• from Yizhar Hirschfeld in Stern et al (1993 v.4)

Josephus states that Tiberias was located "in the best region of Galilee." In order to populate the city as quickly as possible, the king attracted residents "by equipping houses at his own expense and adding new gifts of land" (Antiq. XVIII, 36-38). Coins issued in honor of the founding of the city feature the reed plants indigenous to the shores of the Sea of Galilee; later coins, minted toward the end of the Second Temple period, bear a palm tree, symbolizing the city's prosperity.

According to Josephus, the royal palace was a magnificent building, that was decorated with "representations of animals," and whose ceilings were "partly of gold" (Life 65-66). The royal treasure houses and archives were also here, at least until61 CE when Tiberias lost its role as the capital (Life 38). Josephus also mentions a synagogue, which was "a huge building, capable of accommodating a large crowd" (Life 277). After the death of Herod Anti pas' successor, Agrippa I ( 44CE), Tiberias came under the authority of the Roman procurators of Judea. The town maintained its position as the capital of Galilee without interruption until 61, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Agrippa II (Life 37-38), whose capital was at Caesarea-Philippi (modern Banias). As Agrippa's sister Berenice ruled at his side in Banias, the popular tradition linking her name to the mountain and aqueduct in Tiberias has no historical basis. At the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome in 66, Tiberias was fortified with walls that remained standing even after the city had surrendered to the Roman army (War II, 572-573; III, 460-461).

Tiberias continued to be part of Agrippa II's kingdom, probably until his death in about 96. Then the town came under direct Roman rule and enjoyed the prosperity characteristic of the Roman Empire. During Hadrian's reign, a temple was built in his honor (the Hadrianeum, "a very great temple" according to Epiphanius, H aer. 30, 12). Its four-columned facade is depicted on a series of coins minted at Tiberias in 119. In the mid-second century the city, previously considered unclean because of the many old graves in it, was purified by Rabbi Simeon Bar Yohai (Gen. Rab. 79h; J.T., Shah. 9, l-38d).

During the reign of Emperor Elagabalus (218-222), Tiberias was granted the status of a Roman colony, as it appears from coins (B.T., A.Z. lOa). It was then that the ruling institutions of the Jewish people were moved from Sepphoris to Tiberias: first (c. 235) the Sanhedrin, with Rabbi Yohanan at its head, then the Patriarchate, and the then reigning patriarch, Rabbi Judah II Nesiah (d. c. 270). Yohanan established the Great Study House (beth ha midrash ha-gadol). In this institution, frequently mentioned in Talmudic literature, the great majority of the Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud was written.

After Tiberias became the Jewish capital of Palestine and the Diaspora, it continued to prosper for a considerable time. The sources refer to the city gate and to the fortress, which was probably built on the site of the royal palace from Second Temple times. Mention is also made of the boule (municipal council), various synagogues, study houses, city markets, and a series of public buildings-a stadium, bathhouse, lavatory, and magnificent tombs. Near these were the residential quarters of the city and various industrial areas, which included, inter alia, glassworks and pottery workshops. South of Tiberias, in the vicinity of the hot springs, Hammath-Tiberias (q.v.) developed as a suburb serving the numerous visitors who came from far and near to the medicinal springs.

In the sixth century, the Academy (Yeshiva) of Bretz-Israel, which succeeded the Sanhedrin as the supreme religious institution of the Jewish people, was established in Tiberias. The academy continued its activities here long after the Arab occupation, probably until the tenth century. During that time-the period of the Gaonim-several schools of poets and preachers were active in Tiberias, as were scribes and vocalizers (the Masoretes), whose system of vocalization, still in use today, is known as the Tiberian system.

After the Arab invasion, Tiberias superseded Beth-Shean as the capital of northern Palestine. The city continued to prosper until the ninth century. In the tenth century, however, security in the area began to deteriorate and the population declined. In 1033, Tiberias was destroyed by an earthquake; in the Crusader period, it was moved to the north, to its present location. Since then, most of the area of ancient Tiberias has remained desolate.

• from Cytryn-Silverman (2015)

The foundation date of Tiberias is not certain. Named after Tiberius (reigned 14–37 CE), it is believed to have been founded by Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, as his capital some-time between 18 and 20. In 39 Antipas’s nephew, Agrippa I, gained control over the city and ruled it up to his death in 44 CE. Until 61 CE it was ruled by the procurators, when its political status changed when it was annexed to the kingdom of Agrippa II, whose capital was at Banias. In about 100 CE it came under direct Roman rule. During Hadrian’s reign (117–138 CE) there commenced the erection of a temple in his honor in the middle of the city, which, however, was never finished.

In the third century, Tiberias flourished: not only was it granted the status of a Roman colony (under Elagabalus [reigned 218–222 CE]), but also it became the capital of the Jewish people, after the Sanhedrin, the Patriarchate, and the leader of the community all had moved there from Sepphoris. Rabbi Yohanan, head of the Sanhedrin, established the bet ha-midrash ha-gadol, where the Palestinian Talmud was mostly written. From the sixth century on, Yeshivat Eretz Israel, the supreme religious institution for the Jews in Palestine and the Diaspora, was active in Tiberias, at least until the tenth century (of note is the fact that the Aleppo Codex was compiled in Tiberias at this time), when it finally moved to Jerusalem. Even then, Tiberias continued to serve as a center for the Masoretes, who dealt with the correct vocalization of the Holy Scriptures, for Hebrew grammarians, as well as for poets and preachers.

