Ottoman Tiberias

Transliterated Name	Language	Name
Tverya	Hebrew	טיבריות
Ṭabariyyā	Arabic	طبريا
Rakkath	Biblical Hebrew (Joshua 19:35)	רקבת
Chamath	Ancient Israelite (Jewish tradition)	חמת
Tiberiás	Ancient Greek	Τιβεριάς
Tiveriáda	Modern Greek	Τιβεριάδα
Tiberiás	Latin	Tiberiás
Tiberias	English	Tiberias

History of Tiberias during the Ottoman Period

from Zohar (2017)

Tiberias was established in 19 CE by Herod Antipas who named it after the Roman emperor Tiberius. Like the rest of Palestine, during the next 1500 years it underwent Roman, Byzantine, Muslim, Crusader and Mamluk regimes (Avi-Yonah 1951, 1980, Gil 1983). In 1517 the Ottomans conquered Palestine and were mostly interested in subjecting Tiberias to the general governance of Damascus. Their interest was smartly manipulated by Dona Gracia, a wealthy Portuguese Jewess from Istanbul (Turkey) who used her influence and connections at the Sultan’s court to increase the Jewish population in the Galilee and to establish Tiberias as a Jewish centre. Ottoman Firmans (written permission) report that between June 1560 and December 1565 Dona Gracia had leased the collection of taxes in Tiberias and a few other villages in the region. The Firmans also imply that she was probably responsible for reconstruction of the surrounding walls of Tiberias in order to increase the security of the inhabitants (Roger 1646, De Aveiro 1927, Heyd 1966).

The prosperity of the Jewish community did not last long and sometime at the beginning of the seventeenth century the Jews were forced to leave due to Ottoman tyranny (Roger 1646, De Thévenot 1971). The turning point for Tiberias was the rule of Dahir al-Umar of the Bedouin Zaydan family. Close to the mid-eighteenth century he gained control of Tiberias and other Galilean regions and gradually accumulated massive power. His dominancy did not escape the eyes of Suleiman, the Pasha of Damascus, who decided to overthrow Dahir’s rule by besieging Tiberias three times: in 1738, 1742 and 1743. The first two sieges were failures and during the last attempt Suleiman died of an intestine illness (Bnayahu 1946, Heyd 1969, Nachshon 1980). The son of Dahir, Chulaybi, had fewer confrontations but, like his father, kept strengthening Tiberias and in 1750 also built a citadel on a hill at the northwest corner of the city (Hasselquist 1766). In October and November 1759, the walls and the Citadel were severely hit by two consecutive earthquakes (Ambraseys and Barazangi 1989, Ambraseys 2009), but were gradually restored towards the end of the nineteenth century (Mariti 1791).

In October 1831 the Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha invaded Palestine on his way north and in May 1833 he completed the conquest of Syria and Palestine. In 1834 another damaging earthquake struck Palestine but no damage to Tiberias or northern Palestine was reported (Ambraseys 2009). In the same year a Fellahin rebellion erupted in the mountainous areas of Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Nablus, Transjordan and northern Galilee. The rebels took over Tiberias for a short period but the Egyptians, with reinforcements from the south, eventually managed to gain back control of the city (Ben-Zvi 1954). From that year until the 1837 earthquake the city remained under Egyptian rule.

Description of pre 1837 CE Tiberias

from Zohar (2017:6-12)

Maps and Figures

Normal Size

Table 1 Localities reported
Table 1

Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake.
- Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6)
- Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage
  
  N (no damage)
  
  S (slight damage)
  
  P (partial damage)
  
  T (total destruction)
Zohar (2017)
as damaged in 1837 CE Safed Quake and Legend/Key to sites in the Map in Figure 6 - from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Map of Tiberias

Fig. 6

Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1).

The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848).

Zohar (2017)

before the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 3D reconstruction
Fig. 7

3D view of Tiberias
1. Before the earthquake, superimposed on a topographic (DEM) surface
2. after the earthquake overlain on a geological surface layer
  
  Al: Alluvium, colluvium, soil
  
  Nbg: Bira and Gesher formations
  
  Pβc: cover basalt
Prominent features (Table 1) are labelled in black. Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls.

