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Tiberias - Galei Kinneret

Tiberias Galei Kinneret

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Introduction
Introduction

On the basis of indicative architecture, coins, and ceramics, the earliest structure in Galei Kinneret is a sector of an oval stadium, unearthed for the first time in the modern era. The stadium was described by the contemporary historian Josephus Flavius (Flavius, 1982). Byzantine and Early Arabic structures overlie the Roman structures

Excavations and Description

Hartal (2008)

An area of c. 950 sq m was excavated in the hotel’s courtyard, next to the beach in the southern part of Tiberias (Fig. 1). Nine strata were exposed. In the Early Roman period the site lay outside the city's perimeter and a stadium was erected there, a section of which was uncovered in the excavation. The stadium was used until the third century CE after which it was dismantled. Buildings constructed in its place in the Byzantine period continued to be used in the Umayyad period. They were destroyed in the earthquake that struck in the year 749 CE. In the Abbasid, Fatimid and Crusader periods, when the site was situated outside the city, industrial installations were found there. Subsequently the area was uninhabited until the twentieth century CE.

Stern et al. (2008)

The salvage excavation at the Galei Kinneret Hotel (site 16) was conducted by M. Hartal in 2002. Remnants of five settlement strata were found. The earliest stratum belongs to the Early Roman period. In the northern part of the excavation, part of an impressive public building was unearthed, including a bow-shaped wall built of dressed stones and filled with rocks and lumps of hard plaster. The wall is c. 9 m thick and has been preserved to a height of nearly 2 m. On top of the wall a small bronze figurine of a winged youth, probably a Cupid, was found. The structure’s shape and construction method indicate that it was an important public building in Roman Tiberias, probably the local stadium, mentioned a number of times by Josephus. He relates that, after the sea battle between the Jews and the Romans near Migdal, thousands of Jewish prisoners-of-war were gathered in the stadium of Tiberias, where the Romans selected those to be executed and those to be sold into slavery. The section of wall that was excavated would appear to be part of the base at the stadium’s southeastern corner, above which there would originally have been seats for the audience. Geological tests and the findings to the south of the stadium wall indicate that this area was located on the shore of the Sea of Galilee during the first and second centuries CE, outside the city limits. Stone “measuring cups” found in this area constitute evidence for the existence of a Jewish community in Tiberias at this time. The structure was destroyed and abandoned at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century CE.

The excavated area was part of the city in the Byzantine period. Remnants of walls, arches, and floors of an elongated hall (9 by 4.8 m) were revealed above the ruins of the stadium. In the southern part of the excavation area were uncovered the remains of a large building, including a 14-m stretch of its outer wall and the entrance to the structure, exposed to a height of 2.10 m. Three columns were erected in front of the building, made of column drums in secondary use; among the spolia was a Nabatean capital used at the base of one of the columns.

In the Early Islamic period, two large buildings occupied the excavation area. A c. 35-m stretch of the eastern wall of the northern building was excavated, as were a number of lateral walls over a distance of up to 8 m. Of the southern building, the foundations of two walls and the threshold are all that remain. East of the buildings an unplastered pool (5 by 3.5 m and 1.95 m deep) was found, constructed of dressed stones with a lower course consisting of two rows of column drums. The pool was probably built in shallow water near the lakeshore and was used for storing fish awaiting sale. The gaps between the drums ensured circulation of freshwater from the lake but were narrow enough to prevent the fish from escaping.

There was evidence in the excavation area of seismic activity, which caused the western part of the site to sink c. 70 cm. As a result, walls cracked and moved, the southern building collapsed, and the northern building sank. Pottery and bronze vessels that had apparently fallen during the earthquake were recovered from the floor of the northern building. These finds make it possible to identify the event as the great earthquake of January 13, 749 CE [JW: January 16, 17, or 18], which caused considerable damage throughout the region, including at Beth-Shean and Hippos (Sussita).

The site was partially resettled after the earthquake. On the northern side, pits with dressed stone walls were found on the northern side of the site; they contained finds dated to the Fatimid period. To the same period belong a number of other installations, including pools and work surfaces. A large structure was erected on top of the above mentioned southern building. Its foundations were sunk into silt deposited by inundations of the lake. A 14-m stretch of the building was exposed. A double pool (2.5 by 2 m and 0.3 m deep) covered with plaster and overlying sherds of vessels used in sugar production was found at the site and dated to the twelfth century CE, when the area was outside the city limits. It remained so until the period of the British Mandate, when the hotel was built.

Tiberias - Introduction Webpage

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, and Photos
Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, and Photos

Maps

  • Fig. 1 Map of Tiberias
    Figure 1.

    The city during the Roman period, plan (based on Hirschfeld 1992)

    Galei Kinneret is next to the Stadium

    Atrash (2010)
    during the Roman period from Atrash (2010)

Aerial Views

  • Tiberias Galei Kinneret in Google Earth
    Tiberias Galei Kinneret

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Tiberias Galei Kinneret on govmap.gov.il
    Tiberias Galei Kinneret

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Plans

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Plan of Galei
    Figure 1.