The prominent Jewish character of Tiberias might have been the main reason the Christian community did not take off, at least until the fifth century.² Yet, despite the slow penetration of Christianity into Tiberias, we know that by the mid-fifth century it is already a seat of a bishopric, as its bishop (John) is mentioned in the lists of the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE).³

Tabariyya, as it is named in Arabic, was conquered by Arab armies in 635 CE. According to al-Baladhuri (d. c. 892)⁴, the terms of surrender guaranteed a smooth and peaceful change of government. Eventually Tabariyya was chosen to be the capital of Jund al-Urdunn, ultimately to the detriment of Baysān/Scythopolis, capital of Palaestina Secunda. It is not clear,nevertheless, when exactly this shift of capitals took place.

Three major earthquakes affected Tiberias during the Early Islamic period: 749 CE, 1033 CE, and 1068 CE. The first certainly caused much destruction, as we learn from the excavations at Galei Kinneret,⁵ but the earthquake was followed by renovation, building, and expansion. The earthquake of 1033, until recently thought to have brought Tiberias to an end, was not as dramatic for Tiberias. The account of the Persian traveler Nasir-i Khusraw of 1047 CE makes no reference to a devastated city, quite the opposite:⁶

The city has a strong wall that, beginning at the borders of the lake, goes all round the town; but on the water side there is no wall. There are numerous buildings erected in the very water, for the bed of the lake in this part is rock; and they have built pleasure-houses that are supported on columns of marble, rising up out of the water. The lake is full of fish.

Nasir-i Khusraw goes on, describing the Friday Mosque in the middle of the town, as well as another one called Jasmine Mosque, on the western side of the city.

In addition to natural disasters, Islamic Tiberias was hit by invasions and sacking. In 906 CE the Ismaili Qarmatis, fighting against the Tulunids for the leadership of Syria, captured Tiberias, a major army base at the time. The sources tell that, following the resistance of its people, the city was plundered, women taken captive, and many people killed⁷. The eleventh century was even harder for Tiberians, as in general for the people of Palestine. Even before the earthquake of 1033 CE⁸, drought and unrest had struck the region. The Banu Jarrah Bedouin caused much instability. In August 1024 CE, their leader al-Hassan b. al-Mufarrij sacked Tiberias and killed its people mercilessly.⁹

Not withstanding the unrest, southern Syria under the Fatimids — and especially its two capitals, Ramla and Tiberias — witnessed a golden age. Much building and commercial, cultural, and religious activities took place. But toward the 1050s–1060s, the situation changed again, this time creating a political vacuum from which it was dfficult to recover. Jewish letters found in the Geniza are testimony to the stress under which the population of Syria lived.¹⁰ This situation, among others, made room for the Seljuq invasion of the 1070s, when Tiberias was made the Seljuq base against the Fatimids.¹¹

In August 1098, the Fatimids managed to regain Jerusalem from the Seljuq Turks, putting an end to their rule over Palestine. Yet the Fatimids’ hold was short, and in July 1099 Palestine fell into the hands of the Crusaders. The old city center of Tiberias became a quarry for building material to the newly established Crusader fortfication to the north of the city.¹²

• from Zohar (2017)

Tiberias was established in 19 CE by Herod Antipas who named it after the Roman emperor Tiberius. Like the rest of Palestine, during the next 1500 years it underwent Roman, Byzantine, Muslim, Crusader and Mamluk regimes (Avi-Yonah 1951, 1980, Gil 1983). In 1517 the Ottomans conquered Palestine and were mostly interested in subjecting Tiberias to the general governance of Damascus. Their interest was smartly manipulated by Dona Gracia, a wealthy Portuguese Jewess from Istanbul (Turkey) who used her influence and connections at the Sultan’s court to increase the Jewish population in the Galilee and to establish Tiberias as a Jewish centre. Ottoman Firmans (written permission) report that between June 1560 and December 1565 Dona Gracia had leased the collection of taxes in Tiberias and a few other villages in the region. The Firmans also imply that she was probably responsible for reconstruction of the surrounding walls of Tiberias in order to increase the security of the inhabitants (Roger 1646, De Aveiro 1927, Heyd 1966).

The prosperity of the Jewish community did not last long and sometime at the beginning of the seventeenth century the Jews were forced to leave due to Ottoman tyranny (Roger 1646, De Thévenot 1971). The turning point for Tiberias was the rule of Dahir al-Umar of the Bedouin Zaydan family. Close to the mid-eighteenth century he gained control of Tiberias and other Galilean regions and gradually accumulated massive power. His dominancy did not escape the eyes of Suleiman, the Pasha of Damascus, who decided to overthrow Dahir’s rule by besieging Tiberias three times: in 1738, 1742 and 1743. The first two sieges were failures and during the last attempt Suleiman died of an intestine illness (Bnayahu 1946, Heyd 1969, Nachshon 1980). The son of Dahir, Chulaybi, had fewer confrontations but, like his father, kept strengthening Tiberias and in 1750 also built a citadel on a hill at the northwest corner of the city (Hasselquist 1766). In October and November 1759, the walls and the Citadel were severely hit by two consecutive earthquakes (Ambraseys and Barazangi 1989, Ambraseys 2009), but were gradually restored towards the end of the nineteenth century (Mariti 1791).

In October 1831 the Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha invaded Palestine on his way north and in May 1833 he completed the conquest of Syria and Palestine. In 1834 another damaging earthquake struck Palestine but no damage to Tiberias or northern Palestine was reported (Ambraseys 2009). In the same year a Fellahin rebellion erupted in the mountainous areas of Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Nablus, Transjordan and northern Galilee. The rebels took over Tiberias for a short period but the Egyptians, with reinforcements from the south, eventually managed to gain back control of the city (Ben-Zvi 1954). From that year until the 1837 earthquake the city remained under Egyptian rule.

