Open this page in a new tab

Haluza

Elusa (Haluza). Drone image with overview of the city area, looking N Fig. 2

Elusa (Haluza). Drone image with overview of the city area, looking N

Heinzelmann et al. (2023)


Names
Transliterated Name Source Name
Haluza Hebrew חלוצה‎
Elusa Byzantine Greek - Madaba Map ΕΛΟΥϹΑ
Chellous Greek Χελλοὺς
Halasa
asal-Khalūṣ Arabic - Early Arab الخلصة
Al-Khalasa Modern Arabic الخلصة
Introduction
Introduction

Haluza, ~20 km. southwest of Beersheba, was founded by the the Nabateans as a station along the Incense Road ( Avraham Negev in Meyers et al, 1997). Heinzelmann et al. (2023:237) describe it as follows:

During the Roman and Early Byzantine period the city of Elusa was the most important settlement in the Negev region. It appears to have been founded in the 3rd c. B.C.E. by the Nabateans, as a major stopover on the caravan network known as the Incense Road leading from southern Arabia via Petra to the Mediterranean harbour city of Gaza1. In Elusa, the road intersected with an important north-south link, which ran from Jerusalem to Egypt (Fig. 1). This advantageous location led to the development of the city. With the decline of the long-distance trade in the first half of the 3rd c. C.E., an economic reorientation towards an intensified agrarian use of the desert's margins took place. Although the region only receives an average rainfall of ca. 150 mm, a sophisticated water management enabled the development of one of the most intensive winegrowing areas of the eastern Mediterranean between the 4th and 6th c. C.E.2. Although several of the former caravan stations, such as Sobota (Shivta), Mampsis (Mamshit), Oboda (Avdat), Nessana (Nizzana) and Ruheibe (Rehovot), developed into respectable towns, these sites only reached a proto-urban stage of development2. By contrast, the actual administrative, economic and religious centre and only proper city of the entire region was Elusa, which, according to the most recent epigraphic discovery, held the status of a polis from 305/306 C.E. on at the latest4. A recently found Severan milestone attests that Elusa functioned as the caput viae of the road from Gaza to Petra and was the base of a military deployment during this period, and not Oboda, as previously assumed,. With about 45 hectares of built-up area, Elusa's urban character was underlined by the construction of the only theatre and by the largest public baths of the region, as well as lavishly paved streets partially flanked by porticoes.
Footnotes

1 For a summary of the older state of research and a general overview of the settlement history of the Negev see: Erickson-Gini 2010, 7—82.

2 Among others: Evenari et at 1971; Bruins 1986; Erickson-Gini 2010: 76. 81 f.

3 Summarizing: Shereshevski 1991, 82-90; Erickson-Gini 2010, 81 f.; for Shivta see also: Segal 1983; Rohl 2010; for Mamshit: Negev 1988a; Negev 1997; Avdat: Negev 1977; Cohen 1980; Nizzana: Colt 1962; Urmann 2004.

4 Schone et al. 2018, 79; Di Segni 2018, 91-95.

5 David - Isaac 2020, 5-9.

Haluza remained inhabited after the Muslim conquest but eventually declined and was abandoned - like many other Byzantine cities in the Negev. These old cities preserve much archeoseismic evidence and have been rightly called fossil seismographs whose examination can help unravel the historically under reported seismic history of both sides of the Arava before ~1000 CE.

Renewed Excavations

Some 17 years after the excavations of A. Negev, excavations were renewed at Elusa by Ben-Gurion University, under the direction of H. Goldfus (1997–1998, 2000), P. Fabian (1997), and B. Arubas (1998, 2000). Three seasons of excavations conducted so far have focused on the southeastern part of the site. In the summer of 1997, work was resumed in the area of the theater (area T) and a new area was opened in the potters’ workshops (area K). In the 1998 season, excavations were expanded in the theater and renewed in the East Church, the “Cathedral” (area C). In 2000, work continued in various parts of the church complex.

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Surveys, and Sondages
Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Surveys, and Sondages

Maps

Aerial Views

  • Fig. 2 Drone Photo of Haluza
    Fig. 2

    Elusa (Haluza). Drone image with overview of the city area, looking N

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Haluza in Google Earth
    Haluza

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Haluza on govmap.gov.il
    Haluza

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

  • Site Plan of Haluza
    General Plan of Haluza

    Stern et al (1993)
    from Negev in Stern et al (1993)
  • Fig. 15 Preliminary city plan
    Fig. 15

    Elusa (Haluza). Preliminary city plan. The interpretation is based on geophysics, survey and remote sensing



    JW: location of sondages (stratigraphic profiles) are in dicated in black starting with So

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 4 Map of modern Al-Khalasa
    Fig. 2

    Al-Khalasa. Overview over the modern settlement which existed in the first half of the 20th century. Features based on survey and historical maps

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Magnified

  • Site Plan of Haluza
    General Plan of Haluza

    Stern et al (1993)
    from Negev in Stern et al (1993)
  • Fig. 15 Preliminary city plan
    Fig. 15

    Elusa (Haluza). Preliminary city plan. The interpretation is based on geophysics, survey and remote sensing



    JW: location of sondages (stratigraphic profiles) are in dicated in black starting with So

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 4 Map of modern Al-Khalasa
    Fig. 2

    Al-Khalasa. Overview over the modern settlement which existed in the first half of the 20th century. Features based on survey and historical maps

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Basilica B

Normal Size

  • Fig. 17 Plan of the
    Fig. 17

    Elusa (Haluza). Preliminary plan of the northern district including Basilica B and the bath complex. The interpretation is based on geophysics, survey and remote sensing

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    northern district incl. Basilica B from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 42 Basilica B
    Fig. 42

    Elusa (Haluza), Basilica B. Survey finds on the preliminary interpretation (scale 1 : 500)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    survey from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Magnified

  • Fig. 17 Plan of the
    Fig. 17

    Elusa (Haluza). Preliminary plan of the northern district including Basilica B and the bath complex. The interpretation is based on geophysics, survey and remote sensing

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    northern district incl. Basilica B from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 42 Basilica B
    Fig. 42

    Elusa (Haluza), Basilica B. Survey finds on the preliminary interpretation (scale 1 : 500)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    survey from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Surveys

Normal Size

  • Fig. 8 DEM of Haluza
    Fig. 8

    Elusa (Haluza). Digital elevation model based on drone images and Structure from Motion

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 9 Aerial Image
    Fig. 9

    Elusa (Haluza). Aerial image with indications of the geophysical investigations carried out between 2015 and 2018

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    with geophysical survey locations from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 11 Geomagnetic Map
    Fig. 11

    Elusa (Haluza). Magnetic map of the city based on the investigations (2015-2018)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 13 Archaeological
    Fig. 13

    Elusa (Haluza). GIS-based map with selected results of the urban survey (2015-2018)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    survey map from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Magnified

  • Fig. 8 DEM of Haluza
    Fig. 8

    Elusa (Haluza). Digital elevation model based on drone images and Structure from Motion