    Plan

    Hartal (2008)
    Kinneret excavations from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 2 Plan of Galei
    Figure 2.

    Galei Kinneret site map.

    A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

    Marco et al (2003)
    Kinneret excavations from Marco et al (2003)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Plan of Galei
    Figure 1.

    Plan

    Hartal (2008)
    Kinneret excavations from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 2 Plan of Galei
    Figure 2.

    Galei Kinneret site map.

    A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

    Marco et al (2003)
    Kinneret excavations from Marco et al (2003)

Photos

Normal Size

  • Fig. 2A Extensional fractures
    Figure 2A

    Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    Marco et al (2003)
    in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls from Marco et al (2003)
  • Fig. 3 Extensional fractures
    Figure 3.

    Stadium wall with a Byzantine and Umayyad building above it, looking east.

    Hartal (2008)
    in Byzantine walls (same location as Fig. 2A of Marco et al, 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Extensional fractures
    Massive first-century CE curved wall, perhaps of a Roman stadium, underlying a Byzantine structure (site 16 at the Galei Kinneret Hotel).

    JW: This is the same structure in Fig. 2A of Marco et al. (2003). Note extensional fractures and human at the top of the photo for scale.

    Stern et al. (2008)
    in Byzantine walls (same location as Fig. 2A of Marco et al, 2003) from Stern et al. (2008)
  • Fig. 4 Fractured stadium
    Figure 4

    Stadium wall, looking north.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 2B Tilted Umayyad
    Figure 2B

    Umayyad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    JW: view from the south

    Marco et al (2003)
    wall from Marco et al (2003)
  • Fig. 7 Tilted Byzantine-Umayyad
    Figure 7

    Walls from the Byzantine–Umayyad periods; the wall on the right was damaged by the earthquake.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall (same wall as in Fig. 2B from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 12 Tilted Byzantine-Umayyad
    Figure 12

    Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall (same wall as in Fig. 2B from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 2C Normal synsedimentary
    Figure 2C

    Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    JW: view from the north

    Marco et al (2003)
    faults offsetting the lower part of the sedimentary sequence from Marco et al (2003)
  • Fig. 11 Normal synsedimentary
    Figure 11

    Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

    Hartal (2008)
    faults offsetting the lower part of the sedimentary sequence (same as in Fig. 2C from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 8 Byzantine-Umayyad
    Figure 8

    Columns from the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, looking west.

    Hartal (2008)
    columns from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 9 Column base
    Figure 9

    Nabatean capital in secondary use as a column base, looking west.

    Hartal (2008)
    from Hartal (2008)

Magnified

  • Fig. 3 Extensional fractures
    Figure 3.

    Stadium wall with a Byzantine and Umayyad building above it, looking east.

    Hartal (2008)
    in Byzantine walls (same location as Fig. 2A of Marco et al, 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Extensional fractures
    Massive first-century CE curved wall, perhaps of a Roman stadium, underlying a Byzantine structure (site 16 at the Galei Kinneret Hotel).

    JW: This is the same structure in Fig. 2A of Marco et al. (2003). Note extensional fractures and human at the top of the photo for scale.

    Stern et al. (2008)
    in Byzantine walls (same location as Fig. 2A of Marco et al, 2003) from Stern et al. (2008)
  • Fig. 4 Fractured stadium
    Figure 4

    Stadium wall, looking north.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 7 Tilted Byzantine-Umayyad
    Figure 7

    Walls from the Byzantine–Umayyad periods; the wall on the right was damaged by the earthquake.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall (same wall as in Fig. 2B from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 12 Tilted Byzantine-Umayyad
    Figure 12

    Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

    Hartal (2008)
    wall (same wall as in Fig. 2B from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)
  • Fig. 11 Normal synsedimentary
    Figure 11

    Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

    Hartal (2008)
    faults offsetting the lower part of the sedimentary sequence (same as in Fig. 2C from Marco et al., 2003) from Hartal (2008)

Chronology
Phasing

Galei Kinneret

Period Description
Early Roman
Description

An accumulation (depth: 2 m) of pebbles and numerous potsherds from the Early Roman period was exposed in the excavation area. This was apparently deposited as a result of erosion from the adjacent city that had come to rest on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. Stone ‘measuring cups’ (Fig. 2), which are indicative of a Jewish settlement at Tiberias, were also found in this layer. No building remains or installations were found from the Early Roman period and it seems that this area was outside the city limits at that time.

The only architecture that dated to the Early Roman period was discovered in the northern part of the excavation area. A large edifice (width c. 39 m) that was built into the pebble layer was revealed. A section of a curved wall (length 15 m, thickness 9 m, height 2 m; Figs. 3, 4), built of dressed ashlar stones and a fill of fieldstones and hard bonding material, was exposed. A dressed-stone corbel with a hole through it (Fig. 5) was incorporated into the construction on the inside of the wall; something was probably meant to be tethered to this stone. The material that abutted the outer face of the structure contained potsherds from the first century CE, which dated its construction to this time. On top of the wall was a small bronze figurine of a winged-boy that should probably be identified as Cupid (Fig. 6). A large deposit of clay accumulated inside the building, probably due to flooding from the Sea of Galilee after the structure was no longer in use. It seems that the water that penetrated into the building was a result of the seasonal rise of the lake's level which did not drain off because it was blocked by the walls of the building. The clay, which precipitated in the standing water, contained sherds from the third century CE that are similar to those found on top of the wall. These finds date the destruction of the building to the third or the beginning of the fourth century CE.