• from Zohar (2017:6-12)

Maps and Figures Discussion

Much of the sources divide their descriptions of the city by the existing ethnic groups at the time, i.e., Jews, Muslims and Christians. Along almost the entire nineteenth century each of these groups resided in a different and separated area within the city. Consequently, the reconstruction of the Tiberias cityscape and the following damage analyses was carried out in light of this sub-division of the city. A summary of the prominent structures, the reconstructed 2D map and the 3D models appear in Table 1, Figures 6 and 7, respectively.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century Tiberias was a desolated city situated on the western shores of the Sea of Galilee (Figure 6) (Volney 1788, Richardson 1822, Irby and Mangles 1823). Roughly, the city was divided into three quarters:

1. the Muslims resided mainly at the northwestern area
2. the Jews occupied an isolated quarter at the eastern side close to the shore
3. several dozen Christians lived in the southern end of the city (Avissar 1973, Schur 1987, Ben-Yaakov 2001).

The total area of the city did not exceed a quarter of a square kilometre and contained only a few hundred dwellings (Pococke 1745, Mariti 1791, Wilson 1823, Mendel 1839). A significant part of the city, in particular in the north, was apparently vacant of buildings and apart from in the Jewish quarter, houses were located far from each other (Richardson 1822, Stephens 1839) . The exact number of houses is not clear but according to the contemporary sources, the number of Jewish, Christian and Muslim buildings ranged between 185–230, 40–80 and 150–250, respectively, and all together between 375–560 houses (Turner 1820, Wilson 1823, Jowett 1826, Horne 1836, Schur 1988). Most of the buildings were built of stone and had 1–2 stories, i.e., roughly were between 3 and 6 m high. Many of the houses had little porches used for sleeping outdoors during the hot summer nights (Turner 1820, Pueckler-Muskau 1844).

The city was surrounded by the mid-eighteenth century walls repaired by Dahir al-Umar and his son Chulaybi. Their thickness ranged between 80 and 120 cm and Birav (Bnayahu 1946) reported that they were so high that ladders were needed to climb over them. Other western travellers estimated their height between 6 and 8 m (Pococke 1745, Hasselquist 1766, Spilsbury 1823, Robinson and Smith 1856). The walls were flanked by 21 circular turrets standing at unequal distances between each other (Irby and Mangles 1823, Jowett 1826). According to Jacotin’s map and Burckhardt’s sketch, there were only two gates to the city: a western main gate and a small southern gate (Jacotin 1799, Burckhardt 1822). Like other Ottoman cities, the citadel on the northern hill of Tiberias protected the town from outer invasions (Pococke 1745, Hasselquist 1766, Clarke 1810– 1823).

There were two mosques in the city: the largest was the al-Zaydani (al-Umari), named after Dahir’s family name, while the other was al-Bahri (the sea mosque), and located south of the Jewish quarter. The Church of St. Peter was situated north of the Jewish quarter but the house of the Catholic priest, however, was at the southern end of the city.

Additional Ottoman buildings, located in the Muslim quarter close to the western gate, were the houses of the Aga (governor house or Seraiah), the Kadi, the Imam and the army commander (Schur 1987, Abbasi 2006) . A small bazaar decorated by massive vaults was located in the centre of the city. Other vaulted arches were located at the southern shoreline facing the sea (Burckhardt 1822).

The Jewish quarter occupied a portion of the city close to the shore. It was surrounded by a high wall with a western entrance gate, which was regularly shut at sunset. Apparently, there were at least two synagogues and a ‘Kolell’ (a Jewish school) within the quarter and probably another one at the southern end of the city: Stephens reported on two synagogues and two schools and Jowett reported on two schools and three synagogues. I assume that the ‘Kollell’ reported in 1833 in the letter of Rabbi Yaa’kov Menlis, is the ‘Reysin’ Kollell, located close to Menahem Mendel’s house (Stephens 1839, Jowett 1826, Robinson and Smith 1856, David Debith Hillel in Ya’ari 1976, pp. 512–514, Scholz 1822, de Gramb 1840, Schur 2002). Although Christians lived mainly in southern Tiberias, there were also a few dwellings of Jews there: von Puckler Muskau reported that a wealthy Jew (Hayim Weisman?) had 21 houses to let. He does not mention their exact location but since there are no reports of hotels in the Jewish quarter, I assume they were located in the southern part of the city (Pueckler-Muskau 1844). Located about half a kilometre south of the city were the Jewish and Muslim cemeteries and about one kilometre further south the thermal baths for local and touristic use (Seetzen 1810, Robinson and Smith 1841). North of the city there were several sacred tombs (Mendel 1839, Robinson and Smith 1856, Guerin 1880) and west of it a small agricultural area. One major road led to the city from the south and two others from the west (Jacotin 1799, Buckingham 1822, Olin 1844).

• Fig. 14 Proposed reconstruction
  Figure 14
  
  Proposed reconstruction of the ancient city of Tiberias, looking north
  
  (drawn by Dov Porotzky)
  
  Caption from Hirschfeld and Galor (2007) and image from Atrash (2012)
  of the ancient city of Tiberias from Hirschfeld and Galor (2007) and Atrash (2012)

• Fig. E Roman cardo and
  Figure E
  
  Remains of Roman cardo and overlaying street of the Early Islamic street, leading to the mosque through a set of steps. On the left series of shops of the early Islamic period adjacent to the street exposed by B. Ravani in the 1950s
  
  Photo by David Silverman, The New Tiberias Excavation Project.
  