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 9 Aerial Image
    Fig. 9

    Elusa (Haluza). Aerial image with indications of the geophysical investigations carried out between 2015 and 2018

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    with geophysical survey locations from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 11 Geomagnetic Map
    Fig. 11

    Elusa (Haluza). Magnetic map of the city based on the investigations (2015-2018)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
  • Fig. 13 Archaeological
    Fig. 13

    Elusa (Haluza). GIS-based map with selected results of the urban survey (2015-2018)

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    survey map from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Sondages

Normal size

  • Fig. 16 Chronological overview
    Fig. 16

    Elusa (Haluza), Comprehensive overview of the chronology of the different sondages

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    of sondages from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Magnified

  • Fig. 16 Chronological overview
    Fig. 16

    Elusa (Haluza), Comprehensive overview of the chronology of the different sondages

    Heinzelmann et al. (2023)
    of sondages from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Chronology
Phasing/Chronology

Chronology of Haluza from Heinzelmann et al. (2023)

Chronological Summary

The following can be said to summarize Elusa’s development: the location was frequented since the 3rd/2nd c. B.C.E. as indicated by Nabatean pottery finds and radiocarbon dated charcoal remains from different contexts. The nucleus of the city can be assumed to be in the western part, but so far, no structural remains can be associated with this phase. After a clear hiatus in the 1st c. B.C.E. for which no archaeological evidence exists, a remarkably dynamic urbanization process started between the 1st and early 3rd c. C.E. In this period, the city grew rapidly to its maximum extent, soon covering an area of nearly 45 hectares of the Late Antique city. The network of streets seems to have already been largely consolidated in this early phase. The streets were flanked by domestic and public buildings, often built with mudbrick walls. The theatre and the huge bath complex – both the largest known examples of their kind in the Negev region – were built during this period, clearly reflecting the urban character of the city in the Mid-Roman period as well as the strong influence of the Roman-Mediterranean urban culture. On the other hand, characteristic features such as a central public square in the form of a forum/agora with corresponding public buildings and functions are missing. Interestingly, they are substituted by peripheral open spaces, which presumably had primarily economic purposes. Evidence for settlement activities during the later 3rd c. C.E. is scarce, perhaps reflecting the contemporaneous decline of Nabatean trade and several periods of droughts105.

A second phase of prosperity was closely connected to the successful agricultural use of the Negev in late antiquity. During the 4th and 5th c. C.E., most parts of the city were renewed on a level about 1.5-2.0 m above that of the Early/Mid-Roman phases. Mudbrick structures were systematically levelled and replaced by stone buildings with high quality masonry. At least eight churches were built, one of them possibly a bishop's church and another as part of a possible monastery. These churches were often embellished with high quality decoration in their second phase. In the centre of the city, a huge peristyle building was constructed which was probably used as a kind of emporium. The baths were continuously in use and were also further embellished. The periodical renewal of the street surfaces made with superimposed layers of compressed limestone chippings, which started in the first 1st c. C.E., was replaced around 450 C.E. with a city-wide high-quality stone pavement. This also enabled the large-scale collection of rainwater and its supply to public cisterns. Numerous buildings now appear to have additional porticos in front of their facades, and a continuous colonnaded street is emerged in the centre of the city. Furthermore, in some parts of the city, an elaborate sewer-system managed the wastewater. Many buildings of this period show traces of repeated large-scale destructions and restorations, probably caused by earthquake damages. Remarkably, the theatre was also lavishly renovated in 454/455 C.E. thanks to a private donation.106 The quick reconstruction on the same foundations demonstrates a high resilience and prosperity of the city during this period. This is also indicated by the quality of the masonry in Elusa, for example in the Late Antique tower houses, as well as in the outstanding decoration of the churches. Vault-mosaics with glass tesserae (some of which feature gold leaf) decorated the churches; their floors were paved with mosaics and opus sectile in differently coloured marble. The emergence of the huge waste mounds all around the city demonstrates an efficiently organized garbage disposal and documents a high sense of community and administration. During the first half of the 6th c. C.E., the urban dynamics seem to slow down: building activities are now restricted to renovations of already existing structures.

The material analyses carried out provide further facets of this apparent phase of prosperity in the early and mid-Byzantine periods. For example, the archaeobotanical investigations document a broad spectrum of crops that indicate intensive agricultural use of the surrounding countryside. High quantities of Gaza wine amphorae, apparently transported empty to Elusa by the caravans returning from the coastal region, confirm that the city — like the other sites of the Negev Highlands — participated intensively in the production and export of wine. At the same time, rare, non-endemic types of wood, probably originating from furniture or small objects, as well as a wide range of imported fish and molluscs prove that Elusa was integrated into a broad trade network in the early and mid-Byzantine period, which reached as far as the Red Sea, Egypt and the Mediterranean. At the same time, the semi-arid desert fringes were used for traditional, presumably semi-nomadic sheep and goat breeding and for hunting gazelles. The diversity and intensity of the agricultural use of the surrounding area must have exerted a high impact and stress on the natural habitat and the available resources. An example is the considerable scarcity of wood for fuel as suggested by the archaeobotanical research, leading to animal dung being apparently used for the daily needs of most households, while the baths were heated with wood — but even there only young trees and bushes were available.

However, starting in the second half of the 6th c. C.E. and continuing into the 7th c. C.E., clear signs of crisis and a gradual urban decline are evident: buildings, including the theatre and the baths, were abandoned or robbed of their decorations and building materials. Often, the entrances to buildings were blocked up. The systematic waste management of the previous period is replaced by local waste dumps in the neighbourhoods and streets. All over the settlement, repairs and conversions of the existing buildings can be observed, some buildings threatening to collapse are secured with retaining walls. A considerable transformation process seems to reshape the settlement's character well before the Arab conquest took place107. During the conquest, many buildings were already abandoned, while in some parts of the city, settlement activities continued through the 7th c. C.E. Various public buildings like the churches, the peristyle building, the baths as well as some private houses, were purposefully robbed of architectural elements and decor during this period. Only a few new buildings were constructed, often by using spolia, and frequently in the middle of former streets. Particularly noteworthy is that agricultural activities were now conducted inside the boundaries of the former city, as is indicated by wine or oil presses found in two areas. However, it seems questionable as to whether the quantities produced here were still intended for export. The massive decrease of the number of sherds of Gaza wine amphorae from about the mid-6th c. C.E. onwards points to a profound change in the local economy and a marked decline in the exchange of goods. Several factors, whose individual impact require further discussion, may have contributed to this fundamental transformation, including the outbreak of the Justinian plague, the increasing weakness of state structures and growing threats to the external borders, a loss of sales markets, climatic fluctuations or a possible overexploitation of natural resources. All these aspects require further evaluation in future discussions. While the excavation evidence confirms a clearly detectable, though greatly reduced settlement activities in the Umayyad period, only sporadic finds are attested for the early Abbasid period, indicating a final abandonment of the city after the mid of the 8th c. C.E.
Footnotes

105 For the economic decline see Erickson-Gini 2010, 51-64, concerning possible climate changes: McCormick et. al. 2012, 186

106 Negev 1983; Negev 1993a; Hackl et al. 2003, 395.

107 These observations reflect to a certain extent Avni 2014, 289 f, who basically sees an uninterrupted continuity from the Byzantine to the Islamic period.