Zohar (2017)
of Tiberias before and after the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)

Magnified

Table 1 Localities reported
Table 1

Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake.
- Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6)
- Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage
  
  N (no damage)
  
  S (slight damage)
  
  P (partial damage)
  
  T (total destruction)
Zohar (2017)
as damaged in 1837 CE Safed Quake and Legend/Key to sites in the Map in Figure 6 - from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Map of Tiberias

Fig. 6

Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1).

The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848).

Zohar (2017)

before the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 3D reconstruction
Fig. 7

3D view of Tiberias
1. Before the earthquake, superimposed on a topographic (DEM) surface
2. after the earthquake overlain on a geological surface layer
  
  Al: Alluvium, colluvium, soil
  
  Nbg: Bira and Gesher formations
  
  Pβc: cover basalt
Prominent features (Table 1) are labelled in black. Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls.

Zohar (2017)
of Tiberias before and after the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)

Discussion

Much of the sources divide their descriptions of the city by the existing ethnic groups at the time, i.e., Jews, Muslims and Christians. Along almost the entire nineteenth century each of these groups resided in a different and separated area within the city. Consequently, the reconstruction of the Tiberias cityscape and the following damage analyses was carried out in light of this sub-division of the city. A summary of the prominent structures, the reconstructed 2D map and the 3D models appear in Table 1, Figures 6 and 7, respectively.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century Tiberias was a desolated city situated on the western shores of the Sea of Galilee (Figure 6) (Volney 1788, Richardson 1822, Irby and Mangles 1823). Roughly, the city was divided into three quarters:

the Muslims resided mainly at the northwestern area
the Jews occupied an isolated quarter at the eastern side close to the shore
several dozen Christians lived in the southern end of the city (Avissar 1973, Schur 1987, Ben-Yaakov 2001).

The total area of the city did not exceed a quarter of a square kilometre and contained only a few hundred dwellings (Pococke 1745, Mariti 1791, Wilson 1823, Mendel 1839). A significant part of the city, in particular in the north, was apparently vacant of buildings and apart from in the Jewish quarter, houses were located far from each other (Richardson 1822, Stephens 1839) . The exact number of houses is not clear but according to the contemporary sources, the number of Jewish, Christian and Muslim buildings ranged between 185–230, 40–80 and 150–250, respectively, and all together between 375–560 houses (Turner 1820, Wilson 1823, Jowett 1826, Horne 1836, Schur 1988). Most of the buildings were built of stone and had 1–2 stories, i.e., roughly were between 3 and 6 m high. Many of the houses had little porches used for sleeping outdoors during the hot summer nights (Turner 1820, Pueckler-Muskau 1844).

The city was surrounded by the mid-eighteenth century walls repaired by Dahir al-Umar and his son Chulaybi. Their thickness ranged between 80 and 120 cm and Birav (Bnayahu 1946) reported that they were so high that ladders were needed to climb over them. Other western travellers estimated their height between 6 and 8 m (Pococke 1745, Hasselquist 1766, Spilsbury 1823, Robinson and Smith 1856). The walls were flanked by 21 circular turrets standing at unequal distances between each other (Irby and Mangles 1823, Jowett 1826). According to Jacotin’s map and Burckhardt’s sketch, there were only two gates to the city: a western main gate and a small southern gate (Jacotin 1799, Burckhardt 1822). Like other Ottoman cities, the citadel on the northern hill of Tiberias protected the town from outer invasions (Pococke 1745, Hasselquist 1766, Clarke 1810– 1823).

There were two mosques in the city: the largest was the al-Zaydani (al-Umari), named after Dahir’s family name, while the other was al-Bahri (the sea mosque), and located south of the Jewish quarter. The Church of St. Peter was situated north of the Jewish quarter but the house of the Catholic priest, however, was at the southern end of the city.

Additional Ottoman buildings, located in the Muslim quarter close to the western gate, were the houses of the Aga (governor house or Seraiah), the Kadi, the Imam and the army commander (Schur 1987, Abbasi 2006) . A small bazaar decorated by massive vaults was located in the centre of the city. Other vaulted arches were located at the southern shoreline facing the sea (Burckhardt 1822).

