the apse monument were also abandoned. Footnotes 92. This phase of fire was identified during surveys carried out inside the temple: Zayadine 1982, p. 377.
7	2nd half of 4th - early 5th c. CE	Reoccupation and change of function of the sector in the late Roman period and the beginning of the Byzantine period	Description 7a — Following the abandonment of the sector, a second “squat” is observed in the apse and adjacent structures, accompanied by indications of a partial reoccupation of Building B. 7b — The apse monument collapsed during the earthquake of 363 AD., which probably also destroyed the pediment and columns of the Qasr. 7c — A reoccupation of the western housing complex (Building C) for domestic purposes is observed in sectors Cl, C2 and C4. This reuse of space is also attested locally in the eastern complex (Building B). 7d — These houses were abandoned and destroyed following either an earthquake, such as that of 419 AD attested in the Near East⁹³ or from a warlike or violent event. We could possibly link it to the episode of Barsauma and to the story of the forced Christianization of Petra around 420-423 AD⁹⁴, insofar as this text reflects a historical reality and not, as one might think, a hagiographic story. Footnotes 93. Russel 1980 [to be developed in the bibliography]. 94. Renel, Mouton & Augé 2012.
8	6th c. CE	Abandonment of the sector and development of agricultural terraces during the Byzantine period	Description Agricultural terrace walls were built in the western sector (Building C) in the 5th-6th centuries AD, replacing the facing blocks of the north wall of the apse. Likewise, it is possible that elements from the sanctuary could have been reused for the construction of churches in Petra, for example in the area of the “Ridge Church”.
9		Medieval reoccupation	Description 9a — Installation of an isolated necropolis at the beginning of Islamic rule. Two groups of burials were located, the first in the collapsed elevation of the apse monument and the second, to the north, at the foot of the Byzantine terrace walls along the bed of the wadi. Radiocarbon dating dates them to the Umayyad or Abbasid periods (7th-9th century AD). 9b — Creation of Ayyubid-Mamluk dwellings linked to the construction of the Al-Habis fortress. The ruins and part of the space were reused at a poorly defined time, perhaps in the 12th century by the Franks for the construction of the fort of Al-Habis around 1115 or by the Ayyubids who took it in 1187/8. A light dwelling from this period associated with a quarry ramp was discovered on the temple staircase⁹⁵. During this phase, we note the reuse of the well in the eastern complex (Building B). As in other places in Petra, some traces of attendance or occupation dating back to the Mamluk era have also been found⁹⁶. Footnotes 95. Zayadine, Larché & Dentzer-Feydy 2003. 96. See the description by Numeiri of the trip of Sultan Baybars in 1276: Zayadine 1985
10		Development of tourist facilities	Description It is in this sector that the first tourist facilities were established during the 20th century. The tour operator Cook organized a camp there in 1934. The “Nazzal Camp” was built in 1943 by leveling and terracing the area to the west of the apse monument. The rest of the southern slope of Wadi Musa remained cultivated in terraces until the clearances and archaeological excavations were carried out throughout the city center in the 1960s-1970s. To encourage the development of tourism, large-scale developments were carried out in the 1980s and 1990s: construction of walls to channel the wadi, a bridge, and several buildings.

Nabatean Fineware Pottery Dating at Ez-Zantur

from Schmid (1995)
Ez-Zantur Excavations utilized Nabatean fineware chronology of Schmid (2000) - which I don't currently have access to

Left

Chronology of Nabatean finewares

Right

Typology and chronology of the Nabataean fine ware

Both from Schmid (1995)

Phase 7b Earthquake(s) - 3rd-4th century CE

Plans and Figures

Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 6.38 - General plan

Fig. 6.38

General plan of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos

(Zayadine et al. 2003: 8)

Rababeh (2005)

of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.40a - Detailed plan

Fig. 6.40a

Detailed plan

(Larché and Zayadine 2003: Fig.221)

Rababeh (2005)

from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52b - East-West

Fig. 6.52b

East-West section of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 15)

Rababeh (2005)

section of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52a - Axonometric drawing

Fig. 6.52a

Axonometric drawing of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 220)

Rababeh (2005)

of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.53a - Cutaway Axonometric

Fig. 6.53a

Axonometric reconstruction suggested here

Rababeh (2005)

drawing of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.41d - Isometric of southeast

Fig. 6.41d

Isometric of southeast angle showing the cavity walls including the stairs

(Wright 1961a: Fig. 5)

Rababeh (2005)

corner showing the cavity walls and stairs from Rababeh (2005)

Magnified

Fig. 6.38 - General plan

Fig. 6.38

General plan of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos

(Zayadine et al. 2003: 8)

Rababeh (2005)

of western part of the Qasr el-Bint Temenos from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.40a - Detailed plan

Fig. 6.40a

Detailed plan

(Larché and Zayadine 2003: Fig.221)

Rababeh (2005)

from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52b - East-West

Fig. 6.52b

East-West section of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 15)

Rababeh (2005)

section of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.52a - Axonometric drawing

Fig. 6.52a

Axonometric drawing of reconstructed roof of Qasr el-Bint as Larché and Zayadine suggested in final report

(Larche in Zayadine et al. 2003: Fig. 220)

Rababeh (2005)

of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)
Fig. 6.53a - Cutaway Axonometric

Fig. 6.53a

Axonometric reconstruction suggested here

Rababeh (2005)

drawing of reconstructed temple from Rababeh (2005)

Figures

Fig. 10 - Section of western

Fig. 10

East-west section of the western peribole.

(M. Bélarbi, C. Besnier, F. Renel)

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 11 - Stratigraphy at the base

Figure 11

Stratigraphy at the base of the western péribole (περίβόλος) of the Temple

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

of the western péribole (περίβόλος) from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)
Fig. 12 - View of the Stratum F1082

Figure 12

View of the Stratum F1082

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)

Discussion

Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37) attributed a destruction layer (see Figures 11 and 12) to the southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE based on excavations of the western Temple Staircase (peribole) in Zone F of Qasr al Bint. The dating is approximate - to the 3rd or 4th century CE - apparently based on pottery fragments (Schmidt phase 4 and North African Sigillata) and oil lamps. Colluvium atop the destruction layer suggests partial abandonment of the site after the destructive earthquake. Renel (2013:351-352) also reports archaeoseismic evidence for this event in the southern part of the apse monument in the southern part of the temenos abutting the "beginning" of the peribole. He attributed the stone tumble there to collapse of the apse.

Tholbecq et al. (2022:67) suggested that fallen blocks in the vicinity of the apse reflects damage during two seperate seismic events - in the southern 363 CE Cyril Quake and in a later event such as the 419 CE Monaxius and Plinta Quake. Tholbecq et. al. (2023:33) speculated that the second earthquake observed in the vicinity of the apse could have also been due to one of the mid-8th century CE earthquakes. Tholbecq et al. (2022:67) discussed evidence for multiple seismic events as follows:

A first observation confirms our hypotheses on the chronology of the destruction of the imperial monument: the scree is composed of a tangle of blocks coming largely from our facade, but also blocks undoubtedly coming from the upper parts of the Qasr al-Bint (entablature and pediment), or its staircase (blocks of the cipher wall, marble veneer). Their overlapping (fig. 4) demonstrates that the ruin of the two buildings took place at the same time and that it is even probable that it was the fall of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, undoubtedly during the fire of the latter, which led to the ruin of part of the facade of the apse monument and the staircase of the Qasr. However, some questions remain as to the date of the collapse on more massive. If the falling blocks observed in the lower part of the stratigraphy are certainly the effects of the 363 earthquake, the highest level of falling blocks seems to be associated with that of 419 after a sequence of abandonment. This two-stage destruction is separated by an intermediate stage of spoliation of certain architectural elements, in which we must undoubtedly place the cutting of the marble statue of Marcus Aurelius, the recovery of certain capitals, etc. The absolute chronology of these different stages is more complicated than we thought: the northern part of the facade seems to have remained standing until the spoliations of the Byzantine era and the earthquake of 748 AD [JW: 749 CE Sabbatical Year Quakes], while the southern part would be destroyed three centuries earlier, with the ruin of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, weakened by its fire then collapsed during the first earthquake.