Nature of chronological evidence

the majority of the chronological evidence is based on the ceramic evidence (see below). However, it should be noted that for the Negev region many of the relevant pottery types only give relatively broad timespans, while there are still no reliable chronotypologies for the majority of locally produced wares30. Unfortunately, the local preservation conditions for coins are rather unfavourable. In total, 367 coins were found, of which 223 have been numismatically examined so far, but the proportion of legible coins is less than 30 % (62)31. Of these, the vast majority date from the late phases, especially the 4th-6th centuries. To compensate for these dating difficulties, a total of 78 14C samples from important contexts have been radiocarbon dated so far in the AMS laboratory of the University of Cologne. A series of OSL samples from early sand layers is still in the process of analysis.
Footnotes

30 For a summary see Erickson-Gini 2010, 101-304.

31 The numismatic examination was carried out by the coin department of the IAA under the supervision of D. T. Ariel.

Regional Chronology system

Period Name Time Span Notes by JW
Hellenistic 334-30 B.C.E. Alexander the Great appears to have fully conquered the Levant no later than 332 BCE.
Early Roman 30 B.C.E. - 106/early 2nd c. C.E. Augustus became the 1st Roman Emperor after winning the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BCE.
Mid Roman 106/early 2nd c. C.E. — 250 C.E. Rome annexed Arabia Petraea in 106 CE
Late Roman 250-300/350 C.E.
Early Byzantine 300/350-450 C.E.
Mid-Byzantine 450-550 C.E.
Late Byzantine 550-637 C.E. The Negev appears to have been conquered by 634 CE after the Battle of Dathin - before 637 CE. See Islamic Conquests in the Textual Evidence section of the Sword in the Sky Quake
Early Islamic 637— 8th c. C.E. The Negev appears to have been conquered by 634 CE after the Battle of Dathin - before 637 CE. See Islamic Conquests in the Textual Evidence section of the Sword in the Sky Quake
Footnotes

32 For an overview of the general development of the Negev region and the archaeological evidence see Erickson-Gini 2010, 35-82.

Notes

  • Heinzelmann et al. (2023:239) note that the last literary mention of Elusa found in the Nessana Papyri is dated to the 7th c. C.E. (Kraemer 1958, 33).
  • Heinzelmann et al. (2023:241-242) noted that
    Many buildings show destruction patterns that are probably due to earthquakes, however, these were repaired a short time later, maintaining the ground plans. In the late phase, there are also successive reinforcements of the buildings by the addition of revetment walls to the exteriors.
  • Heinzelmann et al. (2023:250) noted that
    As early as probably the 2nd or early 3rd c. C.E., the theatre was built in a remarkably peripheral location at the extreme southeastern corner of the city.35

    ... Both the theatre and the baths remained in use (with multiple renovations) until the 5th/6th c. C.E.
    Footnotes

    35 Negev 1993a, 380 dated the building to the 1/ c. C.E. without conclusive reasons. Arubas — Goldfus 2008, 1714 corrected this date to not earlier than the 2nd century AD on the basis of their excavations. Basically, a construction in the post-Severan period seems unlikely, which is why a construction date in the 2nd or early 250 c. C.E. seems most plausible.

  • The East Church of Heinzelmann et al. (2023) is the same as the Cathedral of Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)

1st Earthquake - late 3rd - mid 6th century CE - perhaps around 500 CE

Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) identified damage patterns from at least two heavy earthquakes. They surmised that the first earthquake struck in the Byzantine period between the end of the 3rd and the mid-6th centuries A.D.. Citing Avraham Negev, they discussed this evidence further

Negev (1989) pointed out that one earthquake, or more, shattered the towns of central Negev between the end of the 3rd and mid-6th centuries A.D.. Literary evidence is scarce, but there is ample archeological evidence of these disasters. According to Negev a decisive factor is that the churches throughout the whole Negev were extensively restored later on. Negev found at the Haluza Cathedral indications of two constructional phases. One room of the Cathedral was even not cleaned after an event during which it was filled with fallen stones and debris from the collapsed upper portion of a wall. In the other room the original limestone slabs of the floor had been removed but the clear impression of slabs and ridges in the hard packed earth beneath suggests that they remained in place until the building went out of use (Negev, 1989:135).

The dating of the discussed ancient strong earthquake may be 363 A.D., as has been concluded for other ancient cities around Haluza, e.g. Avdat37, Shivta38, and Mamshit39. However, Negev (1989:129-142) noticed inscriptions on walls and artifacts.
Footnotes

37 Negev 1989, 129–142; Fabian 1998, 21-E – 26-E; Korjenkov – Mazor 1999b, 193–226.

38 Negev 1989, 129–142; Korjenkov – Mazor 1999a, 265–282.

39 Negev 1971, 110–129; Negev 1974, 400–422; Korjenkov – Mazor 2003, 51–82.

The inscriptions Negev noticed were discovered at Shivta which Negev (1989) discussed as follows:
A severe earthquake afflicted Sobata [aka Shivta].

... The epigraphic evidence of Sobata may help in attaining a close as possible date both for the earthquake and for the subsequent reconstruction of the North Church. One of these inscriptions, that of 506 A.D., is clearly a dedicatory inscription of a very important building, which justified the participation of a Vicarius, a man of the highest rank, in the dedication of this building. This inscription was not found in situ. However, there is no question about the inscription of A.D. 512, in which year the mosaic floor of one of the added chapels was dedicated by a bishop and the local clergy. It is thus safe to assume that the whole remodeling of the North Church began in the first decade of the sixth century.
Although Negev (1989) and Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) suggested the Fire in the Sky Earthquake of 502 CE as the most likely candidate, its epicenter was too far away to caused widespread damage throughout the region. This suggests that the causitive earthquake is unreported in the historical sources - an earthquake which likely struck at the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th century CE. This hypothesized earthquake is listed in this catalog as the Negev Quake.

2nd Earthquake - Post Byzantine - 7th or 8th century CE ?

Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) identified damage patterns from at least two heavy earthquakes. They discussed the chronology of the second earthquake as follows:

The Early Arab – Second Ancient Earthquake

Negev (1976:92) suggested that a strong earthquake caused the final abandonment of Haluza. He summed up his observations at one of the excavated courtyards:
Voussoirs of the arches and extremely long roof slabs were discovered in the debris, just above the floor. It seems that either the destruction of the house occurred for a very short time after its abandonment or the house had to be abandoned because of its destruction by an earthquake.
Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) noted that while the Sword in the Sky Quake of 634 CE destroyed Avdat44 and ruined other ancient towns of the Negev45, archeological data demonstrate that occupation of the [Haluza] continued until at least the first half of the 8th cent. A.D46. This led them to conclude that one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes was a more likely candidate. Unfortunately, it appears that we don't have a reliable terminus ante quem for the second earthquake.
Footnotes

44 Fabian 1998, 21-E – 26-E; Korjenkov – Mazor 1999b, 193–226.

45 Korjenkov – Mazor 1999a, 265–282;Korjenkov – Mazor 1999b, 193–226; Korjenkov – Mazor 1999c, 19–31; Korjenkov – Mazor 2003, 51–82; Mazor – Korjenkov 2001, 123–153.