  Cytryn-Silverman (2015)
  overlaying street from Cytryn-Silverman (2015)

Chronology is well established as damage and destruction in Tiberias due to the 1837 CE Safed Quake was described and recorded by several contemporaneous sources based on first hand accounts - some of which are listed below:

Source	Report	Notes
Article in the Missionary Herald by William McClure Thomson	The first day of this year (1837 CE) will be long remembered as the anniversary of one of the most violent and destructive earthquakes which this country has ever experienced
The Times (of London)	A LIST OF TOWNS ETC., DESTROYED OR INJURED IN SYRIA BY THE EARTHQUAKE ON THE 1st OF JANUARY

• from Hirschfeld Y. and Meir E. (2004)

Stratum	Period	Date	Notes
I	Late Fatimid	11th century CE	construction above the collapse caused by an earthquake (in 1033 CE?)
II	Early Fatimid	9th - 10th centuries CE	continued use of the street with shops.
III	Abbasid	8th - 9th centuries CE	a row of shops, the basilica building was renovated.
IV	Byzantine–Umayyad	5th - 7th centuries CE	the eastern wing was added to the basilica building; the paved street; destruction was caused by the earthquake in 749 CE.
V	Late Roman	4th century CE	construction of the basilica complex, as well as the city’s institutions, i. e., the bathhouse and the covered market place.
VI	Roman	2nd - 3rd centuries CE	establishment of the Hadrianeum in the second century CE (temple dedicated to Hadrian that was never completed) and industrial installations; the paving of the cardo and the city’s infrastructure.
VII	Early Roman	1st century CE	founding of Tiberias, construction of the palace with the marble floor on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, opus sectile, fresco.
VIII	Hellenistic	1st - 2nd centuries BCE	fragments of typical pottery vessels (fish plates, Megarian bowls).