The plan of the building and the manner of its construction indicate that this was an important public structure in Roman Tiberias, most likely the city’s stadium that was built along the shore of the Sea of Galilee, outside the city's perimeter (Life of Flavius Josephus 16, 17). The stadium was used for athletic competitions and horse races, as well as a gathering place for the city’s residents on special occasions. Following the naval battle between the Jews and Romans near Migdal, thousands of prisoners were confined in the stadium, some of whom the Romans decided to execute while others were sold into slavery (War of the Jews 3, 10). The stadium is also mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud (Erubin 5, 1 [22: p. 2]). The length of the stadium is still unknown; however, it was probably several hundred meters long. A section of its curved southeastern foundation was exposed upon which the seats (cavea) were built. After the stadium was no longer in use the seats were dismantled and used as construction material while the massive foundation remains to the present day.

Byzantine
Description

In the Byzantine period the city expanded and a long hall (4.80 × 9.00 m; Fig. 3) was built on the remains of the stadium. Its roof was supported by a row of arches whose remains were found along the length of its walls. The hall had two floor levels, a lower one from the Byzantine period and an upper one from the Umayyad period. In the southern part of the area remains of a large building were exposed that also date to the Byzantine period. Its outer wall, which had an entrance, was exposed for a length of 14 m. The wall was built of fieldstones and roughly-hewn stones (length 2.1 m; Fig. 7); its lower courses were worn down by the waves of the Sea of Galilee. Most of the remains of the building are situated beneath the hotel and therefore were not excavated. Three columns in secondary use (Fig. 8) were set in place on the beach opposite the front of the building; a Nabatean capital was used as a base for one of them (Fig. 9).

Umayyad
Description

Two large buildings from the Umayyad period were discovered in the area. The northern one utilized the foundations of the Byzantine hall, and a number of halls were added to it. The wide eastern wall (length c. 35 m) of this building was exposed as were several lateral walls (8 m) built of stones bonded with mortar. Only the foundations of the building were exposed; it appears that its upper part was damaged during work conducted at the site prior to the excavation. All that remained of the southern building were the foundations of two of its walls (lengths 4 m, 8 m) and the entrance threshold. East of these buildings was a pool (3.50 × 5.00 m, depth 1.95 m) that was built of ashlar stones. The lower course of the pool’s eastern wall was built of two rows of column drums (Fig. 10). The walls and bottom of the pool were not treated with plaster; thus it seems that it was built inside the lake, next to the beach, and was used for keeping fish prior to selling them. The spaces between the columns allowed the constant exchange of water without allowing the fish to escape through them.

Evidence of two geologic faults was found in the area (Fig. 11), causing its western side to settle approximately one meter. As a result walls cracked, were shifted from out of place and were tilted on their sides; the southern building was completely destroyed. The fault that passed beneath the southeastern corner of the northern building caused it to sink (Fig. 12). Pottery and bronze vessels that apparently fell at the time of the earthquake were found on the building's floor. These artifacts date to the mighty earthquake that struck on January 18, 749 CE, causing significant destruction to many of the settlements in the country, among them Bet She’an.

Abbasid
Description

Occupation in several sections of the area was renewed following the earthquake. Stone-lined septic pits containing artifacts from the Abbasid period were excavated in the northern part of the area. Next to the eastern wall of the northern building a number of installations were constructed, including work surfaces and a stepped pool. A large quantity of pottery vessels characteristic of the period was found in the pool. After the earthquake a large building (length 14 m), whose foundations were excavated into the alluvium that was deposited by the flooding of the lake, was constructed above the southern building.

Fatimid and later
Description

An installation consisting of a pool with a large pithos at its side and treated with two thick layers of plaster is ascribed to the Fatimid period. The pool, constructed from column drums from the Umayyad period, was blocked and a small pool that was treated with thick plaster was built above it.

The excavation area was situated outside the city limits in the twelfth century CE. A double pool (2.0 × 2.5 m; depth 0.3 m), whose plastered walls covered over potsherds of ‘sugar vessels’.

The excavation area remained outside the precincts of Tiberias until the time of the British Mandate when the hotel was built.