46 Negev 1974, 400–422; Negev 1976, 89–97; Negev 1989, 129–142; Negev 1993, 379-383; Shereshevski 1991, 182; Goldfus 1999, 12–13.

Seismic Effects
1st Earthquake - late 3rd - mid 6th century CE - perhaps around 500 CE

  • Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) interpreted the presence of at least two heavy earthquakes at Haluza
  • It is presumed that at least some of the Seismic Effects categorized as Earthquake Damage Restorations and A Dump of Destructive Earthquake debris were a result of the 1st earthquake.
  • East Church in Negev's map is referred to as the Cathedral by Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Effect Location Image(s) Description
Earthquake Damage Restorations Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
16
Fig. 16 Haluza.

Remnants of a wall that supported columns of the Cathedral. Note lead bundle on the left pedestal and collapse of the column fragment toward NE (Fig. 11)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
17
Fig. 17 Haluza

Blocked former entrance in one of the rooms of the Cathedral

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
18
Fig. 18 Haluza

Secondary use of a column drum at the wall of a room of the Cathedral. Note a tilt of the whole wall toward NW, and blocked former entrance

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Clustered repairs or changes of the building style of houses of the same age can serve as supportive evidence of a seismic origin of the deformation. These repairs and later rebuilding are usually of a lower quality than the original structures. Such poor rebuilding is typical for earthquake-prone regions in less-developed areas of the world even today.

The ruins of Haluza reveal features of later restoration, e. g. walls supporting Cathedral’s columns (Fig. 16) blocked former entrances (Fig. 17), secondary use of stones and column drums (Fig. 18), walls built later, features of repair of the water reservoir, the addition of the side apses to the original single-apse structure of the Cathedral etc. All these damage restorations provide solid evidence of a former strong earthquake. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
A Dump of Destructive Earthquake Debris Dumps located northwest of Haluza are another interesting feature. Excavation of one of the dumps revealed that it did not contain kitchen refuse, as was common, but mainly fine dust and some burnt bricks and clay pipes. It is also important to mention that the pottery, discovered by Colt’s expedition of 1938 in the city dumps, was not earlier than the late Roman period. Based on these data, Negev came to the conclusion that this garbage hill, as well as other huge dumps surrounding the city, was made by the local inhabitants that cleaned dust and threatening sand dunes, which finally doomed it. Waelkens et al. (2000) described a large dump at ancient Sagalassos (SW Turkey), containing many coins, sherds, small stones and mortar fragments, including stucco, piled up against the fortification walls, so that the latter lost completely their defensive function. The authors concluded that the material inside this dump represents debris cleaned out from the city after a destructive earthquake. Existence of a significant quantity of burnt brick fragments and broken clay pipes at the Haluza dumps is an evidence of a strong earthquake, which partly or completely destroyed the city. As a result the city [was] abandoned for some time, and storms brought in dust from the desert. Later settlers cleaned the ruins from the dust, sand, broken pipes and bricks, which they could not use, but they reused sandstone and limestone blocks to restore the city. Similar dumps of garbage exist on the slopes of Avdat and the same interpretation was reached. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)

2nd Earthquake - Post Byzantine - 7th or 8th century CE ?

  • Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) interpreted the presence of at least two heavy earthquakes at Haluza
  • Because the observations of Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) are derived from what is presumed to be 2 separate earthquakes (Byzantine and post-Byzantine), it is not entirely clear which seismic effect should be assigned to which earthquake. However, as the second earthquake is thought to be associated with abandonment, it can be assumed that most seismic effects are associated with the second earthquake. Effects listed were used by Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) to produce their estimate of seismic parameters for the 2nd earthquake.
  • East Church in Negev's map is referred to as the Cathedral by Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Effect Location Image(s) Description
Through-going Joints Station 6 (Fig. 4) 
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
3
Fig. 3

Different types of fissures in damaged walls.

a. Through-going joints, supposing their seismic origin.

b. Oblique cracks, which can be caused by static loading or seismic oscillations.

c. Through-going joints occurred during the Tash-Pasha (Mpva = 5.0; I0 = VI–VII) earthquake of 1989 in Kyrgyzstan.

d. Subvertical joint (1) and oblique fissures (2). The Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
4
Fig. 4 Haluza

A sub-vertical through going joint, cutting two adjacent stones, marked by arrows. At a building NW of the Theater (field station 6)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Joints crossing adjacent stones (Fig. 3 a. b) are a substantial evidence of seismic origin of deformation, i.e. opening of joints as a result of seismic vibrations. Formation of such joints has been reported in many macroseismic studies. S. Stiros supposed that opening and closing of vertical joints take place according to the direction of the acting seismic forces. For example, such joints formed in modern buildings during the Tash-Pasha (northern Kyrgyzstan) 1989 earthquake of a magnitude Mpva = 5.1 (Fig. 3 c) and Suusamyr (northern Tien Shan) 1992 earthquake of the magnitude MS = 7.3 (Fig. 3 d). Such through-going joints are formed only as a result of a high-intensity earthquake, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of the free surfaces at the stone margins (i.e. the free space between adjacent stones).

An example of such a joint is observable at Haluza at the lower part of the wall of the courtyard, west of the theater (Fig. 4). Here a subvertical joint passes two adjacent stones in the wall with a trend of 37º. The length of the joint is 25 cm. One can observe similar numerous joints in the ruins of all the ancient cities of the Negev: Avdat, Shivta, Mamshit and Rehobot-ba-Negev - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Tilted Walls           Theater (Fig. 10)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
9
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of houses during strong earthquakes.

a. Collapse of roof of a shepherd’s house in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX-X), which was independently determined by the seismic network.

b. Collapse of a wall made of non-burned bricks during the Kochkor-Ata, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MLH = 6.2, I0 = VII–VIII).

c. A model of house deformation

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
10
Fig. 10 Haluza

Tilting of upper stones of a wall at the Theater

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Tilting and (following) collapse of walls and columns are very common damage patterns described in many archeoseismological publications. However, tilting and collapse of buildings can be also caused by action of static loading or weathering in time, poor quality of a building or its design, consequences of military activity or deformation of building basement because of differential subsidence of the ground etc. However, a systematic pattern of the directional collapse of walls of the same trend proves a seismic origin of the damage. These patterns can be explained as an inertial response of buildings to propagation of seismic motions in the underlying grounds (Fig. 9).
For example the upper part of a wall of the Theater at Haluza is tilted toward NE43° at an angle of 69° (Fig. 10). Another wall of the same building was also tilted. It is preserved only up to its third row of stones (height is 83 cm above the ground), but the whole wall was tilted toward NE42° at an angle of 74°. Note an opening between stones of the tilted wall and the perpendicular one. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Perpendicular Trends of Collapsed and Preserved Arches Theater
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
11
Fig. 11 Haluza