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description(s)
Destruction Casualties	Tiberias		"a most violent shock of earthquake destroyed the whale of Saffet, Tiberias, and many of the surrounding villages ..." - Letter From Mr. Chassebaud, The British Consul, Dated Beyrout, Jan. 25, And Addressed To Mr. Judah Benoliel, Of Gibraltar, as published in The Times on 1 March 1837. "EARTHQUAKE IN SYRIA The following return of the devastation caused by this great convulsion of nature has been prepared by the British agent at Beyrout:- A LIST OF TOWNS ETC., DESTROYED OR INJURED SYRIA BY THE EARTHQUAKE ON THE 1st OF JANUARY ... Tiberias     Entirely Destroyed     About 1000 killed" - The Times on 12 April 1837.
Destruction (collapsed walls) Casualties Altered spring behavior	Tiberias		"20. Tiberias. Having finished our work, collected the wounded, distributed medicine and clean bandages for dressing the wounds, and hired a native physician to attend the hospital, we left Safet about half past one o'clock, P. M.; and, after a pleasant ride of five hours and a half, encamped before the ruins of this celebrated city. It was truly refreshing to breathe once more the pure air of the open country, freed from the horrible sights which have been ever before me, both waking and sleeping, during our stay at Safet. We passed rapidly down the steep mountain under the at rock where Jeremiah is said to have hid the ark, across the fertile vale of Gennesaret, through the miserable village of Migdol, and along the shore of the beautiful lake, whose sweet waters dashed with gentle murmurs on the sacred shore. A train of emotions stole over the heart, more agreeable than sad, although the eye was filled with tears at the recollection of what we had already witnessed, and at the thought of that which we had in prospect. I shall not soon lose the impression of this ride. Not a breeze stirred the smooth surface of the Gennesaret, nor a leaf trembled on the topmost bough of the mountain pine. The sun settled quietly down behind the hills of Nazareth, and the full pale moon shone dimly through a hazy atmosphere on lake and land, faintly revealing the mountains of Bashan, the snows of Jible II Sheikh, and the place where Safet was, that “city set upon a hill which could not be hid” — and the mountain, where the Savior preached the best sermon the world ever heard, and near which he is said to have fed the five thousand with the five barley loaves. These and many other places, rich in sacred associations, were seen in misty outline stretching far away from Gennesaret, sweet Gennesaret, lovely shore. While the tinkling bell, the lowing kine, the bleating flocks, and the barking dogs struck a chord oft struck before at home — my father’s, mother’s, boyhood’s home. 21. The destruction of life at Tiberias has not been so great, in proportion to the population, as at Safet, owing mainly to the fact, that Tiberias is built on a level plain, and Safet on the declivity of the mountain. Probably about seven hundred perished here, out of a population of twenty-five hundred; while at Safet four thousand out of five thousand Christians and Jews were killed; and not far from one thousand Mussulmans. We visited all the wounded to-day, and find them much more comfortably arranged in tents than at Safet. There has been better order and more enterprise amongst the people, who are said to be of a higher character than those of Safet, and less affected by those violent party divisions which agitate the Jewish community. As an instance of the confusion and wretchedness that prevailed during the first days after the earthquake, take the case of the only Jewish physician in Tiberias. He is immensely wealthy; his wife and children were killed at his feet, his own leg broken off below the knee, and held fast by the rocks which had fallen upon it. In this condition he continued two whole days, begging and crying for some one to come and take away the few stones that were upon him and set him free. He rose in his offer to three hundred dollars: but to no effect; every one had his own wife, or children, or friends in the same condition, and none would attend. At length the flies got to his wife and children, and to his own wound, when in despair he seized a pole which lay near him and tried to bring down upon his head some stone that lay above him, in order to end both his life and sufferings at the same time. Still, this man is now doing well, and promises soon to recover, In the afternoon we went down to the hot baths, which are not injured in the least, although not more than a mile and a half, from the city, where every wall is thrown down. The rooms attached to the bath are filled with wounded, some of them in a most deplorable condition, to whom we gave medicine and clothes. We all took the bath, but the water was too hot to be either agreeable or healthy. As the thermometer rose to the top of the scale instantly. I have no means of ascertaining how great the heat in the spring is. To me it seemed hotter than when I was here four years ago, and the sulphurous gas escaping from the surface much more offensive. The people informed me that at the time of the earthquake, and for some days subsequent to it, the quantity of water was immensely increased; and it was so hot as to render it impossible to pass along the road across which it flows. This I suppose to have been the fact, but the numerous stories about smoke and boiling water issuing from many places, and fire in others, I believe were mere fabrications. I could find no one who had actually seen these phenomena, although nearly all had heard of them." - Article by William Mclure Thomson in the Missionary Herald (1837:436-437)
Fractured Walls Ruins (collapsed walls) Altered Spring behavior Casualties	Tiberias		"The destruction of life in Tiberias had not been so great as at Safed, but the houses and walls of the city were fearfully shattered. About six hundred perished under the ruins, and there were scenes of individual suffering not exceeded by any in Safed. Many of the wounded had been carried down to the hot baths, where we visited them. They informed me that at the time of the earthquake the quantity of water at these springs was immensely increased, and that it was so hot that people could not pass along the road across which it flowed. This, I suppose, was fact ; but the reports that smoke and boiling water were seen to issue from many places, and flames of fire from others, I believe were either fabrications or at least exaggerations. I could find no one who had actually seen these phenomena, though all had heard of them." - William Mclure Thomson in The Land and the Book (1861:278-279)
Destruction (collapsed walls)	Tiberias		"the destruction, as we have seen, extended more or less to Tiberias and the region around Nazareth" - Robinson (1856 v.2:420-424)
walls cast down to the ground tower damage galleries and chambers laid open (collapsed walls)	Tiberias		"We did not enter Tiberias, but pitched on the banks of the lake; the earthquake had left the town in ruins, its walls cast down to the ground, its towers split in two, and their galleries and chambers laid open and yawning in mid-air." - Lindsay (1838 v.2:87)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Damaged and Tilted Walls	Citadel Walls (P1) and turrets (T4-T7) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017) Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	the citadel, the surrounding public structures, walls and turrets were damaged but parts of them still remained (drawing 16, 25, 26, 28, 30 and 35 and photograph 44, Supplemental material). The walls were damaged unequally: little damage was observed in the northern part of the walls; the southern part was considerably damaged but parts of it still remained; the western part collapsed almost entirely along with its flanked turrets. Roberts sketched breaches within the walls and a diagonal lean of the southwestern turret1 (items 19–22, Supplemental material). These damaged structures were never reconstructed and some of them still remain in ruins today (Figure 2). - Zohar (2017:12) 1. Engineers inspecting the turret stated that such a lean could have occurred only by a sudden turbulence and not by gradual subsidence because of the water (Shohat and Levi, personal communication, 2014) - Zohar (2017:footnote 1)
Sheared Wall	Southern turret in Southern Wall Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Sheared turret in Tiberias' southern Wall Photo by Jefferson Williams on 11 June 2023 Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)
Dome collapse	al-Zaydani Mosque (M1) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017) Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Inside the city, the al-Zaydani Mosque was damaged and its dome collapsed. Its minaret, however, still remained - Zohar (2017:12) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)
Minaret Collapse	al-Bahri Mosque (M2) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	the minaret of al-Bahri Mosque did not escape the damage (Robinson and Smith 1841, Olin 1844). - Zohar (2017:12-13) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)
Vault Destruction - completely or badly destroyed	Vaulted Bazaar (P7) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	The vaulted bazaar was damaged but there are no other specific details (Israel of Shklov 1837). I assume, however, that it was completely or badly destroyed for it is not apparent in the drawings of Lehoux and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16 and 19–22). - Zohar (2017:13)
Damaged Arches	Vaulted Arcs (P8) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	The vaulted arcs in the south of the city were probably damaged as well; Roberts depicted them as damaged and this is also apparent in a twentieth century photograph (Supplemental material, items 20 and 45, respectively). - Zohar (2017:13)
Collapsed Walls	dwellings Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	apparently, most of the Tiberias dwellings were completely destroyed while public buildings escaped the damage. The drawings of Lehoux, Roberts, Bernatz and Munk (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22 and 25, respectively) demonstrate that the Christian and Muslim quarters were almost completely destroyed and shortly after the earthquake were left with only a few standing dwellings - Zohar (2017:12) The Jewish quarter, as reflected in various post-1837 drawings, seems to be less damaged than the Christian and Muslim quarters; Lehoux, Lintch and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16, 20, 21, 22 and 32) depicted the Jewish quarter with more standing dwellings than in the other quarters. Further search through the visual sources to locate the remains of the walls surrounding the Jewish quarter produced no results; they may have been completely destroyed beyond repair. - Zohar (2017:13)
Damaged Walls	City Walls (W1-21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls - Zohar (2017:Figure 7 caption)
Damaged Walls	Turrets (T1-20) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Tilted Wall	Leaning Turret (T21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Slight Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) JW:Some of the lean could be due to differential subsidence and/or undercutting by wave action
Collapsed Wall	Main Gate (G1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. JW: Gate G1 is 'missing' Zohar (2017)	Total destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Damaged Walls	Southern Gate (G2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Walls of the Jewish Quarter (JW1-2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Gate of the Jewish Quarter (JG1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Etz-Ha'yim ('Sephardim') Synagogue (S1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Hasidim' Synagogue (S2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Casualties	Tiberias Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	The total number of casualties during the earthquake is not clear: while the official report of Suleiman Pasha numbers 922 victims, other estimations range between 700 and 2000. The eyewitness Calman reported that the number of Jewish victims was significantly greater than that of the Muslims and Christians. This report conforms to the report of Robinson from 1838 that numbers less Jewish families than Muslim families, although before the earthquake Jews were considered to be the majority in Tiberias (de Gramb 1840, Horne 1836, Debith-Hillel in Ya’ari 1976). - Zohar (2017:13)