All of Tiberias

Stratum Period Date Notes
I Late Fatimid 11th century CE construction above the collapse caused by an earthquake (in 1033 CE?)
II Early Fatimid 9th - 10th centuries CE continued use of the street with shops.
III Abbasid 8th - 9th centuries CE a row of shops, the basilica building was renovated.
IV Byzantine–Umayyad 5th - 7th centuries CE the eastern wing was added to the basilica building; the paved street; destruction was caused by the earthquake in 749 CE.
V Late Roman 4th century CE construction of the basilica complex, as well as the city’s institutions, i. e., the bathhouse and the covered market place.
VI Roman 2nd - 3rd centuries CE establishment of the Hadrianeum in the second century CE (temple dedicated to Hadrian that was never completed) and industrial installations; the paving of the cardo and the city’s infrastructure.
VII Early Roman 1st century CE founding of Tiberias, construction of the palace with the marble floor on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, opus sectile, fresco.
VIII Hellenistic 1st - 2nd centuries BCE fragments of typical pottery vessels (fish plates, Megarian bowls).

Umayyad Earthquake(s) before the mid 8th century CE ?

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 4 E–W section crossing
    Figure 4

    A schematic E–W section in the Tiberias area.

    Hazan et al (2004)
    Galei Kinneret from Hazan et al (2004)

Discussion

Hazan et al (2004) examined lake level history and suggested that more than 4 m of tectonic shoreline subsidence occurred before the mid 8th century CE earthquake.
The age of sediments overlying the Ummayad buildings is constrained by archeology and by the 749 CE fault, which offsets them. The finding of lake sediments, including beach deposits up to 208 m bsl in Galei Kinneret, above the Roman to Ummayad structures, is surprising. A lake rise during the early Arabic period could explain these findings but contradicts the low stand period observed in the Dead Sea from 600 till about 1000 CE discussed above. An alternative explanation for the lake sediments above the structure could be a local tectonic subsidence before the earthquake of 749 CE. Assuming that the Roman stadium, which is the lowest building at the site, was built above the high stand level of Roman times (>208 m bmsl), it appears that the tectonic subsidence of the Roman– Ummayad structures was more than 4 m. We speculate that such a tectonic subsidence could also be responsible for the disappearance of the Roman harbor of Tiberias.
Umayyad structures provide a terminus post quem of ~640 CE - probably later. The terminus ante quem for the postulated subsidence is provided by the mid 8th century CE earthquake.

mid 8th century CE Earthquake

Maps, Plans, and Photos

Maps, Plans, and Photos

Maps

  • Fig. 1 Map of Tiberias
    Figure 1.

    The city during the Roman period, plan (based on Hirschfeld 1992)

    Galei Kinneret is next to the Stadium

    Atrash (2010)
    during the Roman period from Atrash (2010)

Plans

Normal Size

  • Fig. 2 Plan of Galei
    Figure 2.

    Galei Kinneret site map.

    A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

    Marco et al (2003)
    Kinneret excavations Marco et al (2003)

Magnified

  • Fig. 2 Plan of Galei
    Figure 2.

    Galei Kinneret site map.

    A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

    Marco et al (2003)
    Kinneret excavations Marco et al (2003)

Photos

  • Fig. 2A Extensional fractures
    Figure 2A

    Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

    Marco et al (2003)
    in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls from Marco et al (2003)
  • Fig. 2B Tilted Umayyad
    Figure 2B

    Umayyad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

    JW: view from the south

    Marco et al (2003)
    wall from Marco et al (2003)
  • Fig. 2C Normal synsedimentary
    Figure 2C

    Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

    JW: view from the north

    Marco et al (2003)
    faults offsetting the lower part of the sedimentary sequence from Marco et al (2003)

Discussion

Marco et al (2003) examined Roman, Byzantine, and Early Arab structures that they report were abandoned in the 8th century CE due to a rising lake level which in turn led to overlying debris flow deposits. These structures and the sediments that accumulated on top of them exhibited earthquake related damage. They report damage as follows:
  1. Two extension fractures trending 305° and 320° were discovered crossing the earliest structure - a stadium apparently built during Roman times and described by Josephus (see Figure 2A). Marco et al (2003) report that the fractures are as wide as 10 cm. and extend upward into Byzantine and Early Arab walls that overlie the stadium. They also report that the fractures extend beyond the stadium indicating that no deformation occurred between the Roman period and the construction of the Ummayad walls.

  2. Marco et al (2003) also noted normal synsedimentary faults offsetting the lower part of the sedimentary sequence. They describe these as follows:
    Unfaulted layers as well as buildings of the Abassid period overlie these faults (Plan in Fig. 2 above - tilting and faulting shown in Fig.s 2B and 2C). Fault planes typically dip 60°–70°. Flat pebbles and pieces of pottery are aligned with the fault planes, showing typical imbrication. In one locality, layers at the footwall near the fault are warped downward. Two major planes stand out; the western one strikes 354° with 35–50 cm offsets, and the eastern one strikes 320° with 90–100 cm vertical offsets. The downthrown side is always on the west. Smaller north-striking faults with ~10 cm off sets are also recognized, but the downthrown side is east. The ashlars from the upper part of the walls have fallen mostly westward. No liquefaction is observed in the sediments, probably owing to the large size of the clasts.