Arch stones at the Theater placed on the ground in a crescent form

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
12
Fig. 12 Haluza

A well preserved adjacent arch with a perpendicular direction (45º)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
At the ruins of ancient cities one can observe different types of arch deformations. In some cases the stones of a collapsed arch are found along a straight line on the ground, whereas in other cases arch stones are found in a crescent pattern. These cases provide indicators of the direction of the respective seismic wave propagation – at the first case the destructive seismic waves propagated parallel to the arch trend, whereas at the second case they propagated perpendicular to the arch trend. An arch at the Theater at Haluza collapsed in a crescent pattern (Fig. 11). Its trend was 130° and its stones collapsed toward 220°SW. The deviation of the collapsed stones from the straight line is 20.5 cm. This observation reveals that the propagation of the seismic waves was along a SW-NE axis. In contrast, an arch with a perpendicular strike (45°) in an adjacent room was preserved (Fig. 12). - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Collapse of Columns Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
13
Fig. 13 Haluza

Collapse of one of the columns of the Cathedral in a NE (45º) direction. Note lead bundle on the surface of the pedestal and traces of lead on the bottom of the fallen column

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Collapse of columns is a most spectacular feature of seismic destruction. A drum fragment is seen near the pedestal of a fallen eastern column in the Cathedral (Fig. 13). There are traces of lead on the surface of the pedestal, which was a binding matter between the pedestal and the upper column drum. Traces of lead were also preserved in the lower part of the column’s lower drum which collapsed toward NE45°. Thus, the seismic waves of an ancient earthquake propagated along the NE-SW axis. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Shift of Building Elements Theater (Fig. 15)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
14
Fig. 14

Shift of upper part of the grave monument in Belaldy village’s cemetery in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X).

a. Sketch

b. Photograph.

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
15
Fig. 15 Haluza

Shift of upper stone row of the SW part of the Theater wall

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Horizontal shifts of the upper part of building constructions can be explained in the same way as tilting and collapse. The lower part of the structure moved together with ground onto direction of the seismic movements, but the upper part of the buildings stayed behind because of inertia (Fig. 14). Such displacements of building elements is a known phenomenon of earthquake deformation of ancient buildings and is used for determination of seismic motions’ direction, similar to the case of wall tilt and collapse.

At Haluza an external wall of the western part of the Theater has been shifted to SW 215º (Fig. 15). The upper row of stones was shifted by 7 cm, and it was also slightly tilted (dip angle is 81º) to the same direction. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)

Seismic Effects - All Earthquakes

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Through-going Joints Station 6 (Fig. 4) 
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
3
Fig. 3

Different types of fissures in damaged walls.

a. Through-going joints, supposing their seismic origin.

b. Oblique cracks, which can be caused by static loading or seismic oscillations.

c. Through-going joints occurred during the Tash-Pasha (Mpva = 5.0; I0 = VI–VII) earthquake of 1989 in Kyrgyzstan.

d. Subvertical joint (1) and oblique fissures (2). The Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
4
Fig. 4 Haluza

A sub-vertical through going joint, cutting two adjacent stones, marked by arrows. At a building NW of the Theater (field station 6)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Joints crossing adjacent stones (Fig. 3 a. b) are a substantial evidence of seismic origin of deformation, i.e. opening of joints as a result of seismic vibrations. Formation of such joints has been reported in many macroseismic studies. S. Stiros supposed that opening and closing of vertical joints take place according to the direction of the acting seismic forces. For example, such joints formed in modern buildings during the Tash-Pasha (northern Kyrgyzstan) 1989 earthquake of a magnitude Mpva = 5.1 (Fig. 3 c) and Suusamyr (northern Tien Shan) 1992 earthquake of the magnitude MS = 7.3 (Fig. 3 d). Such through-going joints are formed only as a result of a high-intensity earthquake, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of the free surfaces at the stone margins (i.e. the free space between adjacent stones).

An example of such a joint is observable at Haluza at the lower part of the wall of the courtyard, west of the theater (Fig. 4). Here a subvertical joint passes two adjacent stones in the wall with a trend of 37º. The length of the joint is 25 cm. One can observe similar numerous joints in the ruins of all the ancient cities of the Negev: Avdat, Shivta, Mamshit and Rehobot-ba-Negev - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Joints in a Staircase Theater
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
5
Fig. 5 Haluza

A sub-vertical through-going joint cutting two steps in a staircase at the Theater

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
A subvertical joint, 58 cm long, maximal opening 1.5cm, and a strike of about 122°, crosses the staircase of the excavated theater (Fig. 5). It cuts through two adjacent staircase blocks that trend about 42°. It is important to note that all the staircase blocks are damaged to a certain degree – they are cracked.
The staircase was built close to a wall, the upper part of which is tilted toward NE (dip angle ~69°). The upper part of the staircase is also tilted, but less (dip angle ~83°), so there is a gap between the upper parts of the wall and the staircase. A similar joint in a staircase was also observed at Mamshit in a room near the Eastern Church and the Late Nabatean Building - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Cracks Crossing Large Building Blocks Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
6
Fig. 6 Haluza

. A sub-vertical crack, with a left-lateral slip of 1 cm, crosses the marble pedestal of a column at the Cathedral

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Cracks crossing large building blocks can also be a result of a strong earthquake, but it is always complicated to prove their 100% seismic origin because the cracks can be also realization of the loading stress along the weak zone that existed in the rock. However, together with other »pure« seismic features, observed in the archaeological excavation area, these cracks can serve as an additional evidence of seismic damage. An example of such a crack was found at the marble column pedestal of the Cathedral. The pedestal of the northern column is broken by a sub vertical crack (Fig. 6). A seismic origin of this feature is supported by the left-lateral shift along the crack: it is hard to envisage that static loading can cause strike-slip movements. The left-lateral shift along the crack is 1 cm and the maximum crack opening is 1.5 cm. The crack is laterally widening toward NE (1.5cm) and narrowing toward SW (0.1 cm). The last phenomenon is difficult to explain just by loading from above. The strike azimuth of the crack is 35º and the length is 92 cm. A similar deformation can be observed at the pedestal of a column at the northern Church at Shivta - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Cracked Doorsteps Station 28
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
7
Fig. 7 Haluza

doorstep cut by two vertical cracks at the building NW of the Theater (field station 28). Note a tilt of the preserved stone row toward NE

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Cracking of doorsteps is an important feature for the evaluation of a seismic damage. Their preferential occurrence in walls of the same trend can serve as a kinematic indicator of seismic motions that acted parallel to the trend of the doorstep stones.
Such features are abundant at the ruins Avdat, Shivta and Mamshit. At Haluza two vertical cracks can be seen in a long doorstep (strike azimuth 121º) in the excavated courtyard (Fig. 7). It is important to note that the doorstep and two stones standing on it (probably a fragment of a previous wall) are tilted toward NE (azimuth ~32º) at an angle of about 80º - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Cracked Window Beams Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
8
Fig. 8 Haluza