• Table 2 from Zohar (2017)

• from Zohar (2017:13-15)

Figures Discussion

Rotating the models enabled a 360° examination of damage from almost any direction, even from spots that were not covered by the nineteenth century artists, such as an eastern spot in the Sea of Galilee or aerial views. The two models of before and after the earthquakes were compared (Figure 7) in order to identify the structural damage and examine its spread (Figure 8). It seems that although the Tiberias area was relatively small, the spread of the damage as well as its severity was not uniform. This is clearly observed particularly along the walls and between the residential quarters of the city. In general, such variability in damage within a small area may imply different local site attributes, whereas the distance from the epicentre and the directivity effect are almost identical in any spot within that area. Among the most influencing site attributes, one can count the construction quality, surface geology and topography (Zaslavsky et al. 2000). The latter two can hardly explain the differences whereas almost the whole of Tiberias is situated on basalt rocks (Pβc) and apart from the moderate northern slopes, the city lies on a flat plain (Figures. 7(a,b)). The construction quality, however, varies and manifests several structural styles for residential dwellings, religious structures and government buildings (Figure 2). Unfortunately, at this stage there is no reasonable understanding of the vulnerability and resistance of these structures to earthquake shaking. Yet, it is still possible to classify Tiberias’s structures into two groups.

• The first, which was probably more resistant to earthquake shaking, includes the Citadel, walls, turrets and government buildings such as the Seraiah and Kadi houses Most of them, although badly damaged, remained partially standing, even in cases where they were located on a hill in the north of the city. This is, of course, no surprise for these structures were built in advance to withstand outer attacks and thus were probably quite stable. Yet, there is a prominent exception that deserves attention: The western part of the walls (between turrets T-12 and T-16), although built of the same materials and quality as the rest of the walls, collapsed completely, while the northern part, built on a slope, was only slightly damaged. Figure 8 portrays the spread of the damage in relation to the surface geology and suspected active faults. Accordingly, the majority of Tiberias is located on a single geologic foundation of basalt rocks but close to the western walls, there is a fault. This fault, suspected to be active (Sagy et al. 2013), crosses the southern walls between T16–T17 and runs parallel to the western walls for about 200 m within the proximity of only 50 m. In addition, the fault runs in between the basalt and alluvium lithologies and perhaps this transition zone contributed to the increase of the damage. However, further site-specific investigation, which is beyond the scope of this study, is needed to verify the mechanical role of this fault and the lithological contrast in the stability of the western walls and the nearby structures.


• The second group includes dwellings and residential houses, most of which were completely damaged beyond repair. The damage in this category varies. The Jewish quarter seems to be slightly less damaged than the other quarters (Table 2) although the number of Jewish victims was greater (Robinson and Smith 1841). The explanation for this contradiction is not clear at this stage. Located along the shores of the lake, the Jewish quarter was more populated and clustered than the others and thus the dwellings in it were most likely of different architectural styles. In addition, a large part of the Muslim quarter in the north end of the city was located on a sloped hill whereas the Jewish and Christian quarters were located on a plain surface (Figure 7(a)). Thus, these factors also may have influenced the resistance to damage, but until the Ottoman construction styles are fully characterized, resolving this damage differentiation is rather complex.

The gates of the city did not withstand the earthquake and collapsed. Since the walls were never repaired, over the years some of the breaches were enlarged, probably by human activity, resulting in new entrances to the city (Guerin 1880). In late nineteenth century maps (Supplemental material, items 36, 40, 41 and 42), the southern entrance to the city is located between T-17 and T-18, some 50 m west of the original southern gate (Figure 6). At the north of the city, a new entrance and a trail leading to it appeared between T-2 and T-3. These two entrances and roads still exist today and constitute two of the major transportation entries to the city. The roads to Tiberias are an example of how a catastrophe such as an earthquake may divert and influence the morphology of a city for many years after.