    This kind of faulting cannot be the dominant long-term pattern of activity because the structure of the Kinneret basin requires a downthrown block on the east. The observed faults reflect northeast-southwest extension, normal to the 450–500-m-high fault scarps west and south of Tiberias and smaller scarps at the lake bottom (Ben-Avraham et al., 1990). The faults postdate the Ummayad buildings and predate the later undisturbed sediments and Abassid buildings.
Marco et al (2003) attributed these seismic effects to one earthquake which struck in 749 CE. The presence of unfaulted Abbasid structures on top of deformed Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad structures provides a time constraint of approximately late Umayyad to Abbasid times. Tectonic observations of Marco et al (2003) suggest that extensional stress exhibited at the site suggests a normal faulting component during the causitive earthquake. The tilt to the west may indicate that the Galei Kinneret site was located atop an antithetic fault dipping west but part of a larger listic fault which dips east (e.g. like at the Berniki Theater in Tiberias)

Seismic Effects
Umayyad Earthquake(s) before the mid 8th century CE ?

Damage Type Location Image(s) Comments
4+ m of shoreline subsidence pre dating the mid 8th century CE earthquake immediately offshore from Galei Kinneret
Figure 4

A schematic E–W section in the Tiberias area.

Hazan et al (2004)
  • Hazan et al (2004) examined lake level history and suggested that more than 4 m of tectonic shoreline subsidence occurred before the mid 8th century CE earthquake.
  • The age of sediments overlying the Ummayad buildings is constrained by archeology and by the 749 CE fault, which offsets them. The finding of lake sediments, including beach deposits up to 208 m bsl in Galei Kinneret, above the Roman to Ummayad structures, is surprising. A lake rise during the early Arabic period could explain these findings but contradicts the low stand period observed in the Dead Sea from 600 till about 1000 CE discussed above. An alternative explanation for the lake sediments above the structure could be a local tectonic subsidence before the earthquake of 749 CE. Assuming that the Roman stadium, which is the lowest building at the site, was built above the high stand level of Roman times (>208 m bmsl), it appears that the tectonic subsidence of the Roman– Ummayad structures was more than 4 m. We speculate that such a tectonic subsidence could also be responsible for the disappearance of the Roman harbor of Tiberias. - Hazan et al (2004)
  • The NW-striking normal fault zone in the southwestern margin of the Kinneret basin accommodates a NE–SW extension. This fault zone is linked to the N-striking fault, which forms the western boundary of the Kinnarot Valley. We suggest that the latter fault is primarily a sinistral strike slip fault, whereas the NW normal faults are part of the strike slip termination mechanism. The overall sinistral strike slip motion on the DST is compatible with NW–SE-striking compression and SW–NE-striking extension. Locally antithetic parallel faults may occur, such as in the Galei Kinneret case, where the hanging wall is the west block. Since the main Kinneret basin is subsiding east of the site, there must be another fault further east, of which the hanging wall is the eastern block (Fig. 4). - Hazan et al (2004)

mid 8th century CE Earthquake

Damage Type Location Image(s) Comments
Penetrative extensional fractures in masonry blocks Herod's stadium and overling Byzantine walls
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2A

Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 3.

Stadium wall with a Byzantine and Umayyad building above it, looking east.

Hartal (2008)
Massive first-century CE curved wall, perhaps of a Roman stadium, underlying a Byzantine structure (site 16 at the Galei Kinneret Hotel).

JW: This is the same structure in Fig. 2A of Marco et al. (2003). Note extensional fractures and human at the top of the photo for scale.

Stern et al. (2008)
Figure 4

Stadium wall, looking north.

Hartal (2008)
  • Two extension fractures trending 305° and 320° were discovered crossing the earliest structure - a stadium apparently built during Roman times and described by Josephus (see Figure 2A). The fractures are as wide as 10 cm and extend upward into Byzantine and Early Arabic walls that overlie the stadium. None of the fractures are limited to the stadium, indicating no deformation between the Roman period and the construction of the Umayyad walls - Marco et al (2003)
Tilted Walls Umayyad room
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2B

Umayyad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

JW: view from the south

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 7

Walls from the Byzantine–Umayyad periods; the wall on the right was damaged by the earthquake.

Hartal (2008)
Figure 12

Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

Hartal (2008)
  • Unfaulted layers as well as buildings of the Abbasid period overlie these faults (Plan in Fig. 2 above - tilting and faulting shown in Fig.s 2B and 2C). Fault planes typically dip 60°–70°. Flat pebbles and pieces of pottery are aligned with the fault planes, showing typical imbrication. In one locality, layers at the footwall near the fault are warped downward. Two major planes stand out; the western one strikes 354° with 35–50 cm offsets, and the eastern one strikes 320° with 90–100 cm vertical offsets. The downthrown side is always on the west. Smaller north-striking faults with ~10 cm off sets are also recognized, but the downthrown side is east. The ashlars from the upper part of the walls have fallen mostly westward. No liquefaction is observed in the sediments, probably owing to the large size of the clasts.