Cracks in the window lintel and the sill, in one of the rooms of the Cathedral.

a. Photograph.

b. Model explaining formation of the cracks

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Cracked window beams are common features of seismic damage. Many of them were observed in ancient Negev cities. As in the case with doorsteps, their preferential occurrence in walls of the same trend can serve as a kinematic indicator of seismic motions acting parallel to the trends of window beams. Generally, these data are supportive material to ›strong‹ seismic deformations, but in some cases one can prove that the crack in a beam occurred because of static loading. For example, a crack in a beam above the window (in a room behind the Cathedral) can be explained by loading from above, but it is impossible to explain a crack in the window-sill (Fig. 8 a) in the same way. The strike azimuth of both broken beams is 126°. A model explaining this damage pattern is presented in Fig. 8 b. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Tilted Walls Theater (Fig. 10)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
9
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of houses during strong earthquakes.

a. Collapse of roof of a shepherd’s house in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX-X), which was independently determined by the seismic network.

b. Collapse of a wall made of non-burned bricks during the Kochkor-Ata, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MLH = 6.2, I0 = VII–VIII).

c. A model of house deformation

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
10
Fig. 10 Haluza

Tilting of upper stones of a wall at the Theater

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Tilting and (following) collapse of walls and columns are very common damage patterns described in many archeoseismological publications. However, tilting and collapse of buildings can be also caused by action of static loading or weathering in time, poor quality of a building or its design, consequences of military activity or deformation of building basement because of differential subsidence of the ground etc. However, a systematic pattern of the directional collapse of walls of the same trend proves a seismic origin of the damage. These patterns can be explained as an inertial response of buildings to propagation of seismic motions in the underlying grounds (Fig. 9).
For example the upper part of a wall of the Theater at Haluza is tilted toward NE43° at an angle of 69° (Fig. 10). Another wall of the same building was also tilted. It is preserved only up to its third row of stones (height is 83 cm above the ground), but the whole wall was tilted toward NE42° at an angle of 74°. Note an opening between stones of the tilted wall and the perpendicular one. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Perpendicular Trends of Collapsed and Preserved Arches Theater
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
11
Fig. 11 Haluza

Arch stones at the Theater placed on the ground in a crescent form

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
12
Fig. 12 Haluza

A well preserved adjacent arch with a perpendicular direction (45º)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
At the ruins of ancient cities one can observe different types of arch deformations. In some cases the stones of a collapsed arch are found along a straight line on the ground, whereas in other cases arch stones are found in a crescent pattern. These cases provide indicators of the direction of the respective seismic wave propagation – at the first case the destructive seismic waves propagated parallel to the arch trend, whereas at the second case they propagated perpendicular to the arch trend. An arch at the Theater at Haluza collapsed in a crescent pattern (Fig. 11). Its trend was 130° and its stones collapsed toward 220°SW. The deviation of the collapsed stones from the straight line is 20.5 cm. This observation reveals that the propagation of the seismic waves was along a SW-NE axis. In contrast, an arch with a perpendicular strike (45°) in an adjacent room was preserved (Fig. 12). - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Collapse of Columns Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
13
Fig. 13 Haluza

Collapse of one of the columns of the Cathedral in a NE (45º) direction. Note lead bundle on the surface of the pedestal and traces of lead on the bottom of the fallen column

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Collapse of columns is a most spectacular feature of seismic destruction. A drum fragment is seen near the pedestal of a fallen eastern column in the Cathedral (Fig. 13). There are traces of lead on the surface of the pedestal, which was a binding matter between the pedestal and the upper column drum. Traces of lead were also preserved in the lower part of the column’s lower drum which collapsed toward NE45°. Thus, the seismic waves of an ancient earthquake propagated along the NE-SW axis. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Shift of Building Elements Theater (Fig. 15)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
14
Fig. 14

Shift of upper part of the grave monument in Belaldy village’s cemetery in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X).

a. Sketch

b. Photograph.

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
15
Fig. 15 Haluza

Shift of upper stone row of the SW part of the Theater wall

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Horizontal shifts of the upper part of building constructions can be explained in the same way as tilting and collapse. The lower part of the structure moved together with ground onto direction of the seismic movements, but the upper part of the buildings stayed behind because of inertia (Fig. 14). Such displacements of building elements is a known phenomenon of earthquake deformation of ancient buildings and is used for determination of seismic motions’ direction, similar to the case of wall tilt and collapse.

At Haluza an external wall of the western part of the Theater has been shifted to SW 215º (Fig. 15). The upper row of stones was shifted by 7 cm, and it was also slightly tilted (dip angle is 81º) to the same direction. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Earthquake Damage Restorations Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
16
Fig. 16 Haluza.

Remnants of a wall that supported columns of the Cathedral. Note lead bundle on the left pedestal and collapse of the column fragment toward NE (Fig. 11)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
17
Fig. 17 Haluza

Blocked former entrance in one of the rooms of the Cathedral

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
18
Fig. 18 Haluza

Secondary use of a column drum at the wall of a room of the Cathedral. Note a tilt of the whole wall toward NW, and blocked former entrance

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Clustered repairs or changes of the building style of houses of the same age can serve as supportive evidence of a seismic origin of the deformation. These repairs and later rebuilding are usually of a lower quality than the original structures. Such poor rebuilding is typical for earthquake-prone regions in less-developed areas of the world even today.

The ruins of Haluza reveal features of later restoration, e. g. walls supporting Cathedral’s columns (Fig. 16) blocked former entrances (Fig. 17), secondary use of stones and column drums (Fig. 18), walls built later, features of repair of the water reservoir, the addition of the side apses to the original single-apse structure of the Cathedral etc. All these damage restorations provide solid evidence of a former strong earthquake. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
Earthquake Debris Filling Part of a Corridor at the Theater Theater
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
19
Fig. 19

Filling of external corridor in the Buddhist Temple at Koylyk, SE Kazakhstan

a. Sketch.

b. Photograph

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Negev observed filling of part of a corridor at the Theater, and concluded »the bones and pottery vessels appear to be contemporary with the period of use of the theatre, and they may therefore represent the remains of meals taken during religious festivities conducted in the theatre. Similar filling of a corridor, surrounding a Buddhist temple, was found at the Medieval Koylyk archeological site (SE Kazakhstan) that was located along the Great Silk Route. In this case the researcher concluded that the filling of the corridor was to prevent future collapse of walls that were tilted during an earthquake (Fig. 19). - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)
A Dump of Destructive Earthquake Debris Dumps located northwest of Haluza are another interesting feature. Excavation of one of the dumps revealed that it did not contain kitchen refuse, as was common, but mainly fine dust and some burnt bricks and clay pipes. It is also important to mention that the pottery, discovered by Colt’s expedition of 1938 in the city dumps, was not earlier than the late Roman period. Based on these data, Negev came to the conclusion that this garbage hill, as well as other huge dumps surrounding the city, was made by the local inhabitants that cleaned dust and threatening sand dunes, which finally doomed it.