At the north-west angle of Building B2 (Sondage P 15) in the palatial sector adjacent to Qasr Bint, Tholbecq et. al. (2023:38) reports archaeoseismic evidence in the form of a collapse layer containing architectural elements such as Corinthian columns and facing blocks of a facade due to what was presumed to be the southern 363 CE Cyril Quake. Dating was apparently based on amphorae and dishes in late North African sigillata.

Phase label is based on Augé et al. (2016) and date range is based on Tholbecq et al (2019).

References

Tholbecq et al (2019)

Figures

Fig. 9 - level of spoliation

Fig. 9

View of the level of spoliation from the Byzantine period revealed in the western peribole of the temple.

© MAFP

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

peribole from the Byzantine period from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 10 - Section of western

Fig. 10

East-west section of the western peribole.

(M. Bélarbi, C. Besnier, F. Renel)

Tholbecq et. al. (2019)

peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2019)
Fig. 11 - Stratigraphy at the base

Figure 11

Stratigraphy at the base of the western péribole (περίβόλος) of the Temple

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

of the western péribole (περίβόλος) from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)
Fig. 12 - View of the Strata F1082

Figure 12

View of the Strata F1082

Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP

from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)

Discussion

Sounding and study of the western peribola (zone F)

Introduction

from Tholbecq et al (2019:35-36)

The beginning of the western peribole was excavated in its northern part, in continuity with work started in 2017. The latter had highlighted four distinct phases, the majority of them late occupations of the sector, as well as different phases of destruction⁷. The work of the 2017 campaign had stopped on the deposition of sandy colluvium, sealing the abandonment of the sector and thus leaving a berm circumscribed by the wall of the temple, the facade of the imperial monument to the west and the temenos paving to the north. The level reached corresponds to the base of the collapse and presents a series of blocks including architectural elements (column base, frieze) placed flat on the abandoned levels; We provisionally interpret these remains as the remains of one of the phases of spoliation of the imperial monument (Fig. 9). The nature and arrangement of the architectural elements present suggests associating this layer with the search for spolia generated by the construction of the Byzantine churches on the right bank of Wadi Musa. The resumption of work in 2018, carried out in the form of a survey carried out on the substrate, therefore only concerned the lower part of the stratigraphy, largely predating the sequences of abandonment and Late Roman destruction and Byzantine documented in 2017⁸. The observed stratigraphy shows, under the restored level of the peribole pavement, several distinct phases of occupation, relating for the construction phases to Hellenistic, Nabataean and Roman periods (Fig. 10).

Footnotes

7 Renel 2018.

8 Renel 2018, p. 57-59

Levels of abandonment of the early Byzantine period

from Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)

Directly in contact with the level of preparation of the peribole paving – the latter having been the subject of systematic recovery during the Byzantine era – lie strata of mud (F1076) corresponding to a phase of partial abandonment of the sector (Fig. 11). The discovery, among the shards found associated with this layer, of a plate painted with decoration relating to phase 4 of S. Schmidt and that of a fragment of North African sigillata (probably Hayes 50 type) allows us to date this phase to the 3rd or 4th century AD. These sedimentary deposits are associated with a level of sandstone blocks of corresponding medium modulus at a first level of destruction attributed to the earthquake of 363 AD. In the west corner of the survey, at the height of the opening of the southern bay of the monument to apse, a deposit rests on the masonry of the latter. This level (F1082) is mainly characterized by fragments of marble slabs and veneer of centimeter dimensions interpreted as the result of sorting of materials during an abandonment phase (Fig. 12). Fragments of oil lamps discovered within this embankment all relate to productions from the early Byzantine period.

Tholbecq et al (2023)

Figures

Normal Size

Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Overview of sector

Fig. 1

Overview of the sector at the end of the [Spring 2023] campaign, towards the southwest

(T. Fournet 2023, CNRS / MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 3 - Destruction layers

Fig. 3

The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

of the western peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 9 - Reconstruction of

Fig. 9

Proposal for the restitution in principle of the southern half of the main facade of the apse monument, simplified working hypothesis

(T. Fournet, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

southern half of the main facade of the apse monument from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 10 - Overview of

Fig. 10

Overview of the ancient destruction level

(F. Renel, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

destruction layer from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 18 - Upper stratigraphic

Fig. 18

view of the upper stratigraphic sequence of space P15, southern section

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sequence of P15 in the palace sector from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 19 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 19

the level of fallen blocks B2165-2173, towards the northeast

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 24 - Fallen capitals

Fig. 24

detail of the elements of Corinthian capitals in fallen position in destruction layer B2165-2173

(T. Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 40 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 40

fallen blocks (B2171) present in the upper filling of room P16

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

in room P16 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 41 - Fallen architecture

Fig. 41

detail of a stucco preserved on its facing block (B2171)

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Magnified

Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Overview of sector

Fig. 1

Overview of the sector at the end of the [Spring 2023] campaign, towards the southwest

(T. Fournet 2023, CNRS / MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 3 - Destruction layers

Fig. 3

The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

of the western peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 9 - Reconstruction of

Fig. 9

Proposal for the restitution in principle of the southern half of the main facade of the apse monument, simplified working hypothesis

(T. Fournet, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

southern half of the main facade of the apse monument from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 10 - Overview of

Fig. 10

Overview of the ancient destruction level

(F. Renel, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

destruction layer from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 18 - Upper stratigraphic

Fig. 18

view of the upper stratigraphic sequence of space P15, southern section

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sequence of P15 in the palace sector from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 19 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 19

the level of fallen blocks B2165-2173, towards the northeast

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 24 - Fallen capitals

Fig. 24

detail of the elements of Corinthian capitals in fallen position in destruction layer B2165-2173

(T. Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 40 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 40

fallen blocks (B2171) present in the upper filling of room P16

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

in room P16 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 41 - Fallen architecture

Fig. 41

detail of a stucco preserved on its facing block (B2171)

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Discussion

2.1 Petra - Qasr al-Bint

2.1.2 The Apse - Preliminary Report (May 2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:25, 30-31, 33)

The stratigraphic results for the upper parts match those established in particular in 2017 and 2018 (Renel 2017, 2018): the destruction layer mixes the blocks from the northwest corner of the Qasr and those from the apse monument, fallen at the same time (fig. 3). This layer (F1110) brings together the majority of blocks useful for restoring the imperial facade: column drums, capitals, friezes, cornices, etc.

... This destruction layer is of a different nature from the previous one. It indeed contains numerous fragments of very fragmented blocks, having been exposed to fire, and a majority of blocks coming not from the apse monument, but from the northwest corner of the temple of Qasr al-Bint. We thus found the angle of the denticulated cornice, but also a drip edge front with the start of the pediment (fig. 11). These elements complete and clarify the restitution of this part of the Qasr proposed by Fr. Larché (Zayadine et al. 2003), but above all they confirm a hypothesis put forward in 2017: the destruction took place in two stages. The crowning angle of the temple (entablature and pediment) fell first, probably after the fire of the temple, and only later, after a period of abandonment (sandy layers F1111, F1125 and F1127) , did the apse monument and other parts of the Qasr, already weakened, fell in turn. The levels of the first destruction also include other elements which do not belong to the upper parts of the temple, but on the contrary seem to result from a sorting carried out during an abandonment phase. Among them, a fragment of molded marble bearing a Nabataean inscription (fig. 12). A first reading carried out by Laïla Nehmé mentions “(…) Malichos, king of the Nabataeans” (cf infra, 2.1.4). The material found in the sandy layer associated with this level (F1129) can be dated to the second half of the 4th century A.D.