The Jewish quarter occupied a portion of the city close to the shore. It was surrounded by a high wall with a western entrance gate, which was regularly shut at sunset. Apparently, there were at least two synagogues and a ‘Kolell’ (a Jewish school) within the quarter and probably another one at the southern end of the city: Stephens reported on two synagogues and two schools and Jowett reported on two schools and three synagogues. I assume that the ‘Kollell’ reported in 1833 in the letter of Rabbi Yaa’kov Menlis, is the ‘Reysin’ Kollell, located close to Menahem Mendel’s house (Stephens 1839, Jowett 1826, Robinson and Smith 1856, David Debith Hillel in Ya’ari 1976, pp. 512–514, Scholz 1822, de Gramb 1840, Schur 2002). Although Christians lived mainly in southern Tiberias, there were also a few dwellings of Jews there: von Puckler Muskau reported that a wealthy Jew (Hayim Weisman?) had 21 houses to let. He does not mention their exact location but since there are no reports of hotels in the Jewish quarter, I assume they were located in the southern part of the city (Pueckler-Muskau 1844). Located about half a kilometre south of the city were the Jewish and Muslim cemeteries and about one kilometre further south the thermal baths for local and touristic use (Seetzen 1810, Robinson and Smith 1841). North of the city there were several sacred tombs (Mendel 1839, Robinson and Smith 1856, Guerin 1880) and west of it a small agricultural area. One major road led to the city from the south and two others from the west (Jacotin 1799, Buckingham 1822, Olin 1844).

Tiberias - Introduction Webpage

from Tiberias - Introduction - click link to open new tab

Maps and Aerial Views

Maps

Normal Size

Fig. 1a Regional Damage

Fig. 1a

Damage distribution in Ottoman Palestine and its close surroundings caused by the 1837 earthquake (Ambraseys 1997, 2009) and classified by the degree of severity (Zohar et al. 2013);

Zohar (2017)

Distribution from the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Map of Tiberias

Fig. 6

Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848).

Zohar (2017)

before the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 Map of damage in

Fig. 8

The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7).

Zohar (2017)

Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)

Magnified

Fig. 1a Regional Damage

Fig. 1a

Damage distribution in Ottoman Palestine and its close surroundings caused by the 1837 earthquake (Ambraseys 1997, 2009) and classified by the degree of severity (Zohar et al. 2013);

Zohar (2017)

Distribution from the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Map of Tiberias

Fig. 6

Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848).

Zohar (2017)

before the 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 Map of damage in

Fig. 8

The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7).

Zohar (2017)

Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake from Zohar (2017)

Aerial Views

Normal Size

Fig. 1b Satellite View of

Fig. 1b

General overview of the old city of Tiberias.

Zohar (2017)

the Old City of Tiberias from Zohar (2017)
The "Old City" of Tiberias in Google Earth

The "Old City" of Tiberias

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The "Old City" of Tiberias on govmap.gov.il

The "Old City" of Tiberias

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Magnified

Fig. 1b Satellite View of

Fig. 1b

General overview of the old city of Tiberias.

Zohar (2017)

the Old City of Tiberias from Zohar (2017)

1837 CE Safed Quake

Chronology is well established as damage and destruction in Tiberias due to the 1837 CE Safed Quake was described and recorded by several contemporaneous sources based on first hand accounts - some of which are listed below:

Source	Report	Notes
Article in the Missionary Herald by William McClure Thomson	The first day of this year (1837 CE) will be long remembered as the anniversary of one of the most violent and destructive earthquakes which this country has ever experienced
The Times (of London)	A LIST OF TOWNS ETC., DESTROYED OR INJURED IN SYRIA BY THE EARTHQUAKE ON THE 1st OF JANUARY