    This kind of faulting cannot be the dominant long-term pattern of activity because the structure of the Kinneret basin requires a downthrown block on the east. The observed faults reflect northeast-southwest extension, normal to the 450–500-m-high fault scarps west and south of Tiberias and smaller scarps at the lake bottom (Ben-Avraham et al., 1990). The faults postdate the Ummayad buildings and predate the later undisturbed sediments and Abbasid buildings.     - Marco et al (2003)
  • JW: Downthrown block to the west may be due to antithetic faulting on a larger listric fault that dips east
  • walls cracked, were shifted from out of place and were tilted on their sides; the southern building was completely destroyed. - Hartal (2008)
Faulting alluvium and lake sediments which buried Byzantine wall
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2C

Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

JW: view from the north

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 11

Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

Hartal (2008)
  • Unfaulted layers as well as buildings of the Abbasid period overlie these faults (Plan in Fig. 2 above - tilting and faulting shown in Fig.s 2B and 2C). Fault planes typically dip 60°–70°. Flat pebbles and pieces of pottery are aligned with the fault planes, showing typical imbrication. In one locality, layers at the footwall near the fault are warped downward. Two major planes stand out; the western one strikes 354° with 35–50 cm offsets, and the eastern one strikes 320° with 90–100 cm vertical offsets. The downthrown side is always on the west. Smaller north-striking faults with ~10 cm off sets are also recognized, but the downthrown side is east. The ashlars from the upper part of the walls have fallen mostly westward. No liquefaction is observed in the sediments, probably owing to the large size of the clasts.

    This kind of faulting cannot be the dominant long-term pattern of activity because the structure of the Kinneret basin requires a downthrown block on the east. The observed faults reflect northeast-southwest extension, normal to the 450–500-m-high fault scarps west and south of Tiberias and smaller scarps at the lake bottom (Ben-Avraham et al., 1990). The faults postdate the Ummayad buildings and predate the later undisturbed sediments and Abbasid buildings.     - Marco et al (2003)
  • JW: Downthrown block to the west may be due to antithetic faulting on a larger listric fault that dips east
Possible liquefaction leading to sinking buildings, cracked and displaced walls, and a collapsed building. western part of the site including the northern and southern buildings
Figure 1.

Plan

Hartal (2008)
Figure 11

Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

Hartal (2008)
Figure 12

Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

Hartal (2008)
  • There was evidence in the excavation area of seismic activity, which caused the western part of the site to sink c. 70 cm. As a result, walls cracked and moved, the southern building collapsed, and the northern building sank. - Yizhar Hirschfeld and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et al. (2008)
  • Evidence of two geologic faults was found in the area (Fig. 11), causing its western side to settle approximately one meter. As a result walls cracked, were shifted from out of place and were tilted on their sides; the southern building was completely destroyed. The fault that passed beneath the southeastern corner of the northern building caused it to sink (Fig. 12). - Hartal (2008)
Fallen pottery Northern building
Figure 1.

Plan

Hartal (2008)
  • Pottery and bronze vessels that had apparently fallen during the earthquake were recovered from the floor of the northern building. - Yizhar Hirschfeld and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et al. (2008)
  • Pottery and bronze vessels that apparently fell at the time of the earthquake were found on the building's floor. These artifacts date to the mighty earthquake that struck on January 18, 749 CE, causing significant destruction to many of the settlements in the country, among them Bet She’an. - Hartal (2008)

Deformation Maps
mid 8th century CE Earthquake

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. 2 of Marco et al (2003)

Intensity Estimates
Umayyad Earthquake(s) before the mid 8th century CE ?

Damage Type Location Image(s) Comments Intensity
4+ m of shoreline subsidence immediately offshore from Galei Kinneret
Figure 4

A schematic E–W section in the Tiberias area.

Hazan et al (2004)
  • Hazan et al (2004) examined lake level history and suggested that more than 4 m of tectonic shoreline subsidence occurred before the mid 8th century CE earthquake.
  • The age of sediments overlying the Ummayad buildings is constrained by archeology and by the 749 CE fault, which offsets them. The finding of lake sediments, including beach deposits up to 208 m bsl in Galei Kinneret, above the Roman to Ummayad structures, is surprising. A lake rise during the early Arabic period could explain these findings but contradicts the low stand period observed in the Dead Sea from 600 till about 1000 CE discussed above. An alternative explanation for the lake sediments above the structure could be a local tectonic subsidence before the earthquake of 749 CE. Assuming that the Roman stadium, which is the lowest building at the site, was built above the high stand level of Roman times (>208 m bmsl), it appears that the tectonic subsidence of the Roman– Ummayad structures was more than 4 m. We speculate that such a tectonic subsidence could also be responsible for the disappearance of the Roman harbor of Tiberias. - Hazan et al (2004)
  • The NW-striking normal fault zone in the southwestern margin of the Kinneret basin accommodates a NE–SW extension. This fault zone is linked to the N-striking fault, which forms the western boundary of the Kinnarot Valley. We suggest that the latter fault is primarily a sinistral strike slip fault, whereas the NW normal faults are part of the strike slip termination mechanism. The overall sinistral strike slip motion on the DST is compatible with NW–SE-striking compression and SW–NE-striking extension. Locally antithetic parallel faults may occur, such as in the Galei Kinneret case, where the hanging wall is the west block. Since the main Kinneret basin is subsiding east of the site, there must be another fault further east, of which the hanging wall is the eastern block (Fig. 4). - Hazan et al (2004)
VII +
Although this archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), the presence of 4+ m of faulting and tectonic subsidence suggests a minimum intensity of VIII (8).

mid 8th century CE Earthquake

Damage Type Location Image(s) Comments Intensity
Penetrative extensional fractures in masonry blocks Herod's stadium and overling Byzantine walls
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2A

Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 3.