... To summarize, the chronological sequence brought to light is made up of 8 phases. The first occupation, domestic, was directly placed on the alluvial terrace during the Hellenistic period (phase 1) and is followed by two major construction phases: the foundation of the temple staircase (1st century AD) followed by the imperial monument with an apse ( 2nd century AD). After the temple fire, probably during the second half of the 3rd century AD, its remains remained in place, and a first spoliation of the sector occurred (removal of the paving of the peribole and lead pipes). It was probably the earthquake of 363 which then led to the fall of the blocks in the northwest corner of the temple which were already weakened (which explains their significant fragmentation). A second phase of spoliation followed, at the end of the 4th century , then abandonment, and finally the apse monument and upper parts of the temple that were still in place were completely ruined, on the occasion of an earthquake (419, 749?).

2.1.3 The Palatial Sector - Preliminary Report (May 2023)

2.1.3.1 The North-West Angle of Building B2: Sondage P15

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:35-38)

In zone B2, we examined two sectors. The first is located in the northwest corner of courtyard P11, in line with the door giving access to rooms P13 and 14, excavated during the 2012 and 2013 campaigns (fig. 17). This Sondage (noted P15), with an area of 40 m² , aimed to highlight the supposed return of the Stylobate from the Nabataean court and to identify the phases of late occupation in this sector.

Below a level of sterile sand of aeolian origin, the upper part of the stratigraphy (fig. 18) includes, under a level of falling blocks (B2161), an alternation of ash and carbon deposits and sandy contributions (B2162-B2164 ) on a level of packed earth ground (B2163) corresponding to the reoccupation of this sector following its ruin. A significant amount of furniture was found in these layers, combining ceramics, fauna as well as fragmentary inscriptions (Nabataean and Latin) engraved on marble or alabaster and probably coming from neighboring elevations. The discovery of fragments of LRA 1 and LRA 4b amphorae and dishes in late North African sigillata makes it possible to date this phase from the first quarter of the 5th century, testifying to the reuse of this space following the earthquake of 363 A.D.

Sealed by this sequence, a collapse level (B2165-B2173) was revealed over the entire excavated area (fig. 19). Resulting from the earthquake of 363, it combines facing blocks of the southern facade of the north wing with a series of architectural elements including several Corinthian columns and half-columns (see below for a first study of these blocks).

2.1.3.2 The North-West Corner of Building B2: a new Corinthian order

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:48)

The blocks of the Corinthian order unearthed this year all seem to be in a fallen position, the three supports (cordiform corner column, free column and pilaster) were therefore located in the immediate vicinity of the Sondage, and fell one on top of the other. The limited extent of the excavation did not make it possible to know where they were located exactly. The alignment of the Doric portico of the courtyard (see fig. 16) extends up to 3.50 m from our Sondage, where it seems to transform into a solid wall. It is in this sector, which was only stripped this year, that the solution of discontinuity was to be found allowing us to move from the Doric order of the court (65 cm in diameter) to this Corinthian order of 53 cm in diameter. diameter. It seems at this stage of the study that the west wing of building B, leaning on the older wall B2204, could have constituted a sort of basilica, widely open onto the Doric courtyard, in a fairly original layout. The extension of the excavation in spring 2024 will make it possible to understand this connection.

2.1.3.3 The North-East Corner of Building B2: Sondage P16

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:51)

The room [P 16] is finally sealed by a collapse level (B2171) containing architectural blocks covered with painted stucco (figs. 40 and 41, see below 3.1).

2.1.3.4 Complex B3: Sondage P54

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:52-53)

Recognized over more than three meters, the stratigraphy made it possible to highlight three main phases of occupation (fig. 43). Firstly, a heavily reworked Nabataean state which works with wall B4001 and which probably corresponds to a courtyard space. Only two sandstone slabs (B3061), leaning against the eastern facing of wall B4001, are preserved. Their altimetry (ca. 869.75 m) shows that the circulation levels of this part of the B3 complex are located two meters higher than those of the B2 complex, probably due to the fact that this sector is located on the embankments of a first leveled Hellenistic architectural state (Renel & Fournet 2022, p.99). This level constitutes the excavation limit for this campaign.

Secondly, the installation of the Roman portico must have obliterated part of the Nabatean occupation levels. An east-west wall (B4003) leans against the facade of wall B4001, its foundation (B3060) cutting into the previous levels. Preserved on 3 to 4 courses in elevation, it has a facing of bossed blocks. No related material was found. The existence of an internal facing, however, testifies to the continued use of the spaces located behind the portico during the Roman period.

Finally, the last phase of occupation corresponds to the construction of a crude habitat, in contact with the level of the courtyard (fig. 44). Only the northeast exterior corner of this building (B3059) is included in the excavated area, its internal arrangement therefore not being known. Associated with this phase of occupation, an earthen floor, rich in charcoal inclusions (B3058), yielded fragments of a jar attributable to the second half of the 4th century to the beginning of the 5th century. This habitat which marks the last phase of occupation is sealed by a sequence of embankments massifs associated with fallen blocks with sandy passes (B3052-3053).

Renel (2013)

Figures

Fig. 1 - Plan of western sector

Fig. 1

General plan of the western sector of the Qasr al-Bint sanctuary.

Renel (2013)

from Renel (2013)
Fig. 2 - Fire and abandonment

Fig. 2

View of the ash level linked to the fire of Qasr al-Bint (C3087-3088) and of the abandonment level (C3106) observed at the start of the western peribole of the temple.

(© F Renel, MFPQB)

Renel (2013)

layers from Renel (2013)
Fig. 3 - E-W section

Fig. 3

East-west section of the fill of the western peribole of the Qasr al-Bint temple.

(© M. Belarbi, MF-PQB)

Renel (2013)

of the fill of the western peribole with an earthquake destruction layer from Renel (2013)
Fig. 4 - Stone tumble interpreted

Fig. 4

View of the pile of blocks linked to the fall of the elevations of the apse monument during the earthquake of 363.

(© L. Borel, MFPQB)

Renel (2013)

as due to collapse of the apse during the 363 earthquake from Renel (2013)
Fig. 5 - Plan of structures

Fig. 5

Plan of structures linked to the Byzantine reoccupation.

Renel (2013)

linked to the Byzantine reoccupation from Renel (2013)
Fig. 6 - Overhead view of

Fig. 6

Overhead view of the Byzantine reoccupation of the apse monument.

(© R. Gabrielli, CNR)

Renel (2013)

the Byzantine reoccupation of the apse monument from Renel (2013)

Discussions

Introduction

from Renel (2013:349)

We generally remember the earthquake of 363 AD as one of the major events in Petra during the Roman era, which is relatively poorly documented from a historical and epigraphical point of view. It is generally accepted that this event constitutes one of the stages which marked the decline of the city despite the existence of a revival of the city during the Byzantine period. The clearances carried out by the French archaeological mission in the western sector of the Qasr al-Bint temenos in Petra (Augé et al. 2002)¹ reveal a more complex situation and chronology of events, the earthquake rather constituting the culmination of a series of previous episodes.

The excavation of the Qasr al- Bint sector, over the past ten years (FIG. 1)², has revealed a continuous occupation of this part of the city center from the 1st century BC (Mouton et al. 2008: 51-71) until the beginning of the Byzantine period (first quarter of the 5th century). The absence of Byzantine reoccupations in this sector made it possible to work on an undisturbed study area with the exception of tourist developments from the second half of the 20th century. The notable elements of this sector are the emergence of the great Nabataean sanctuary dominated by the temple of Qasr al-Bint, which was succeeded in the western part of the temenos, during the second half of the 2nd century AD, by an imperial propaganda building dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (Augé et al. 2002). The purpose of this communication is to show the complexity of the last phases of occupation of this sector and to highlight the existence of several phases of destruction, distinct from the earthquake of 363 and poorly known to this day in Petra.

The effects of the 363 earthquake are materialized in many sectors of the ancient city by a level of collapse of architectural blocks, a sequence generally assigned to the impact caused by the earthquake (Russell 1980). However, in the area of the Qasr al-Bint temple, several phases of abandonment and destruction marked this religious space before and after this event. They were observed in particular in the eastern sector of the peribole of the sanctuary, below the fall level attributed to the earthquake, and in the central part of the Roman apse monument (FIG. 2).