1837 CE Safed Quake

Seismic Effects Table

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Damaged and Tilted Walls	Citadel Walls (P1) and turrets (T4-T7) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017) Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	the citadel, the surrounding public structures, walls and turrets were damaged but parts of them still remained (drawing 16, 25, 26, 28, 30 and 35 and photograph 44, Supplemental material). The walls were damaged unequally: little damage was observed in the northern part of the walls; the southern part was considerably damaged but parts of it still remained; the western part collapsed almost entirely along with its flanked turrets. Roberts sketched breaches within the walls and a diagonal lean of the southwestern turret¹ (items 19–22, Supplemental material). These damaged structures were never reconstructed and some of them still remain in ruins today (Figure 2). - Zohar (2017:12) 1. Engineers inspecting the turret stated that such a lean could have occurred only by a sudden turbulence and not by gradual subsidence because of the water (Shohat and Levi, personal communication, 2014) - Zohar (2017:footnote 1)
Sheared Wall	Southern turret in Southern Wall Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Sheared turret in Tiberias' southern Wall Photo by Jefferson Williams on 11 June 2023 Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)
Dome collapse	al-Zaydani Mosque (M1) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017) Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Inside the city, the al-Zaydani Mosque was damaged and its dome collapsed. Its minaret, however, still remained - Zohar (2017:12) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)
Minaret Collapse	al-Bahri Mosque (M2) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	the minaret of al-Bahri Mosque did not escape the damage (Robinson and Smith 1841, Olin 1844). - Zohar (2017:12-13) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)
Vault Destruction - completely or badly destroyed	Vaulted Bazaar (P7) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	The vaulted bazaar was damaged but there are no other specific details (Israel of Shklov 1837). I assume, however, that it was completely or badly destroyed for it is not apparent in the drawings of Lehoux and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16 and 19–22). - Zohar (2017:13)
Damaged Arches	Vaulted Arcs (P8) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	The vaulted arcs in the south of the city were probably damaged as well; Roberts depicted them as damaged and this is also apparent in a twentieth century photograph (Supplemental material, items 20 and 45, respectively). - Zohar (2017:13)
Collapsed Walls	dwellings Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	apparently, most of the Tiberias dwellings were completely destroyed while public buildings escaped the damage. The drawings of Lehoux, Roberts, Bernatz and Munk (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22 and 25, respectively) demonstrate that the Christian and Muslim quarters were almost completely destroyed and shortly after the earthquake were left with only a few standing dwellings - Zohar (2017:12) The Jewish quarter, as reflected in various post-1837 drawings, seems to be less damaged than the Christian and Muslim quarters; Lehoux, Lintch and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16, 20, 21, 22 and 32) depicted the Jewish quarter with more standing dwellings than in the other quarters. Further search through the visual sources to locate the remains of the walls surrounding the Jewish quarter produced no results; they may have been completely destroyed beyond repair. - Zohar (2017:13)
Damaged Walls	City Walls (W1-21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls - Zohar (2017:Figure 7 caption)
Damaged Walls	Turrets (T1-20) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Tilted Wall	Leaning Turret (T21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Slight Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) JW:Some of the lean could be due to differential subsidence and/or undercutting by wave action
Collapsed Wall	Main Gate (G1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. JW: Gate G1 is 'missing' Zohar (2017)	Total destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Damaged Walls	Southern Gate (G2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Walls of the Jewish Quarter (JW1-2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Gate of the Jewish Quarter (JG1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Etz-Ha'yim ('Sephardim') Synagogue (S1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Collapsed Walls	Hasidim' Synagogue (S2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)
Casualties	Tiberias Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	The total number of casualties during the earthquake is not clear: while the official report of Suleiman Pasha numbers 922 victims, other estimations range between 700 and 2000. The eyewitness Calman reported that the number of Jewish victims was significantly greater than that of the Muslims and Christians. This report conforms to the report of Robinson from 1838 that numbers less Jewish families than Muslim families, although before the earthquake Jews were considered to be the majority in Tiberias (de Gramb 1840, Horne 1836, Debith-Hillel in Ya’ari 1976). - Zohar (2017:13)

Localities reported as damaged

Table 1

Table 1 from Zohar (2017)

Damage in Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake

Table 1

Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake.

Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6)
Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage
- N (no damage)
- S (slight damage)
- P (partial damage)
- T (total destruction)

Zohar (2017)

Google Sheet

Damage by Quarter

Table 2 from Zohar (2017)

Damage in Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake according to Ethnic Quarter

Table 2

The number of damaged dwellings and structures in the Tiberias quarters classified by an estimated damage degree. Note that the maximal degree of damage in the Jewish quarter is less than that of the Muslim and Christian quarters. See also Figure 8.