Stadium wall with a Byzantine and Umayyad building above it, looking east.

Hartal (2008)
Massive first-century CE curved wall, perhaps of a Roman stadium, underlying a Byzantine structure (site 16 at the Galei Kinneret Hotel).

JW: This is the same structure in Fig. 2A of Marco et al. (2003). Note extensional fractures and human at the top of the photo for scale.

Stern et al. (2008)
Figure 4

Stadium wall, looking north.

Hartal (2008)
  • Two extension fractures trending 305° and 320° were discovered crossing the earliest structure - a stadium apparently built during Roman times and described by Josephus (see Figure 2A). The fractures are as wide as 10 cm and extend upward into Byzantine and Early Arabic walls that overlie the stadium. None of the fractures are limited to the stadium, indicating no deformation between the Roman period and the construction of the Umayyad walls - Marco et al (2003)
 VI +
Tilted Walls Umayyad room
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2B

Umayyad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

JW: view from the south

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 7

Walls from the Byzantine–Umayyad periods; the wall on the right was damaged by the earthquake.

Hartal (2008)
Figure 12

Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

Hartal (2008)
  • Unfaulted layers as well as buildings of the Abbasid period overlie these faults (Plan in Fig. 2 above - tilting and faulting shown in Fig.s 2B and 2C). Fault planes typically dip 60°–70°. Flat pebbles and pieces of pottery are aligned with the fault planes, showing typical imbrication. In one locality, layers at the footwall near the fault are warped downward. Two major planes stand out; the western one strikes 354° with 35–50 cm offsets, and the eastern one strikes 320° with 90–100 cm vertical offsets. The downthrown side is always on the west. Smaller north-striking faults with ~10 cm off sets are also recognized, but the downthrown side is east. The ashlars from the upper part of the walls have fallen mostly westward. No liquefaction is observed in the sediments, probably owing to the large size of the clasts.

    This kind of faulting cannot be the dominant long-term pattern of activity because the structure of the Kinneret basin requires a downthrown block on the east. The observed faults reflect northeast-southwest extension, normal to the 450–500-m-high fault scarps west and south of Tiberias and smaller scarps at the lake bottom (Ben-Avraham et al., 1990). The faults postdate the Ummayad buildings and predate the later undisturbed sediments and Abbasid buildings.     - Marco et al (2003)
  • JW: Downthrown block to the west may be due to antithetic faulting on a larger listric fault that dips east
  • walls cracked, were shifted from out of place and were tilted on their sides; the southern building was completely destroyed. - Hartal (2008)
 VI +
Faulting - Fault scarp alluvium and lake sediments which buried Byzantine wall
Figure 2.

Galei Kinneret site map.

A: Open fractures in Herod's stadium and overlying Byzantine walls.

B: Ummayad room that overlies fault (red lines) is tilted 23° westward. Its right side is on footwall, and its left side is on hanging wall. Arrow shows tear in wall.

C: Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

Foundation (pink) of Early Arabic (Abassid) wall is built into postfault layers. This stratigraphy constrains fault to eighth century. The only strong earthquake in this area occurred on 18 January 749.

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 2C

Looking southward at section in alluvium and lake sediments, which buried Byzantine wall (right) and were later offset 40 cm by normal fault (red). White arrows point at offset layer; white bars are at bottom of unfaulted layers.

JW: view from the north

Marco et al (2003)
Figure 11

Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

Hartal (2008)
  • Unfaulted layers as well as buildings of the Abbasid period overlie these faults (Plan in Fig. 2 above - tilting and faulting shown in Fig.s 2B and 2C). Fault planes typically dip 60°–70°. Flat pebbles and pieces of pottery are aligned with the fault planes, showing typical imbrication. In one locality, layers at the footwall near the fault are warped downward. Two major planes stand out; the western one strikes 354° with 35–50 cm offsets, and the eastern one strikes 320° with 90–100 cm vertical offsets. The downthrown side is always on the west. Smaller north-striking faults with ~10 cm off sets are also recognized, but the downthrown side is east. The ashlars from the upper part of the walls have fallen mostly westward. No liquefaction is observed in the sediments, probably owing to the large size of the clasts.