Footnotes

1 Mission under the program “From Petra to wadi Ramm: the south Jordanian Nabataean and Arab” under the direction of Chritian Augé

2 we must here thank the late Dr. Fawwaz al-Khraysheh, director of the Department of Jordanian Antiquities, Mr. Mohammed Abd al-Aziz, head of the Petra museum and representative of Antiquities in the field, and Mr. Sulaiman Farajat, former head of the Petra site.

Fire and Abandonment of Qasr al- Bint

from Renel (2013:349-351)

In the light of the research carried out by Fawzi Zayadine and observed at Qasr al-Bint, it is accepted that it was pillaged and burned at the end of the 3rd century, before its more complete destruction by the earthquake of 363 (Zayadine 1989:85). The occasional reoccupation of the sanctuary during the medieval period, associated with its use as a quarry, however disrupted these levels and complicated the interpretation of this phase. The new clearances carried out on the western approaches to Qasr al-Bint by the French mission partly corroborate these observations. At the start of the western peribole, located below the C3110 fall level, two sequences are particularly visible. They successively mark a fire phase and an abandonment phase, the duration of which is difficult to specify. The fire level (locus C3087-3088 / C3108) is located against the western ante wall of the temple. With an average thickness of 0.50m, it has a very ashy appearance containing in its fill numerous pieces of charcoal, structural nails and a large batch of tiles from collapse of the temple roof. This layer is intersected in its center by a series of later deposits (FIG. 3). This phase of fire has already been identified during surveys inside the temple (Zayadine 1982:377). The dating of this fire still remains controversial. According to the presence of a coin from Gallienus (253-268) present in the adyton, Fawzi Zayadine had attributed this event to the hypothetical passage of Queen Zenobia in 272 (Zayadine 1989:81), an event otherwise unattested by documentation certainly not in the very verbose history for this period³. This chronological argument given by numismatics is, however, not sufficient to support this hypothesis. To the extent that the attribution of this sanctuary to Dusares, the major god of the Nabataean pantheon, is probable and commonly accepted, a text from Epiphanius of Salamis mentioning sacrifices in honor of Dusares and his mother, the virgin Chaamou, during the 4th century, however, seems to demonstrate its continued use during this period, without being able to specify further (Sartre 1993: 57). The presence of a coin of Constantine I (coin no. C3108.013, dated between 330 and 335)⁴, found at the top of the fire layer located in the peribole, on the other hand, gives us a terminus ad quem for the activities of the cults reported by Epiphanius. However, the hypothesis of an accidental fire cannot be ruled out. In the absence of other associated suite, only a ¹⁴C dating will allow this episode to be dated.

On the other hand, it seems clear that following this fire, the temple no longer functioned, the damage having certainly caused irreparable harm. The small size of the excavated area between the temple and the apse monument (west peribole) makes it impossible to measure the impact of this fire on the structure of the imperial building. No trace is perceptible at the rear of this building.

This fire was followed by a period of abandonment materialized by a succession of sterile wind-driven sandy contributions and sequences of colluvium and runoff (locus C3106) coming from the hill located to the south (FIG. 3). These levels completely removed the ash deposit from the fire. These deposits are difficult to quantify chronologically. Their deposition can be spread out over a few days or a few years. The suite present, heterogeneous and rolled, does not allow for reliable and precise dating. The excavation of the “Great Temple” also showed, in its phase X between the 4th and 5th centuries, an abandonment of the complex characterized by the contribution of fluvial deposits (Joukowsky 2009: 294).

On the surface of these deposits, in the peribole of Qasr al-Bint, a thin layer of whitish powdery sandstone (locus C3086, C3105) testifies to the first phase of material recovery. This layeris perceptible at least within the temple and undoubtedly occasionally at the level of part of the decoration of the exedra. We are tempted to associate this phase, at least from a stratigraphic point of view, with the recovery and debitage, or sawing, of elements of imperial marble statuary.

These elements therefore testify to an abandonment or at least a partial disuse of the sacred space of the temenos after the ruin of the temple, the date of which is not yet fully assured, and probably several decades before the earthquake of 363 AD. The impact of this phase on the imperial apse monument still remains difficult to measure due to subsequent reoccupations.

Footnotes

3 This episode is better documented in the north of the Arabian province with the destruction of the temple of Jupiter Hammon in Bostra and the evidence of Zenobia's passage to Qasr al-Azraq (see Christol and Lenoir 2001: 170).

4 Identification Christian Augé

The effects of the 363 Earthquake

from Renel (2013:351-352)

The earthquake of 363 AD is a fact well attested in the history of Petra. Excavations carried out in different sectors of the site have clearly highlighted this (Joukowsky 2009: 294, Dentzer et al. 1992: 244)⁵. This earthquake is also perceptible in the southern part of the temenos. In addition to the temple itself, the clearances of the southern part of the apse monument, in contact with the beginning of the peribole, show a pile of blocks in a fallen position (loci C3090, C3104) due to the collapse of the elevations of the two monuments (FIG. 4)⁶. The northern part of the monument, however, is much less well known due to subsequent reoccupations and tourist developments.

Footnotes

5 Great Temple, phase IX.

6 Current study carried out by J. Dentzer-Feydy, L. Borel and C. March. It is from these falling blocks that an anastylosis allows restitution of the elevations the arrangement of the decor.

Reoccupation and Redefinition of the Space

from Renel (2013:352-357)

The fire of Qasr, which constitutes the first phase of ruin of the temple, was followed by a phase of abandonment of the sector. The clearing of the apse monument carried out since 1999 (zone C sectors 1 and 3) and the excavation of its surroundings to the west (zone C, sector 2 and 4) since 2003 testify to a reoccupation of a domestic nature of the sector to the result of the ruin of this building and a consequent desacralization of the space⁷. These domestic reoccupations are attested in various places in the city center (Kirkbride 1960: 121).

The occupation established on the ruins of the apse monument, although its influence is not completely clear, is defined by two distinct occupation units (FIGS. 5 and 6). The first one, adjoined and partly reusing the podium of the monument, forms the lower part used as a storeroom of a rectangular building measuring 10 m by 6 m (unit P2) taking up the foundations of a bossed building partially collapsed during the earthquake. The preserved volume constitutes the cellar of a larger building which opened onto the apse monument which reuses the platform of the exedra as a complementary room. This was accessed from the temenos by a staircase attached to the podium. The furniture associated with its occupancy levels (loci C2006, 2026) ensures its function. Within the contexts of this main building, the number of storage containers is not negligible. The presence of numerous jugs, dishes (in particular productions imported from North Africa) and small everyday objects designates it as the main place of residence. The cellar retains, on the other hand, in its south-east corner the remains of a religious installation combining a libation cup cut from a reused column and betyles (see below)⁸.

The second group, more difficult to perceive due to its degree of leveling, corresponds to a courtyard space with the presence of possible lean-tos and a semi-buried building located to the north of the excavation (FIG. 5). It reuses certain rooms of the Nabatean building (rooms P3 and P4) abandoned since the Roman period. Room P4 of the Nabataean building was over-dug about fifty centimeters below its level of primitive soil. Once again, the function of this set poses little problem. Among the material unearthed in its operating levels (locus C4053 and soil C4058), the most important lot is a set of bone objects within which failures and objects in progress testify to an activity its artistic function. In this semi-buried room we are indeed in the presence of a tablet workshop working with camel bone.

The enclosed space between these two sets is interpreted as a courtyard where the main structures encountered are discharge zones (pits C4092, 4109, C4341). Within these dumps, once again, the significant presence of bone fragments and objects in progress attests to the activity of the northern workshop. These pits essentially contain the primary waste products of this activity, with the distal ends of long bones dominating within these contexts. The suite unearthed in association with these bone rejects confirms the functioning of the workshop in a short period of time after 363. A large batch of coins confirms the activity of this occupation nucleus between the last third of the 4th century and the first quarter of the 5th century.