Waelkens et al. (2000) described a large dump at ancient Sagalassos (SW Turkey), containing many coins, sherds, small stones and mortar fragments, including stucco, piled up against the fortification walls, so that the latter lost completely their defensive function. The authors concluded that the material inside this dump represents debris cleaned out from the city after a destructive earthquake. Existence of a significant quantity of burnt brick fragments and broken clay pipes at the Haluza dumps is an evidence of a strong earthquake, which partly or completely destroyed the city. As a result the city [was] abandoned for some time, and storms brought in dust from the desert. Later settlers cleaned the ruins from the dust, sand, broken pipes and bricks, which they could not use, but they reused sandstone and limestone blocks to restore the city. Similar dumps of garbage exist on the slopes of Avdat and the same interpretation was reached. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)

Intensity Estimates
1st Earthquake - late 3rd - mid 6th century CE - perhaps around 500 CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Earthquake Damage Restorations suggesting Displaced Walls and Fallen Columns Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
16
Fig. 16 Haluza.

Remnants of a wall that supported columns of the Cathedral. Note lead bundle on the left pedestal and collapse of the column fragment toward NE (Fig. 11)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
17
Fig. 17 Haluza

Blocked former entrance in one of the rooms of the Cathedral

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
18
Fig. 18 Haluza

Secondary use of a column drum at the wall of a room of the Cathedral. Note a tilt of the whole wall toward NW, and blocked former entrance

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Clustered repairs or changes of the building style of houses of the same age can serve as supportive evidence of a seismic origin of the deformation. These repairs and later rebuilding are usually of a lower quality than the original structures. Such poor rebuilding is typical for earthquake-prone regions in less-developed areas of the world even today.

The ruins of Haluza reveal features of later restoration, e. g. walls supporting Cathedral’s columns (Fig. 16) blocked former entrances (Fig. 17), secondary use of stones and column drums (Fig. 18), walls built later, features of repair of the water reservoir, the addition of the side apses to the original single-apse structure of the Cathedral etc. All these damage restorations provide solid evidence of a former strong earthquake. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)		 VII + and V+
It is presumed that at least some of the Seismic Effects categorized as Earthquake Damage Restorations were a result of the 1st earthquake so these were used to estimate Intensity for the 1st earthquake. The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

2nd Earthquake - Post Byzantine - 7th or 8th century CE ?

Intensity Estimate from the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Through-going Joints - Penetrative fractures in masonry Blocks Station 6 (Fig. 4) 
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
3
Fig. 3

Different types of fissures in damaged walls.

a. Through-going joints, supposing their seismic origin.

b. Oblique cracks, which can be caused by static loading or seismic oscillations.

c. Through-going joints occurred during the Tash-Pasha (Mpva = 5.0; I0 = VI–VII) earthquake of 1989 in Kyrgyzstan.

d. Subvertical joint (1) and oblique fissures (2). The Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
4
Fig. 4 Haluza

A sub-vertical through going joint, cutting two adjacent stones, marked by arrows. At a building NW of the Theater (field station 6)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Joints crossing adjacent stones (Fig. 3 a. b) are a substantial evidence of seismic origin of deformation, i.e. opening of joints as a result of seismic vibrations. Formation of such joints has been reported in many macroseismic studies. S. Stiros supposed that opening and closing of vertical joints take place according to the direction of the acting seismic forces. For example, such joints formed in modern buildings during the Tash-Pasha (northern Kyrgyzstan) 1989 earthquake of a magnitude Mpva = 5.1 (Fig. 3 c) and Suusamyr (northern Tien Shan) 1992 earthquake of the magnitude MS = 7.3 (Fig. 3 d). Such through-going joints are formed only as a result of a high-intensity earthquake, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of the free surfaces at the stone margins (i.e. the free space between adjacent stones).

An example of such a joint is observable at Haluza at the lower part of the wall of the courtyard, west of the theater (Fig. 4). Here a subvertical joint passes two adjacent stones in the wall with a trend of 37º. The length of the joint is 25 cm. One can observe similar numerous joints in the ruins of all the ancient cities of the Negev: Avdat, Shivta, Mamshit and Rehobot-ba-Negev - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)		 VI +
Tilted Walls           Theater (Fig. 10)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
9
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of houses during strong earthquakes.

a. Collapse of roof of a shepherd’s house in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX-X), which was independently determined by the seismic network.

b. Collapse of a wall made of non-burned bricks during the Kochkor-Ata, Kyrgyzstan earthquake (1992, MLH = 6.2, I0 = VII–VIII).

c. A model of house deformation

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
10
Fig. 10 Haluza

Tilting of upper stones of a wall at the Theater

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Tilting and (following) collapse of walls and columns are very common damage patterns described in many archeoseismological publications. However, tilting and collapse of buildings can be also caused by action of static loading or weathering in time, poor quality of a building or its design, consequences of military activity or deformation of building basement because of differential subsidence of the ground etc. However, a systematic pattern of the directional collapse of walls of the same trend proves a seismic origin of the damage. These patterns can be explained as an inertial response of buildings to propagation of seismic motions in the underlying grounds (Fig. 9).
For example the upper part of a wall of the Theater at Haluza is tilted toward NE43° at an angle of 69° (Fig. 10). Another wall of the same building was also tilted. It is preserved only up to its third row of stones (height is 83 cm above the ground), but the whole wall was tilted toward NE42° at an angle of 74°. Note an opening between stones of the tilted wall and the perpendicular one. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)		 VI +
Perpendicular Trends of Collapsed and Preserved Arches - Collapsed arches Theater
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
11
Fig. 11 Haluza

Arch stones at the Theater placed on the ground in a crescent form

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
12
Fig. 12 Haluza

A well preserved adjacent arch with a perpendicular direction (45º)

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
At the ruins of ancient cities one can observe different types of arch deformations. In some cases the stones of a collapsed arch are found along a straight line on the ground, whereas in other cases arch stones are found in a crescent pattern. These cases provide indicators of the direction of the respective seismic wave propagation – at the first case the destructive seismic waves propagated parallel to the arch trend, whereas at the second case they propagated perpendicular to the arch trend. An arch at the Theater at Haluza collapsed in a crescent pattern (Fig. 11). Its trend was 130° and its stones collapsed toward 220°SW. The deviation of the collapsed stones from the straight line is 20.5 cm. This observation reveals that the propagation of the seismic waves was along a SW-NE axis. In contrast, an arch with a perpendicular strike (45°) in an adjacent room was preserved (Fig. 12). - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) VI +
Collapse of Columns - Rotated and displaced masonry blocks in walls and drums and columns Cathedral
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
13
Fig. 13 Haluza

Collapse of one of the columns of the Cathedral in a NE (45º) direction. Note lead bundle on the surface of the pedestal and traces of lead on the bottom of the fallen column

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Collapse of columns is a most spectacular feature of seismic destruction. A drum fragment is seen near the pedestal of a fallen eastern column in the Cathedral (Fig. 13). There are traces of lead on the surface of the pedestal, which was a binding matter between the pedestal and the upper column drum. Traces of lead were also preserved in the lower part of the column’s lower drum which collapsed toward NE45°. Thus, the seismic waves of an ancient earthquake propagated along the NE-SW axis. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005) VIII +
Shift of Building Elements - Displaced Masonry Blocks Theater (Fig. 15)
Fig. 2 Haluza.