Zohar (2017)

Spatial Distribution of Damage and Potential Site Effects

from Zohar (2017:13-15)

Figures

Image	Figure	Description	Source
Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2a	al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2b	the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2c	al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2d	remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2e	Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2f	one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Table 1	Damage Table	Zohar (2017)
Table 2 The number of damaged dwellings and structures in the Tiberias quarters classified by an estimated damage degree. Note that the maximal degree of damage in the Jewish quarter is less than that of the Muslim and Christian quarters. See also Figure 8. Zohar (2017)	Table 2	Damage in the Quarters	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Figure 6	Tiberias before the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 3D view of Tiberias Before the earthquake, superimposed on a topographic (DEM) surface after the earthquake overlain on a geological surface layer Al: Alluvium, colluvium, soil Nbg: Bira and Gesher formations Pβc: cover basalt Prominent features (Table 1) are labelled in black. Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls. Zohar (2017)	Figure 7	3D reconstruction of Tiberias before and after the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7). Zohar (2017)	Figure 8	Map of damage in Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)

Discussion

Rotating the models enabled a 360° examination of damage from almost any direction, even from spots that were not covered by the nineteenth century artists, such as an eastern spot in the Sea of Galilee or aerial views. The two models of before and after the earthquakes were compared (Figure 7) in order to identify the structural damage and examine its spread (Figure 8). It seems that although the Tiberias area was relatively small, the spread of the damage as well as its severity was not uniform. This is clearly observed particularly along the walls and between the residential quarters of the city. In general, such variability in damage within a small area may imply different local site attributes, whereas the distance from the epicentre and the directivity effect are almost identical in any spot within that area. Among the most influencing site attributes, one can count the construction quality, surface geology and topography (Zaslavsky et al. 2000). The latter two can hardly explain the differences whereas almost the whole of Tiberias is situated on basalt rocks (Pβc) and apart from the moderate northern slopes, the city lies on a flat plain (Figures. 7(a,b)). The construction quality, however, varies and manifests several structural styles for residential dwellings, religious structures and government buildings (Figure 2). Unfortunately, at this stage there is no reasonable understanding of the vulnerability and resistance of these structures to earthquake shaking. Yet, it is still possible to classify Tiberias’s structures into two groups.

The first, which was probably more resistant to earthquake shaking, includes the Citadel, walls, turrets and government buildings such as the Seraiah and Kadi houses Most of them, although badly damaged, remained partially standing, even in cases where they were located on a hill in the north of the city. This is, of course, no surprise for these structures were built in advance to withstand outer attacks and thus were probably quite stable. Yet, there is a prominent exception that deserves attention: The western part of the walls (between turrets T-12 and T-16), although built of the same materials and quality as the rest of the walls, collapsed completely, while the northern part, built on a slope, was only slightly damaged. Figure 8 portrays the spread of the damage in relation to the surface geology and suspected active faults. Accordingly, the majority of Tiberias is located on a single geologic foundation of basalt rocks but close to the western walls, there is a fault. This fault, suspected to be active (Sagy et al. 2013), crosses the southern walls between T16–T17 and runs parallel to the western walls for about 200 m within the proximity of only 50 m. In addition, the fault runs in between the basalt and alluvium lithologies and perhaps this transition zone contributed to the increase of the damage. However, further site-specific investigation, which is beyond the scope of this study, is needed to verify the mechanical role of this fault and the lithological contrast in the stability of the western walls and the nearby structures.

The second group includes dwellings and residential houses, most of which were completely damaged beyond repair. The damage in this category varies. The Jewish quarter seems to be slightly less damaged than the other quarters (Table 2) although the number of Jewish victims was greater (Robinson and Smith 1841). The explanation for this contradiction is not clear at this stage. Located along the shores of the lake, the Jewish quarter was more populated and clustered than the others and thus the dwellings in it were most likely of different architectural styles. In addition, a large part of the Muslim quarter in the north end of the city was located on a sloped hill whereas the Jewish and Christian quarters were located on a plain surface (Figure 7(a)). Thus, these factors also may have influenced the resistance to damage, but until the Ottoman construction styles are fully characterized, resolving this damage differentiation is rather complex.