The area located in front of the northern part of the facade of the imperial apse monument also bears witness to this reoccupation. An earthen floor is preserved over the entire area (locus C3009), while a retaining wall is built to the south to delimit and contain the pile of blocks located between the temple and the west wall of the peribole⁹.

An important piece of suite was brought to light in relation to this habitat. It reflects, contrary to commonly accepted opinion, a material culture still strongly anchored in economic networks and open to large-scale Mediterranean trade. In this corpus, several amphoras come from Aegean productions (Kipitan II and LR3). The dishes fine is present in the form of North African sigillata productions (FIG. 7:2-3), the most frequent forms are the Hayes 59 types, dated between 320 and 420 AD and the Hayes 50 plate, in its variants a and b (350-400 AD ), and to a lesser extent the Hayes 67 form, which appeared around 360 and lasted until 470 (Hayes 1972). Common local ceramics present an assemblage similar to that from the Az-Zantur excavations in late contexts (FIG. 7:4-9). Several painted plates attributable to phase 4 defined by S. Schmid testify to the continuity of fine Nabataean painted productions until the abandonment of this sector (FIG. 7:1).

Only the lamps show a certain originality in the ceramic assemblage brought to light. Their association with a domestic beytl altar and the date of their abandonment could direct the debate towards the religious use of this space. These objects were found associated with a large number of late Roman lamps, classic models for this period (FIG. 7:10-11). They therefore do not represent a model which has supplanted the previous one. We must therefore see here a type of lamp intended for a particular use. All of the comparison models come from contexts where there is little doubt about their use as liturgical instruments, in particular for all of the lamps unearthed in churches. Lamps of this type are similar to a more or less monumental free-standing luminaire, equipped with series of multiple nozzles organized in a stepped manner. This is a luminaire (FIG. 8) intended to be placed on the ground, as shown by the different bases with molded lips found. Several similar fragments were discovered at Jebel Nmeir during a prospection. A very fragmentary copy is presented in the publication concerning Madaba and its territory, coming from Nebo-Siyagha (Alliata 1989: 343-347). It comes from the excavations of the basilica and the chapel (level late 6th, early 7th century AD). Regarding the function of the late structures present to the west of the apse monument, at the level of the courtyard and the semi-buried building, several elements indicate that this is a sector devoted to artisanal activities. All the waste and bone blanks found in the different contexts attest to the existence of a tablet workshop installed after the earthquake of 363 AD during the reoccupation of the space, as confirmed by the presence of a currency in the context of the C4341¹⁰ dump. This was identified in the excavated building to the north (room P4). The different contexts which yielded these types of remains make it possible to reconstruct the operational chain which led to the production of a corpus of bone objects that is quite typologically reduced¹¹. However, three types of objects resulting from the major stages of production are represented: cut scraps (unusable parts of bone), failed objects (blanks abandoned during production) and objects in progress. They are reflections of everyday life and are made up of everyday objects such as pins, beads, perhaps pyxides and to a lesser extent spoons (FIG. 9).

The abandonment of this sector took place, according to the data, essentially numismatic, in the first quarter of the 5th century. It is characterized in the area studied by a violent destruction by fire of the building adjacent to the apse monument. A layer of several centimeters of ash associated with charred beams lies on the ground. On the other hand, several clues indicate intentional destruction of the place before its fire. The betyls are overturned (FIGS. 10-11) and the objects related to this cult space smashed¹². The presence of a dagger and a winged arrowhead (Inv. C2028.172, FIG. 12) in this layer of ashes constitutes the most remarkable element of this phase. A second set comes from the abandoned levels, also characterized by traces of fire, of the building located to the east of the temple (zone B; FIG. 1). These are a second winged arrowhead, fragmentary bronze plated breastplates (Inv. B1015.007; FIG. 13)¹³ and fragments of siya in bone corresponding to several examples of so-called reflex and “composite” arch (Inv. B2005.001; FIG. 14). It is difficult to say if they are present in this context of rejection due to the presence of a local manufacturing workshop or if they are the remains of combat¹⁴.

All these elements reinforce the idea of a violent and definitive intervention in this sector, with no perceptible subsequent reoccupation¹⁵.

Footnotes

7 A partial reoccupation of the temple is, it seems, proven if we associate it with the reduction of the cella door (Zayadine 1982: 376).

8 It is interesting to note the discreet character of this place of worship relegated to the back of a cellar.

9 This structure, frustrated in its implementation, was only identified late during the excavation. Partly covered by the colluvium of the hill, it delimits a space located in the axis of the apse of the imperial monument, probably empty of any architectural element recovered in this place due to the lesser thickness of the collapse.

10 Coin of 364-375 (Inv. C4341.001; identification C. Augé).

11 Ongoing study carried out by Bénédicte Khan (Doctoral student, University of Paris I — Sorbonne).

12 The reassembly of the containers present in this context shows the fragmentation and dispersion of certain individuals over the entire area of the cellar.

13 The most important lot from context B1015 constitutes a section of armor with another 15 plates held in place by their system mounting (dimensions: h: 24 mm, 1: 17 mm).

14 The composite reflex arc is, by its shaping technique, the most technologically sophisticated and requires a high degree of qualification on the part of the craftsmen. It is therefore not an object that can be easily separated.

15 Following this abandonment, only agricultural terrace walls from the Byzantine period (6th century) and a series of burials from the beginning of Islam have been identified in this sector of the city center.

Archeology and History, a Possible Link?

from Renel (2013:357-358)

Comparing data from an excavation with historical events is a perilous, if not impossible, exercise. Even if it is difficult for us at the moment to relate the abandonment of this sector of Petra in the first quarter of the 5th century AD with a precise historical event, because ancient texts and inscriptions concerning this period are few in number, this phase corresponds to a tormented political and religious period of the Empire. It followed the Edict of Theodosius in 392 prohibiting pagan cults, a period which corresponds to the transition phase between the end of pagan cults and the Christianization of Petra. This is essentially materialized by the construction of the ecclesiastical complex unearthed on the right bank of the Wadi Musa. In 358, Petra became the seat of a metropolitan bishopric during the creation of a new province, Palaestina Salutaris . However, Petra, a major place of Nabataean religion, strongly Arab with the cult of the betyls, and polytheistic, with a great god Dusares, and a great goddess APUzza, seems to have attempted, including using military force, to resist conversion to Christianity. If we base ourselves on the Life of Barsauma the Syrian, paganism was indeed still very well anchored in the city at the beginning of the 5th century. However, the Nabataeans were converted, with vigor and supporting miracles, by the miracle worker Barsauma, after he had threatened the city with destruction in the 420s and their famous betyls were destroyed. We know in fact from texts (Sartre 1993: 83) that the Syrian monk Barsauma¹⁶ arrived in Petra between 419 and 421 in a city then little Christianized whose population he converted en masse (Zayadine 1991:17). It is very tempting to connect the destruction and abandonment of the western part of the temenos with this event insofar as this sector was strongly anchored in the roots of Nabataean paganism. Barsauma is also renowned for having attacked synagogues and temples (Bowersock 1997:4).

This movement of abandonment or destruction of pagan sanctuaries is observed quite widely in the southern Levant. We see the same phenomenon in Banias, where the pagan sanctuary of Pan was abandoned in the same period of time. Unlike Petra, however, we do not observe tangible traces of destruction, but rather the result of a “voluntary” abandonment of the complex (Berlin 1999: 41).

This fight against paganism seemed to have taken the side of violence fairly early on, the action of the monk Barsauma, if it proved correct, would find its place perfectly in this ideological current. In Greece, Christianization seems to have been slow and late; we had to wait until the middle of the 4th century to see the destruction of the last sanctuaries (Laurant 2004: 39-40). All these elements combine to show that at the same period, in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin, groups rose up within the developing Christianity to overthrow ancient cults and impose their cult definitively. It is also interesting to note that the main ecclesiastical remains unearthed in Petra date from after this date: the “Ridge Church” was built in 423, the transformation of the Urn tomb into a church dates back to 446 AD under the episcopate of Jason (McKenzie 1990: pl. 97; Sartre 1993: 82).