• from Fig. 8 of Zohar (2017)

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Damaged and Tilted Walls	Citadel Walls (P1) and turrets (T4-T7) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017) Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	the citadel, the surrounding public structures, walls and turrets were damaged but parts of them still remained (drawing 16, 25, 26, 28, 30 and 35 and photograph 44, Supplemental material). The walls were damaged unequally: little damage was observed in the northern part of the walls; the southern part was considerably damaged but parts of it still remained; the western part collapsed almost entirely along with its flanked turrets. Roberts sketched breaches within the walls and a diagonal lean of the southwestern turret1 (items 19–22, Supplemental material). These damaged structures were never reconstructed and some of them still remain in ruins today (Figure 2). - Zohar (2017:12) 1. Engineers inspecting the turret stated that such a lean could have occurred only by a sudden turbulence and not by gradual subsidence because of the water (Shohat and Levi, personal communication, 2014) - Zohar (2017:footnote 1)	VII +
Sheared Wall	Southern turret in Southern Wall Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Sheared turret in Tiberias' southern Wall Photo by Jefferson Williams on 11 June 2023 Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)		VIII +
Dome collapse	al-Zaydani Mosque (M1) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017) Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Inside the city, the al-Zaydani Mosque was damaged and its dome collapsed. Its minaret, however, still remained - Zohar (2017:12) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)	VIII +
Minaret Collapse	al-Bahri Mosque (M2) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	the minaret of al-Bahri Mosque did not escape the damage (Robinson and Smith 1841, Olin 1844). - Zohar (2017:12-13) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)	VI-VII +
Vault Destruction - completely or badly destroyed	Vaulted Bazaar (P7) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	The vaulted bazaar was damaged but there are no other specific details (Israel of Shklov 1837). I assume, however, that it was completely or badly destroyed for it is not apparent in the drawings of Lehoux and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16 and 19–22). - Zohar (2017:13)	VIII +
Damaged Arches	Vaulted Arcs (P8) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	The vaulted arcs in the south of the city were probably damaged as well; Roberts depicted them as damaged and this is also apparent in a twentieth century photograph (Supplemental material, items 20 and 45, respectively). - Zohar (2017:13)	VI +
Collapsed Walls	dwellings Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	apparently, most of the Tiberias dwellings were completely destroyed while public buildings escaped the damage. The drawings of Lehoux, Roberts, Bernatz and Munk (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22 and 25, respectively) demonstrate that the Christian and Muslim quarters were almost completely destroyed and shortly after the earthquake were left with only a few standing dwellings - Zohar (2017:12) The Jewish quarter, as reflected in various post-1837 drawings, seems to be less damaged than the Christian and Muslim quarters; Lehoux, Lintch and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16, 20, 21, 22 and 32) depicted the Jewish quarter with more standing dwellings than in the other quarters. Further search through the visual sources to locate the remains of the walls surrounding the Jewish quarter produced no results; they may have been completely destroyed beyond repair. - Zohar (2017:13)	VIII +
Damaged Walls	City Walls (W1-21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls - Zohar (2017:Figure 7 caption)	VII-VIII +
Damaged Walls	Turrets (T1-20) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VII +
Tilted Wall	Leaning Turret (T21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Slight Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) JW:Some of the lean could be due to differential subsidence and/or undercutting by wave action	VI +
Collapsed Wall	Main Gate (G1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. JW: Gate G1 is 'missing' Zohar (2017)	Total destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Damaged Walls	Southern Gate (G2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VII +
Collapsed Walls	Walls of the Jewish Quarter (JW1-2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Gate of the Jewish Quarter (JG1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Etz-Ha'yim ('Sephardim') Synagogue (S1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Hasidim' Synagogue (S2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological   
  Earthquake Archeological Effects Chart
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013)
  Effects from Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
• Environmental Effects (ESI 2007)
  Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  
  