Excavated part of the Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine ruins. Numbers are field stations of the present study

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
14
Fig. 14

Shift of upper part of the grave monument in Belaldy village’s cemetery in the direction of the Suusamyr, Kyrgyzstan earthquake epicenter (1992, MS = 7.3, I0 = IX–X).

a. Sketch

b. Photograph.

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
15
Fig. 15 Haluza

Shift of upper stone row of the SW part of the Theater wall

Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
Horizontal shifts of the upper part of building constructions can be explained in the same way as tilting and collapse. The lower part of the structure moved together with ground onto direction of the seismic movements, but the upper part of the buildings stayed behind because of inertia (Fig. 14). Such displacements of building elements is a known phenomenon of earthquake deformation of ancient buildings and is used for determination of seismic motions’ direction, similar to the case of wall tilt and collapse.

At Haluza an external wall of the western part of the Theater has been shifted to SW 215º (Fig. 15). The upper row of stones was shifted by 7 cm, and it was also slightly tilted (dip angle is 81º) to the same direction. - Korjenkov and and Mazor (2005)		 VIII +
Because the observations of Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) are derived from what is presumed to be 2 separate earthquakes (Byzantine and post-Byzantine), it is not entirely clear which seismic effect should be assigned to which earthquake. However, as the second earthquake is thought to be associated with abandonment, it can be assumed that most seismic effects are associated with the second earthquake. Effects listed were used by Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) to produce their estimate of seismic parameters for the 2nd earthquake. The table above lists some of these seismic effects but should be considered tentative. The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)'s seismic characterization

Figures

Figures

  • Figure 4 -              
    Fig. 4 Haluza

    A sub-vertical through going joint, cutting two adjacent stones, marked by arrows. At a building NW of the Theater (field station 6)

    Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
    from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a)
  • Figure 10 -              
    Fig. 10 Haluza

    Tilting of upper stones of a wall at the Theater

    Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
    from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a)
  • Figure 11 -              
    Fig. 11 Haluza

    Arch stones at the Theater placed on the ground in a crescent form

    Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
    from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a)
  • Figure 13 -              
    Fig. 13 Haluza

    Collapse of one of the columns of the Cathedral in a NE (45º) direction. Note lead bundle on the surface of the pedestal and traces of lead on the bottom of the fallen column

    Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
    from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a)
  • Figure 15 -              
    Fig. 15 Haluza

    Shift of upper stone row of the SW part of the Theater wall

    Korjenkov and Mazor (2005)
    from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a)

Discussion

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999a) estimated a minimum seismic intensity of VIII–IX (MSK Scale), an epicenter a few tens of kilometers away, and an epicentral direction to the NE or SW - most likely to the NE. Their discussion supporting these conclusions is repeated below:
Joints crossing several adjacent stones (e. g. Fig. 4) indicate destruction by a high-energy earthquake, as the energy was sufficient to overcome the stress-shadow of the empty space between the building stones. Tilts of the walls (Fig. 10), fallen columns (Fig. 13), shifted collapse of an arch (Fig. 11), shift of a stone row of the wall (Fig. 15) – all these observations disclose that the destructive seismic waves arrived along a NE-SW axis (~40º), most probably from NE. Although all of the buildings in the city were well built and had one or two floors, all of them were severely damaged by an earthquake. The significant seismic deformations observed in the buildings indicate a local seismic intensity of at least I = VIII–IX (MSK Scale). This requires a strong shock arriving from a nearby epicenter, most probably a few tens of kilometers from Haluza. This supposition is based on the fact that short-period seismic waves, which tend to be destructive to low structures (which have short-period harmonic frequencies), attenuate at short distances from the epicenter.

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Goldfus, H. and P. Fabian (2000). "Haluza (Elusa)." Excavations Surv Israel 111: 93-94.

Heinzelmann, M., et al. (2023). "Elusa – from Nabatean Trading Post to Late Antique Desert Metropolis. Results of the 2015−2020 Seasons." Archäologischer Anzeiger.

Korjenkov, A., Mazor, Emmanuel (2005). "Diversity of earthquakes destruction patterns: The Roman-Byzantine ruins of Haluza, Negev desert, Israel." Archäologischer Anzeiger 2: 1-15.

Negev, A. (1976). "Survey and Trial Excavations at Ḥaluza (Elusa), 1973." Israel Exploration Journal 26(2/3): 89-95.

Negev, A. (1989). "The Cathedral of Elusa and the Typology and Chronology of the Byzantine Churches in the Negev." Liber Annis 39: 129-142.

Kölner und Bonner Archaeologica

Kölner und Bonner Archaeologica - sondage info is in articles in this journal according to Diana Wozniok

Websites

Halutza Excavation Project

Haluza at Nabataea.net

Elusa at The Madaba Mosaic Map (archived on the wayback machine)

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

A. Negev, ABD, 2, New York 1992, 484–487

id., Ancient Churches Revealed (ed. Y. Tsafrir), Jerusalem 1993, 286–293

id., BA 56 (1993), 141–142

id., OEANE, 2, New York 1997, 465–466

id., Petra Rediscovered: Lost city of the Nabataeans (ed. G. Markoe), London 2003, 101–105

P. Figueras, Aram 6 (1994), 282–283

D. Gazit, ESI 13 (1995), 127

S. Margalit, LA 45 (1995), 357–400

G. E. Kirk & P. Gignoux, ‘Atiqot 28 (1996), 171–192

R. Rubin, ZDPV 112 (1996), 49–60

id., Journal of Historical Geography 23 (1997), 267–283

id., Mediterranean Historical Review 1998, 56–74

M. L. Fischer, Marble Studies, Konstanz 1998; H. Verreth & H. Goldfus, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 128 (1999), 150–152

H. Goldfus (& P. Fabian), ESI 111 (2000), 93*–94*

id. (& K. Bowes), IEJ 50 (2000), 185–202

id. (et al.), JRA 13 (2000), 331–342

P. Fabian & Y. Goren, The Roman and Byzantine Near East 3, (2002), 145–153

J. Magness, The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine, Winona Lake, IN 2003, 191

S. Bucking, Albright News 9 (2004), 15–16

id., ASOR Newsletter 54/3 (2004), 15–16

B. A. Saidel & G. L. Christopherson, PEQ 137 (2005), 53–63.

Wikipedia pages

Haluza



Madaba Map