The presence of the late settlement excavated near Qasr al-Bint, marked by the presence of abundant liturgical furniture (betyls and lamps) in a place with very symbolic connotations, could therefore to be the expression of this pagan resistance, defeated in one way or another by the arrival of Barsauma, and by that of triumphant Christianity, marking a decisive turning point in the history of the city.

Footnotes

16 The Syriac Barsauma of Nisibis also destroyed synagogues in Judea for three years from 419.

Later Earthquake(s) - 419 CE ?, 6th century CE ?, mid-8th century CE ?

Discussion

Korzhenkov et al (2016) saw evidence for two earthquakes at Qasr Bint (see Archaeoseismic Observations) which would presumably be one of the 363 CE Cyril Quakes followed by another event. Tholbecq et al. (2022:67) suggested that fallen blocks in the vicinity of the apse reflects damage during two seperate seismic events - from the southern 363 CE Cyril Quake and from a later event such as the 419 CE Monaxius and Plinta Quake. Tholbecq et. al. (2023:33) speculated that the second earthquake observed in the vicinity of the apse could have also been due to one of the mid-8th century CE earthquakes.

Jones(2021) speculated that Qasr al-Bint may have been damaged due to a late 6th century CE earthquake (i.e the Inscription at Areopolis Quake).

Renel (2013: 349) has proposed that the post-363 occupation at Qasr al-Bint was abandoned in the early 5th century, possibly as a result of a major flood (Paradise, 2011). Nonetheless, it is possible that Qasr al-Bint was abandoned due to the 5th century flood but also damaged during the late 6th century earthquake.

References

Tholbecq et al (2023)

Figures

Normal Size

Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Overview of sector

Fig. 1

Overview of the sector at the end of the [Spring 2023] campaign, towards the southwest

(T. Fournet 2023, CNRS / MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 3 - Destruction layers

Fig. 3

The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

of the western peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 9 - Reconstruction of

Fig. 9

Proposal for the restitution in principle of the southern half of the main facade of the apse monument, simplified working hypothesis

(T. Fournet, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

southern half of the main facade of the apse monument from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 10 - Overview of

Fig. 10

Overview of the ancient destruction level

(F. Renel, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

destruction layer from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 18 - Upper stratigraphic

Fig. 18

view of the upper stratigraphic sequence of space P15, southern section

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sequence of P15 in the palace sector from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 19 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 19

the level of fallen blocks B2165-2173, towards the northeast

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 24 - Fallen capitals

Fig. 24

detail of the elements of Corinthian capitals in fallen position in destruction layer B2165-2173

(T. Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 40 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 40

fallen blocks (B2171) present in the upper filling of room P16

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

in room P16 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 41 - Fallen architecture

Fig. 41

detail of a stucco preserved on its facing block (B2171)

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Magnified

Fig. 1 - Plan of sectors

Fig. 1

Petra, general plan of the Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in 2023

(T. Fournet/ M. Belarbi, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Overview of sector

Fig. 1

Overview of the sector at the end of the [Spring 2023] campaign, towards the southwest

(T. Fournet 2023, CNRS / MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

excavated in 2023 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 3 - Destruction layers

Fig. 3

The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

of the western peribole from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 9 - Reconstruction of

Fig. 9

Proposal for the restitution in principle of the southern half of the main facade of the apse monument, simplified working hypothesis

(T. Fournet, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

southern half of the main facade of the apse monument from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 10 - Overview of

Fig. 10

Overview of the ancient destruction level

(F. Renel, MAFP).

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

destruction layer from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 16 - Plan of the palace

Fig. 16

General plan of the palace sector of Qasr al-Bint sector, location of operations carried out in Fall 2023

(T. Fournet/M. Belarbi/ P. Piraud-Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sector of Qasr Bint from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 18 - Upper stratigraphic

Fig. 18

view of the upper stratigraphic sequence of space P15, southern section

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

sequence of P15 in the palace sector from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 19 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 19

the level of fallen blocks B2165-2173, towards the northeast

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 24 - Fallen capitals

Fig. 24

detail of the elements of Corinthian capitals in fallen position in destruction layer B2165-2173

(T. Fournet, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 40 - Fallen blocks

Fig. 40

fallen blocks (B2171) present in the upper filling of room P16

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

in room P16 from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)
Fig. 41 - Fallen architecture

Fig. 41

detail of a stucco preserved on its facing block (B2171)

(F. Renel, MAFP)

Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023)

Discussion

2.1 Petra - Qasr al-Bint

2.1.2 The Apse - Preliminary Report (May 2023)

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:25, 30-31, 33)

The stratigraphic results for the upper parts match those established in particular in 2017 and 2018 (Renel 2017, 2018): the destruction layer mixes the blocks from the northwest corner of the Qasr and those from the apse monument, fallen at the same time (fig. 3). This layer (F1110) brings together the majority of blocks useful for restoring the imperial facade: column drums, capitals, friezes, cornices, etc.

... This destruction layer is of a different nature from the previous one. It indeed contains numerous fragments of very fragmented blocks, having been exposed to fire, and a majority of blocks coming not from the apse monument, but from the northwest corner of the temple of Qasr al-Bint. We thus found the angle of the denticulated cornice, but also a drip edge front with the start of the pediment (fig. 11). These elements complete and clarify the restitution of this part of the Qasr proposed by Fr. Larché (Zayadine et al. 2003), but above all they confirm a hypothesis put forward in 2017: the destruction took place in two stages. The crowning angle of the temple (entablature and pediment) fell first, probably after the fire of the temple, and only later, after a period of abandonment (sandy layers F1111, F1125 and F1127) , did the apse monument and other parts of the Qasr, already weakened, fell in turn. The levels of the first destruction also include other elements which do not belong to the upper parts of the temple, but on the contrary seem to result from a sorting carried out during an abandonment phase. Among them, a fragment of molded marble bearing a Nabataean inscription (fig. 12). A first reading carried out by Laïla Nehmé mentions “(…) Malichos, king of the Nabataeans” (cf infra, 2.1.4). The material found in the sandy layer associated with this level (F1129) can be dated to the second half of the 4th century A.D.

... To summarize, the chronological sequence brought to light is made up of 8 phases. The first occupation, domestic, was directly placed on the alluvial terrace during the Hellenistic period (phase 1) and is followed by two major construction phases: the foundation of the temple staircase (1st century AD) followed by the imperial monument with an apse ( 2nd century AD). After the temple fire, probably during the second half of the 3rd century AD, its remains remained in place, and a first spoliation of the sector occurred (removal of the paving of the peribole and lead pipes). It was probably the earthquake of 363 which then led to the fall of the blocks in the northwest corner of the temple which were already weakened (which explains their significant fragmentation). A second phase of spoliation followed, at the end of the 4th century , then abandonment, and finally the apse monument and upper parts of the temple that were still in place were completely ruined, on the occasion of an earthquake (419, 749?).

2.1.3 The Palatial Sector - Preliminary Report (May 2023)

2.1.3.1 The North-West Angle of Building B2: Sondage P15

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:35-38)

In zone B2, we examined two sectors. The first is located in the northwest corner of courtyard P11, in line with the door giving access to rooms P13 and 14, excavated during the 2012 and 2013 campaigns (fig. 17). This Sondage (noted P15), with an area of 40 m² , aimed to highlight the supposed return of the Stylobate from the Nabataean court and to identify the phases of late occupation in this sector.

Below a level of sterile sand of aeolian origin, the upper part of the stratigraphy (fig. 18) includes, under a level of falling blocks (B2161), an alternation of ash and carbon deposits and sandy contributions (B2162-B2164 ) on a level of packed earth ground (B2163) corresponding to the reoccupation of this sector following its ruin. A significant amount of furniture was found in these layers, combining ceramics, fauna as well as fragmentary inscriptions (Nabataean and Latin) engraved on marble or alabaster and probably coming from neighboring elevations. The discovery of fragments of LRA 1 and LRA 4b amphorae and dishes in late North African sigillata makes it possible to date this phase from the first quarter of the 5th century, testifying to the reuse of this space following the earthquake of 363 A.D.