The gates of the city did not withstand the earthquake and collapsed. Since the walls were never repaired, over the years some of the breaches were enlarged, probably by human activity, resulting in new entrances to the city (Guerin 1880). In late nineteenth century maps (Supplemental material, items 36, 40, 41 and 42), the southern entrance to the city is located between T-17 and T-18, some 50 m west of the original southern gate (Figure 6). At the north of the city, a new entrance and a trail leading to it appeared between T-2 and T-3. These two entrances and roads still exist today and constitute two of the major transportation entries to the city. The roads to Tiberias are an example of how a catastrophe such as an earthquake may divert and influence the morphology of a city for many years after.

1837 CE Safed Quake

Entire City

from Fig. 8 of Zohar (2017)

Fig. 8

The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7).

Zohar (2017)

1837 CE Safed Quake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Damaged and Tilted Walls	Citadel Walls (P1) and turrets (T4-T7) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017) Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	the citadel, the surrounding public structures, walls and turrets were damaged but parts of them still remained (drawing 16, 25, 26, 28, 30 and 35 and photograph 44, Supplemental material). The walls were damaged unequally: little damage was observed in the northern part of the walls; the southern part was considerably damaged but parts of it still remained; the western part collapsed almost entirely along with its flanked turrets. Roberts sketched breaches within the walls and a diagonal lean of the southwestern turret¹ (items 19–22, Supplemental material). These damaged structures were never reconstructed and some of them still remain in ruins today (Figure 2). - Zohar (2017:12) 1. Engineers inspecting the turret stated that such a lean could have occurred only by a sudden turbulence and not by gradual subsidence because of the water (Shohat and Levi, personal communication, 2014) - Zohar (2017:footnote 1)	VII +
Sheared Wall	Southern turret in Southern Wall Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Sheared turret in Tiberias' southern Wall Photo by Jefferson Williams on 11 June 2023 Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)		VIII +
Dome collapse	al-Zaydani Mosque (M1) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017) Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017) Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017) Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Inside the city, the al-Zaydani Mosque was damaged and its dome collapsed. Its minaret, however, still remained - Zohar (2017:12) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)	VIII +
Minaret Collapse	al-Bahri Mosque (M2) Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	the minaret of al-Bahri Mosque did not escape the damage (Robinson and Smith 1841, Olin 1844). - Zohar (2017:12-13) The drawings of Lehoux, Bernatz, Roberts, Munk, Bartlett, Lynch, Spencer and van de Velde (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22, 25, 31, 32, 33 and 35, respectively) depict the minaret of al-Zaydani still standing but no dome and no minaret at al-Bahri mosque. This is also apparent in a late nineteenth century photograph of Bonfils (Supplemental material, item 39). - Zohar (2017:12-13)	VI-VII +
Vault Destruction - completely or badly destroyed	Vaulted Bazaar (P7) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	The vaulted bazaar was damaged but there are no other specific details (Israel of Shklov 1837). I assume, however, that it was completely or badly destroyed for it is not apparent in the drawings of Lehoux and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16 and 19–22). - Zohar (2017:13)	VIII +
Damaged Arches	Vaulted Arcs (P8) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017) Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017) Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	The vaulted arcs in the south of the city were probably damaged as well; Roberts depicted them as damaged and this is also apparent in a twentieth century photograph (Supplemental material, items 20 and 45, respectively). - Zohar (2017:13)	VI +
Collapsed Walls	dwellings Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	apparently, most of the Tiberias dwellings were completely destroyed while public buildings escaped the damage. The drawings of Lehoux, Roberts, Bernatz and Munk (Supplemental material, items 16, 18, 19–22 and 25, respectively) demonstrate that the Christian and Muslim quarters were almost completely destroyed and shortly after the earthquake were left with only a few standing dwellings - Zohar (2017:12) The Jewish quarter, as reflected in various post-1837 drawings, seems to be less damaged than the Christian and Muslim quarters; Lehoux, Lintch and Roberts (Supplemental material, items 16, 20, 21, 22 and 32) depicted the Jewish quarter with more standing dwellings than in the other quarters. Further search through the visual sources to locate the remains of the walls surrounding the Jewish quarter produced no results; they may have been completely destroyed beyond repair. - Zohar (2017:13)	VIII +
Damaged Walls	City Walls (W1-21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017) Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017) Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls - Zohar (2017:Figure 7 caption)	VII-VIII +
Damaged Walls	Turrets (T1-20) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VII +
Tilted Wall	Leaning Turret (T21) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017) Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Slight Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1) JW:Some of the lean could be due to differential subsidence and/or undercutting by wave action	VI +
Collapsed Wall	Main Gate (G1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017) Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. JW: Gate G1 is 'missing' Zohar (2017)	Total destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Damaged Walls	Southern Gate (G2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Partial Damage - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VII +
Collapsed Walls	Walls of the Jewish Quarter (JW1-2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Gate of the Jewish Quarter (JG1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Etz-Ha'yim ('Sephardim') Synagogue (S1) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +
Collapsed Walls	Hasidim' Synagogue (S2) Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)		Total Destruction - Zohar (2017:Table 1)	VIII +