    This kind of faulting cannot be the dominant long-term pattern of activity because the structure of the Kinneret basin requires a downthrown block on the east. The observed faults reflect northeast-southwest extension, normal to the 450–500-m-high fault scarps west and south of Tiberias and smaller scarps at the lake bottom (Ben-Avraham et al., 1990). The faults postdate the Ummayad buildings and predate the later undisturbed sediments and Abbasid buildings.     - Marco et al (2003)
  • JW: Downthrown block to the west may be due to antithetic faulting on a larger listric fault that dips east
 VII +
Possible liquefaction leading to sinking buildings, cracked and displaced walls, and a collapsed building. western part of the site including the northern and southern buildings
Figure 1.

Plan

Hartal (2008)
Figure 11

Geological fault that shifted strata of the Byzantine period; the upper layers accumulated after the earthquake, looking south.

Hartal (2008)
Figure 12

Wall destroyed in the earthquake, looking west.

Hartal (2008)
  • There was evidence in the excavation area of seismic activity, which caused the western part of the site to sink c. 70 cm. As a result, walls cracked and moved, the southern building collapsed, and the northern building sank. - Yizhar Hirschfeld and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et al. (2008)
  • Evidence of two geologic faults was found in the area (Fig. 11), causing its western side to settle approximately one meter. As a result walls cracked, were shifted from out of place and were tilted on their sides; the southern building was completely destroyed. The fault that passed beneath the southeastern corner of the northern building caused it to sink (Fig. 12). - Hartal (2008)
 VII +
Fallen pottery Northern building
Figure 1.

Plan

Hartal (2008)
  • Pottery and bronze vessels that had apparently fallen during the earthquake were recovered from the floor of the northern building. - Yizhar Hirschfeld and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et al. (2008)
  • Pottery and bronze vessels that apparently fell at the time of the earthquake were found on the building's floor. These artifacts date to the mighty earthquake that struck on January 18, 749 CE, causing significant destruction to many of the settlements in the country, among them Bet She’an. - Hartal (2008)
 VII +
Although this archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), on site faulting and deformations suggest a minimum intensity of VIII (8).

Calculator
Magnitude Estimate from Normal Fault Displacement

Source - Wells and Coppersmith (1994)

Variable Input Units Notes
cm.
cm.
m/s Enter a value of 655 for no site effect
Equation comes from Darvasi and Agnon (2019)
Variable Output - not considering a Site Effect Units Notes
unitless Moment Magnitude for Avg. Displacement
unitless Moment Magnitude for Max. Displacement
Variable Output - Site Effect Removal Units Notes
unitless Reduce Intensity Estimate by this amount
to get a pre-amplification value of Intensity
  

4+ meters of displacement - Hazan et al (2004)

Hazan et al (2004) examined lake level history and suggested that more than 4 m of tectonic shoreline subsidence occurred before the mid 8th century CE earthquake. 400 cm. of normal fault displacement produces a MW between 7.0 and 7.2.

Site Effect

The value given for Intensity with site effect removed is how much you should subtract from your Intensity estimate to obtain a pre-amplification value for Intensity. For example if the output is 0.5 and you estimated an Intensity of 8, your pre-amplification Intensity is now 7.5. An Intensity estimate with the site effect removed is helpful in producing an Intensity Map that will do a better job of "triangulating" the epicentral area. If you enter a VS30 greater than 655 m/s you will get a positive number, indicating that the site amplifies seismic energy. If you enter a VS30 less than 655 m/s you will get a negative number, indicating that the site attenuates seismic energy rather than amplifying it. Intensity Reduction (Ireduction) is calculated based on Equation 6 from Darvasi and Agnon (2019).

VS30

VS30 is the average seismic shear-wave velocity from the surface to a depth of 30 meters at earthquake frequencies (below ~5 Hz.). Darvasi and Agnon (2019) estimated VS30 for a number of sites in Israel. If you get VS30 from a well log, you will need to correct for intrinsic dispersion. There is a seperate geometric dispersion correction usually applied when processing the waveforms however geometric dispersion corrections are typically applied to a borehole Flexural mode generated from a Dipole source and for Dipole sources propagating in the first 30 meters of soft sediments, modal composition is typically dominated by the Stoneley wave. Shear from Stoneley estimates are approximate at best. This is a subject not well understood and widely ignored by the Geotechnical community and/or Civil Engineers but understood by a few specialists in borehole acoustics. Other considerations will apply if you get VS30 value from a cross well survey or a shallow seismic survey where the primary consideration is converting shear slowness from survey frequency to Earthquake frequency. There are also ways to estimate shear slowness from SPT & CPT tests.

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Gasperini, L., et al. (2020). "Neotectonics of the Sea of Galilee (northeast Israel): implication for geodynamics and seismicity along the Dead Sea Fault system." Scientific Reports 10(1): 11932.

Hartal, Moshe (2008), Tiberias, Galei Kinneret, Hadashot Arkheologiyot - Excavations and Surveys in Israel, Volume 120 Year 2008

Hazan, N., et al. (2004). "Lake Kinneret levels and active faulting in the Tiberias area." Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 53: 199-205.

Marco, S., Hartal, Moshe, Hazan, Nissim, Lev, Lilach, and Stein, Mordechai (2003). "Archaeology, history, and geology of the A.D. 749 earthquake, Dead Sea transform." Geology 31(8): 665-668.