Sealed by this sequence, a collapse level (B2165-B2173) was revealed over the entire excavated area (fig. 19). Resulting from the earthquake of 363, it combines facing blocks of the southern facade of the north wing with a series of architectural elements including several Corinthian columns and half-columns (see below for a first study of these blocks).

2.1.3.2 The North-West Corner of Building B2: a new Corinthian order

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:48)

The blocks of the Corinthian order unearthed this year all seem to be in a fallen position, the three supports (cordiform corner column, free column and pilaster) were therefore located in the immediate vicinity of the Sondage, and fell one on top of the other. The limited extent of the excavation did not make it possible to know where they were located exactly. The alignment of the Doric portico of the courtyard (see fig. 16) extends up to 3.50 m from our Sondage, where it seems to transform into a solid wall. It is in this sector, which was only stripped this year, that the solution of discontinuity was to be found allowing us to move from the Doric order of the court (65 cm in diameter) to this Corinthian order of 53 cm in diameter. diameter. It seems at this stage of the study that the west wing of building B, leaning on the older wall B2204, could have constituted a sort of basilica, widely open onto the Doric courtyard, in a fairly original layout. The extension of the excavation in spring 2024 will make it possible to understand this connection.

2.1.3.3 The North-East Corner of Building B2: Sondage P16

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:51)

The room [P 16] is finally sealed by a collapse level (B2171) containing architectural blocks covered with painted stucco (figs. 40 and 41, see below 3.1).

2.1.3.4 Complex B3: Sondage P54

from Tholbecq et. al. (2023:52-53)

Recognized over more than three meters, the stratigraphy made it possible to highlight three main phases of occupation (fig. 43). Firstly, a heavily reworked Nabataean state which works with wall B4001 and which probably corresponds to a courtyard space. Only two sandstone slabs (B3061), leaning against the eastern facing of wall B4001, are preserved. Their altimetry (ca. 869.75 m) shows that the circulation levels of this part of the B3 complex are located two meters higher than those of the B2 complex, probably due to the fact that this sector is located on the embankments of a first leveled Hellenistic architectural state (Renel & Fournet 2022, p.99). This level constitutes the excavation limit for this campaign.

Secondly, the installation of the Roman portico must have obliterated part of the Nabatean occupation levels. An east-west wall (B4003) leans against the facade of wall B4001, its foundation (B3060) cutting into the previous levels. Preserved on 3 to 4 courses in elevation, it has a facing of bossed blocks. No related material was found. The existence of an internal facing, however, testifies to the continued use of the spaces located behind the portico during the Roman period.

Finally, the last phase of occupation corresponds to the construction of a crude habitat, in contact with the level of the courtyard (fig. 44). Only the northeast exterior corner of this building (B3059) is included in the excavated area, its internal arrangement therefore not being known. Associated with this phase of occupation, an earthen floor, rich in charcoal inclusions (B3058), yielded fragments of a jar attributable to the second half of the 4th century to the beginning of the 5th century. This habitat which marks the last phase of occupation is sealed by a sequence of embankments massifs associated with fallen blocks with sandy passes (B3052-3053).

Phase 7b Earthquake(s) - 3rd-4th century CE

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description/Comments
Destruction Layer	Western Temple Staircase (peribola) in Zone F Plan of Qasr Bint with approximate locations (in green) where archaeoseismic evidence was observed Modified by JW from plan of Fournet and Renel (2019)	Figure 11 Stratigraphy at the base of the western péribole (περίβόλος) of the Temple Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP Figure 12 View of the Stratum F1082 Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP Fig. 10 East-west section of the western peribole. (M. Bélarbi, C. Besnier, F. Renel) Tholbecq et. al. (2019) Fig. 3 The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers (F. Renel, MAFP) Tholbecq et. al. (2023) Fig. 10 Overview of the ancient destruction level (F. Renel, MAFP). Tholbecq et. al. (2023)	a first level of destruction attributed to the earthquake of 363 AD - Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)
Vault and Wall collapse	southern part of the apse monument in the southern part of the temenos abutting the "beginning" of the peribole Plan of Qasr Bint with approximate locations (in green) where archaeoseismic evidence was observed Modified by JW from plan of Fournet and Renel (2019)	Fig. 4 View of the pile of blocks linked to the fall of the elevations of the apse monument during the earthquake of 363. (© L. Borel, MFPQB) Renel (2013) Fig. 3 East-west section of the fill of the western peribole of the Qasr al-Bint temple. (© M. Belarbi, MF-PQB) Renel (2013) Fig. 4 Overall plan of the scree of the apse monument at the end of the October 2022 campaign, superposition of all the layers of blocks in the falling position. In blue the elements of marble statuary, in green the blocks from the temple of Qasr al-Bint (T. Fournet / C. March / M. Belarbi, MAFP) Tholbecq et al. (2022)	The earthquake of 363 AD is a fact well attested in the history of Petra. ... This earthquake is also perceptible in the southern part of the temenos. ... clearances of the southern part of the apse monument, in contact with the beginning of the peribole, show a pile of blocks in a fallen position (loci C3090, C3104) due to the collapse of the elevations of the two monuments (Fig. 4) - Renel (2013:351-352) A first observation confirms our hypotheses on the chronology of the destruction of the imperial monument: the scree is composed of a tangle of blocks coming largely from our facade, but also blocks undoubtedly coming from the upper parts of the Qasr al-Bint (entablature and pediment), or its staircase (blocks of the cipher wall, marble veneer). Their overlapping (fig. 4) demonstrates that the ruin of the two buildings took place at the same time and that it is even probable that it was the fall of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, undoubtedly during the fire of the latter, which led to the ruin of part of the facade of the apse monument and the staircase of the Qasr. However, some questions remain as to the date of the collapse on more massive. If the falling blocks observed in the lower part of the stratigraphy are certainly the effects of the 363 earthquake, the highest level of falling blocks seems to be associated with that of 419 after a sequence of abandonment. This two-stage destruction is separated by an intermediate stage of spoliation of certain architectural elements, in which we must undoubtedly place the cutting of the marble statue of Marcus Aurelius, the recovery of certain capitals, etc. The absolute chronology of these different stages is more complicated than we thought: the northern part of the facade seems to have remained standing until the spoliations of the Byzantine era and the earthquake of 748 AD [JW: 749 CE Sabbatical Year Quakes], while the southern part would be destroyed three centuries earlier, with the ruin of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, weakened by its fire then collapsed during the first earthquake. - Tholbecq et al. (2022:67)

Archaeoseismic Observations

Korzhenkov et al (2016)

Effect	Location	Image	Description
Shifted Ashlars		Figure 4a Qasr Bint the extension of the upper parts of the walls relative to the lower rows of ashlars Korzhenkov et al (2016)	Upper courses shifted from lower ones - paraphrased from a translation of Korzhenkov et al (2016)
Traces of two earthquakes - missing upper courses from first earthquake and rotated ashlars due to second earthquake		Figure 4b Qasr Bint Traces of two earthquakes. After the first earthquake, the wall was rebuilt with the upper courses less well built than the earlier lower courses. This rebuilt part of the wall was turned clockwise during the second earthquake. The intensity of both earthquakes is at least 9 points on the MSK-64 scale. Korzhenkov et al (2016)	Traces of two earthquakes. It appears that the first earthquake collapsed the upper part of this wall as the wall shows signs of being rebuilt. The ashlars of the upper courses of the wall are less well made than the lower ones. After the wall was rebuilt, it appears that a 2nd earthquake struck and rotated part of the wall in a clockwise direction. Intensity for both earthquakes estimated as at least IX (9) on the MSK-64 scale. - paraphrased from a translation of Korzhenkov et al (2016)
Wall bending and cracked floor slabs	Corridors in the temple	Figure 8 Qasr Bint Cracked floor slabs above the corridors in the temple of the Daughter of the Pharaoh. Arrows show the systematic bending deformation of the walls. Dashed lines fix the position of the walls before the onset of seismic vibrations. Korzhenkov et al (2016)	Arrows show direction of forces which bent the walls and cracked one of the floor slabs. Dotted lines show the postulated original position of the walls before the earthquake. - paraphrased from a translation of Korzhenkov et al (2016)

