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History of Khirbet Iskander

Khirbet Iskander is a major Early Bronze Age (EBA) site located southeast of Madaba in central Jordan, near the Wadi Wala. It is one of the best-preserved and most thoroughly studied settlements of the Early Bronze IV period (ca. 2500–2000 BCE) in the southern Levant (Richard et al. 2018). The site was strategically positioned on a natural promontory controlling access routes through the central highlands (Richard & Long 2005). The primary occupation at Khirbet Iskander dates to the Early Bronze IV period, a time traditionally characterized as a phase of urban collapse following the abandonment of EBA III walled cities. However, excavations at the site have challenged this paradigm by revealing a fortified and complex community that persisted and adapted during this transitional era (Richard et al. 2010; Richard et al. 2018). The settlement included substantial architecture such as broadroom houses, storage installations, and a formal gateway system (Richard 2010). There is also evidence of cultic or public buildings, indicating organized social structures and resilience in a period of regional instability (Richard et al. 2018). Later occupation layers are sparse, with only limited use of the site after the EBA IV period. This has left the earlier remains remarkably intact (Richard et al. 2018).

History of Excavations

The site was first surveyed and tested in the early 1980s under the direction of Suzanne Richard (Richard 1982). A series of campaigns followed, primarily under the sponsorship of Gannon University and the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR). Key excavation seasons include:

• 1981–1984: Initial surveys and test trenches confirmed the significance of the site during EB IV (Richard 1982).
• 1987: Fourth preliminary report confirmed architectural complexity and stratigraphic integrity of EB IV remains (Richard 1990).
• 1994–2004: Major excavation seasons (1994, 1997, 2000, 2004) revealed a fortified settlement plan, Area C “gateway,” residential structures, and cemeteries (Richard & Long 2005).
• 2007–2016: Continued work expanded understanding of public architecture and environmental context; included publication of the final report for Area C in 2010 (Richard et al. 2010).
• 2013 and 2016: Later campaigns focused on additional areas and synthesis of data for final publication and radiocarbon chronology (Richard et al. 2013; Richard et al. 2018).

Significant results have included the recognition that Khirbet Iskander was not merely a rural encampment but a significant fortified settlement with continued urban traditions into EB IV. This has led to a reevaluation of the nature of societal organization in the southern Levant during the third millennium BCE (Richard et al. 2018; Cordova & Long 2010).

References

Major publications include preliminary reports in the *Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (ADAJ)*, contributions to ASOR monographs, and articles on pottery typology, environmental reconstruction, and chronological modeling.

Richard, Suzanne et al. (2018) Expedition to Khirbat Iskandar and Its Environs: The 2016 Season
Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, v. 59, pp. 597–606.

Richard, Suzanne and Long, Jesse C. Jr. (2005) Three Seasons of Excavations at Khirbat Iskandar, 1997, 2000, 2004
ADAJ, v. 49, pp. 261–275.

Richard, Suzanne et al. (2010) Archaeological Expedition to Khirbat Iskandar and Its Environs, Vol. 1
ASOR Archaeological Reports 14. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research.

Richard, Suzanne and Long, Jesse C. Jr. (1995) Archaeological Expedition to Khirbet Iskander, 1994
ADAJ, v. 39, pp. 81–92.

Richard, Suzanne et al. (2013) Three Seasons of Excavations at Khirbat Iskandar, 2007, 2010, 2013
ADAJ, v. 57, pp. 447–461.

Cordova, C.E. and Long, J.C. Jr. (2010) Khirbat Iskandar and its Modern and Ancient Environment
In Richard et al. (Eds.), Archaeological Expedition to Khirbat Iskandar, Vol. 1, pp. 21–36. Boston: ASOR.

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Archaeological investigations at Khirbet Iskander have uncovered evidence of destruction layers, particularly at the end of Phase B. Key indicators include:

• Burn layers with widespread ash and charcoal deposits.
• Collapsed architecture and fragmented domestic installations.
• Abandoned storage vessels, some broken, suggesting sudden departure.
• Disrupted stratigraphy indicating a catastrophic event.

The subsequent Phase A shows a reorganization of the settlement, including the construction of a gateway complex, indicating a response to the prior destruction. The destruction at the end of Phase B is tentatively attributed to human conflict or warfare, likely raiding or invasion by pastoral groups during the terminal EB IV period. There is no direct evidence of seismic activity cited, and no earthquake is proposed as the cause.