• Synoptic Table of ESI 2007   
  Synoptic Table of ESI 2007 Intensity Degrees
  
  Accuracy improves in higher degrees, especially VIII–XII.
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  
  Michetti et al. (2007)
  Intensity Degrees from Michetti et al. (2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description(s)	Intensity
Destruction (collapsed walls) Casualties (due to collapsed walls)	Tiberias		"a most violent shock of earthquake destroyed the whale of Saffet, Tiberias, and many of the surrounding villages ..." - Letter From Mr. Chassebaud, The British Consul, Dated Beyrout, Jan. 25, And Addressed To Mr. Judah Benoliel, Of Gibraltar, as published in The Times on 1 March 1837. "EARTHQUAKE IN SYRIA The following return of the devastation caused by this great convulsion of nature has been prepared by the British agent at Beyrout:- A LIST OF TOWNS ETC., DESTROYED OR INJURED SYRIA BY THE EARTHQUAKE ON THE 1st OF JANUARY ... Tiberias     Entirely Destroyed     About 1000 killed" - The Times on 12 April 1837.	VIII+ VIII+
Destruction (collapsed walls) Casualties (due to collapsed walls) Altered spring behavior	Tiberias		"20. Tiberias. Having finished our work, collected the wounded, distributed medicine and clean bandages for dressing the wounds, and hired a native physician to attend the hospital, we left Safet about half past one o'clock, P. M.; and, after a pleasant ride of five hours and a half, encamped before the ruins of this celebrated city. It was truly refreshing to breathe once more the pure air of the open country, freed from the horrible sights which have been ever before me, both waking and sleeping, during our stay at Safet. We passed rapidly down the steep mountain under the at rock where Jeremiah is said to have hid the ark, across the fertile vale of Gennesaret, through the miserable village of Migdol, and along the shore of the beautiful lake, whose sweet waters dashed with gentle murmurs on the sacred shore. A train of emotions stole over the heart, more agreeable than sad, although the eye was filled with tears at the recollection of what we had already witnessed, and at the thought of that which we had in prospect. I shall not soon lose the impression of this ride. Not a breeze stirred the smooth surface of the Gennesaret, nor a leaf trembled on the topmost bough of the mountain pine. The sun settled quietly down behind the hills of Nazareth, and the full pale moon shone dimly through a hazy atmosphere on lake and land, faintly revealing the mountains of Bashan, the snows of Jible II Sheikh, and the place where Safet was, that “city set upon a hill which could not be hid” — and the mountain, where the Savior preached the best sermon the world ever heard, and near which he is said to have fed the five thousand with the five barley loaves. These and many other places, rich in sacred associations, were seen in misty outline stretching far away from Gennesaret, sweet Gennesaret, lovely shore. While the tinkling bell, the lowing kine, the bleating flocks, and the barking dogs struck a chord oft struck before at home — my father’s, mother’s, boyhood’s home. 21. The destruction of life at Tiberias has not been so great, in proportion to the population, as at Safet, owing mainly to the fact, that Tiberias is built on a level plain, and Safet on the declivity of the mountain. Probably about seven hundred perished here, out of a population of twenty-five hundred; while at Safet four thousand out of five thousand Christians and Jews were killed; and not far from one thousand Mussulmans. We visited all the wounded to-day, and find them much more comfortably arranged in tents than at Safet. There has been better order and more enterprise amongst the people, who are said to be of a higher character than those of Safet, and less affected by those violent party divisions which agitate the Jewish community. As an instance of the confusion and wretchedness that prevailed during the first days after the earthquake, take the case of the only Jewish physician in Tiberias. He is immensely wealthy; his wife and children were killed at his feet, his own leg broken off below the knee, and held fast by the rocks which had fallen upon it. In this condition he continued two whole days, begging and crying for some one to come and take away the few stones that were upon him and set him free. He rose in his offer to three hundred dollars: but to no effect; every one had his own wife, or children, or friends in the same condition, and none would attend. At length the flies got to his wife and children, and to his own wound, when in despair he seized a pole which lay near him and tried to bring down upon his head some stone that lay above him, in order to end both his life and sufferings at the same time. Still, this man is now doing well, and promises soon to recover, In the afternoon we went down to the hot baths, which are not injured in the least, although not more than a mile and a half, from the city, where every wall is thrown down. The rooms attached to the bath are filled with wounded, some of them in a most deplorable condition, to whom we gave medicine and clothes. We all took the bath, but the water was too hot to be either agreeable or healthy. As the thermometer rose to the top of the scale instantly. I have no means of ascertaining how great the heat in the spring is. To me it seemed hotter than when I was here four years ago, and the sulphurous gas escaping from the surface much more offensive. The people informed me that at the time of the earthquake, and for some days subsequent to it, the quantity of water was immensely increased; and it was so hot as to render it impossible to pass along the road across which it flows. This I suppose to have been the fact, but the numerous stories about smoke and boiling water issuing from many places, and fire in others, I believe were mere fabrications. I could find no one who had actually seen these phenomena, although nearly all had heard of them." - Article by William Mclure Thomson in the Missionary Herald (1837:436-437)	VIII+ VIII+ VIII+
Fractured Walls Ruins (collapsed walls) Altered Spring behavior Casualties (due to callpased walls)	Tiberias		"The destruction of life in Tiberias had not been so great as at Safed, but the houses and walls of the city were fearfully shattered. About six hundred perished under the ruins, and there were scenes of individual suffering not exceeded by any in Safed. Many of the wounded had been carried down to the hot baths, where we visited them. They informed me that at the time of the earthquake the quantity of water at these springs was immensely increased, and that it was so hot that people could not pass along the road across which it flowed. This, I suppose, was fact ; but the reports that smoke and boiling water were seen to issue from many places, and flames of fire from others, I believe were either fabrications or at least exaggerations. I could find no one who had actually seen these phenomena, though all had heard of them." - William Mclure Thomson in The Land and the Book (1861:278-279)	VI+ VIII+ VIII+ VIII+
Destruction (collapsed walls)	Tiberias		"the destruction, as we have seen, extended more or less to Tiberias and the region around Nazareth" - Robinson (1856 v.2:420-424)	VIII+
walls cast down to the ground tower damage (displaced walls) galleries and chambers laid open (collapsed walls)	Tiberias		"We did not enter Tiberias, but pitched on the banks of the lake; the earthquake had left the town in ruins, its walls cast down to the ground, its towers split in two, and their galleries and chambers laid open and yawning in mid-air." - Lindsay (1838 v.2:87)	VIII+ VII+ VIII+

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8).

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

• from Zaslavsky et al. (2009a)

Cytryn-Silverman, K, 2015, “Tiberias, from its foundation to the early Islamic period,” in Galilee in the Late Second Temple and Mishnaic Periods Volume 2: The Archaeological Record from Galilean Cities, Towns, and Villages, edited by David A. Fiensy and James Riley Strange, Minneapolis, 2015, pp.186-210.

Ferrario, M. F., et al. (2020). The mid-8th century CE surface faulting along the Dead Sea Fault at Tiberias (Sea of Galilee, Israel) Tectonics Research Article

Zaslavsky et al. (2009a) SITE EFFECT AND SEISMIC HAZARD MICROZONATION ACROSS THE TOWN OF TIBERIAS Geophysical Institute of Israel Report No 502/416/09

Zohar (2017) A city hit by an earthquake: an HGIS approach to reconstructing the damage in Tiberias (Israel) in 1837

Maria Francesca Ferrario at ResearchGate

Webpage for Dr. Katia Cytryn-Silverman at the Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem

academia.edu page for Katia Cytryn

Tiberias at BibleWalks.com

Tiberias South Gate at BibleWalks.com

Tiberias Theater at BibleWalks.com

Hammat Tiberias at BibleWalks.com

Berniki Hill at BibleWalks.com

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