Potential archaeoseismic evidence (photos)

Effect	Location	Image	Description (by JW)
Vertical fracture		Fig. 6.41b General view, showing the wooden and orthostat courses (Zayadine et al. 2003: 8) Rababeh (2005)	Vertical fracure on an exterior wall - photo from Rababeh (2005)
Arch damage	south elevation	Fig. 6.41d General view of south elevation. Showing the wooden course below the springing of the relieve arch Rababeh (2005)	Arch may have been "rebuilt" after an earthquake with ashlars surrounding it. Then a 2nd earthquake (or differential settlement) may have caused the fracture to radiate from the right side of the arch - photo from Rababeh (2005)
Vertical fractures	east part of the cross wall	Fig. 6.46a General view of the east part of the cross wall, showing the cavity arches, looking south Rababeh (2005)	Vertical fracturing - photo from Rababeh (2005)
Vertical fractures	west part of the cross wall	Fig. 6.46b General view of the west part of the cross wall, showing the cavity arches, looking south Rababeh (2005)	Vertical fracturing - photo from Rababeh (2005)
Slipped Keystone in an arch	west part of the cross wall	Fig. 6.46c Detailed view of one of the cavity arches, showing the beam lodgements (Zayadine 1985a: Pl. LIX2). Rababeh (2005)	The keystone of this arch slipped downwards - photo from Rababeh (2005)

Phase 7b Earthquake(s) - 3rd-4th century CE

Modified by JW from Fournet and Renel (2019)

Deformation Map

Plan of Qasr Bint with approximate locations (in green) where archaeoseismic evidence was observed

Modified by JW from plan of Fournet and Renel (2019)

Phase 7b Earthquake(s) - 3rd-4th century CE

Intensity Estimate from Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description/Comments	Intensity
Destruction Layer suggests collapsed walls	Western Temple Staircase (peribola) in Zone F Plan of Qasr Bint with approximate locations (in green) where archaeoseismic evidence was observed Modified by JW from plan of Fournet and Renel (2019)	Figure 11 Stratigraphy at the base of the western péribole (περίβόλος) of the Temple Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP Figure 12 View of the Stratum F1082 Tholbecq et al (2019) - © MAFP Fig. 10 East-west section of the western peribole. (M. Bélarbi, C. Besnier, F. Renel) Tholbecq et. al. (2019) Fig. 3 The western peribole of Qasr al-Bint, towards the south, destruction layers (F. Renel, MAFP) Tholbecq et. al. (2023) Fig. 10 Overview of the ancient destruction level (F. Renel, MAFP). Tholbecq et. al. (2023)	a first level of destruction attributed to the earthquake of 363 AD - Tholbecq et al (2019:36-37)	VIII+
Vault and wall collapse	southern part of the apse monument in the southern part of the temenos abutting the "beginning" of the peribole Plan of Qasr Bint with approximate locations (in green) where archaeoseismic evidence was observed Modified by JW from plan of Fournet and Renel (2019)	Fig. 4 View of the pile of blocks linked to the fall of the elevations of the apse monument during the earthquake of 363. (© L. Borel, MFPQB) Renel (2013) Fig. 3 East-west section of the fill of the western peribole of the Qasr al-Bint temple. (© M. Belarbi, MF-PQB) Renel (2013) Fig. 4 Overall plan of the scree of the apse monument at the end of the October 2022 campaign, superposition of all the layers of blocks in the falling position. In blue the elements of marble statuary, in green the blocks from the temple of Qasr al-Bint (T. Fournet / C. March / M. Belarbi, MAFP) Tholbecq et al. (2022)	The earthquake of 363 AD is a fact well attested in the history of Petra. ... This earthquake is also perceptible in the southern part of the temenos. ... clearances of the southern part of the apse monument, in contact with the beginning of the peribole, show a pile of blocks in a fallen position (loci C3090, C3104) due to the collapse of the elevations of the two monuments (Fig. 4) - Renel (2013:351-352) A first observation confirms our hypotheses on the chronology of the destruction of the imperial monument: the scree is composed of a tangle of blocks coming largely from our facade, but also blocks undoubtedly coming from the upper parts of the Qasr al-Bint (entablature and pediment), or its staircase (blocks of the cipher wall, marble veneer). Their overlapping (fig. 4) demonstrates that the ruin of the two buildings took place at the same time and that it is even probable that it was the fall of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, undoubtedly during the fire of the latter, which led to the ruin of part of the facade of the apse monument and the staircase of the Qasr. However, some questions remain as to the date of the collapse on more massive. If the falling blocks observed in the lower part of the stratigraphy are certainly the effects of the 363 earthquake, the highest level of falling blocks seems to be associated with that of 419 after a sequence of abandonment. This two-stage destruction is separated by an intermediate stage of spoliation of certain architectural elements, in which we must undoubtedly place the cutting of the marble statue of Marcus Aurelius, the recovery of certain capitals, etc. The absolute chronology of these different stages is more complicated than we thought: the northern part of the facade seems to have remained standing until the spoliations of the Byzantine era and the earthquake of 748 AD [JW: 749 CE Sabbatical Year Quakes], while the southern part would be destroyed three centuries earlier, with the ruin of the upper parts of Qasr al-Bint, weakened by its fire then collapsed during the first earthquake. - Tholbecq et al. (2022:67)	VIII+

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Intensity Estimate from Korzhenkov et al (2016)

Korzhenkov et al (2016) found evidence for two earthquakes at Qasr Bint and estimated an Intensity of IX (9) for both.

References

Articles and Books

Al-Bashaireh, Khaled Shenwan & Hodgins, Gregory W. L. (2014) THE CHRONOLOGY OF QASR EL-BINT, PETRA: DISCUSSION AND NEW RADIOCARBON DATES, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 146:4, 281-292

Augé, C., et al. (2016). "Le sanctuaire du Qasr al-Bint et ses abords : un état des lieux des travaux de la mission archéologique française à Pétra, Jordanie (1999-2013)." Syria. Archéologie, Art et histoire 93: 255-310.

Bowersock, G. W. (1994). Roman Arabia. United Kingdom: Harvard University Press. - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Fournet, T. and Renel, F. (2019) On the steps of Qasr al-Bint: New architectural Study on the Temple Area (Petra) in 14th International Conference on the History and Archaeology of Jordan, Jan 2019, Florence, Italy.

Korzhenkov, A. et.al., 2016, Следы землетрясений в затерянном городе (Earthquake trails in a lost city), Nature 43

Paradise, T. 2011. The Great Flood of Petra: evidence for a 4th–5th AD century catastrophic flood. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 55: 43–56.

Rababeh, S. M. A. (2005). How Petra was built : an analysis of the construction techniques of the Nabataean freestanding buildings and rock-cut monuments in Petra, Jordan. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Renel, F. 2013. L’abandon du Secteur du Qasṛal-Bint à Pétra: nouveaux éléments Archéologique. In, al-Hmoud, F. (ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan XI: Changes and Challenges: 349–58. Amman: Department of Antiquities of Jordan.

Zayadine (1985: 249). Recent excavations and restoration at Qasr el Bint of Petra. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 29

Excavation Reports

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2017) Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2016-2017

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2018) Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2017-2018

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2019). Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2018-2019.

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2021). Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2021.

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2022). Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2022.

Tholbecq, L., et al. (2023). Mission archéologique française à Pétra. Rapport des campagnes archéologiques 2023.

Websites

academia.edu page for Laurent Tholbecq

Petra at Zamani Project (contains 3D models, 3D Virtual Reality Panorama Tour, and plans of Qasr Bint)

Photos of Qasr Bint at Manar Al-Athar (Oxford University)

Qasr Bint at Madain Project

Qasr Bint at universes.art

Qasr Bint at Nabataea.net

Wikipedia page for Qasr Bint

from Wikipedia

Petra - Qasr Bint