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Charts, Plots, Maps, Images, etc.

Maps, Images, Tables, etc. from Zohar (2017)

Normal Size

Image	Figure	Description	Source
Fig. 1a Damage distribution in Ottoman Palestine and its close surroundings caused by the 1837 earthquake (Ambraseys 1997, 2009) and classified by the degree of severity (Zohar et al. 2013); Zohar (2017)	Figure 1a	Damage Distribution from the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017)	Figure 1b	Satellite View of the Old City of Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2a	al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2b	the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2c	al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2d	remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2e	Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2f	one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 3 Visual sources used for reconstructing the landscape. On the right: location and azimuth (angle towards Tiberias from the given point) of the visual sources, i.e., air photos, drawings and photographs (Appendix 1). The map also presents topographic contours. On the left: Id – sequential numeration in chronological order (compatible with the numbering in Appendix 1) Item – reference of the source Azimuth – azimuth of drawing/photographing towards Tiberias Type of the source Height – height above sea level Relative height – height above the city of Tiberias (−210 below sea level) Zohar (2017)	Figure 3	Visual sources used for reconstructing the landscape	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 5 Detecting Tiberias features in visual sources (example, northern view) 1828 (item 8, Appendix 1) 3D model of the city prior to the earthquake 1837 (item 18, Appendix 1) 3D model of the city after the earthquake Note the simultaneous detection of the depicted features in Figure C and in the model (Figure D). Zohar (2017)	Figure 5	Feature Detection	Zohar (2017)
Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Table 1	Damage Table	Zohar (2017)
Table 2 The number of damaged dwellings and structures in the Tiberias quarters classified by an estimated damage degree. Note that the maximal degree of damage in the Jewish quarter is less than that of the Muslim and Christian quarters. See also Figure 8. Zohar (2017)	Table 2	Damage in the Quarters	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Figure 6	Tiberias before the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 3D view of Tiberias Before the earthquake, superimposed on a topographic (DEM) surface after the earthquake overlain on a geological surface layer Al: Alluvium, colluvium, soil Nbg: Bira and Gesher formations Pβc: cover basalt Prominent features (Table 1) are labelled in black. Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls. Zohar (2017)	Figure 7	3D reconstruction of Tiberias before and after the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7). Zohar (2017)	Figure 8	Map of damage in Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)

Magnified

Image	Figure	Description	Source
Fig. 1a Damage distribution in Ottoman Palestine and its close surroundings caused by the 1837 earthquake (Ambraseys 1997, 2009) and classified by the degree of severity (Zohar et al. 2013); Zohar (2017)	Figure 1a	Damage Distribution from the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 1b General overview of the old city of Tiberias. Zohar (2017)	Figure 1b	Satellite View of the Old City of Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2a al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2a	al-Zaydani Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2b the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2b	the Citadel in Tiberias where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2c al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2c	al-Bahri Mosque in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2d remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow). Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2d	remains of the massive vaults in southern Tiberias (noted by red arrow)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2e Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2e	Etz-Hay’im Synagogue in Tiberias	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2f one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls. Photograph: Motti Zohar, 2015 Zohar (2017)	Figure 2f	one of the southern damaged turrets in Tiberias’s walls where 1837 earthquake damage is apparent	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 3 Visual sources used for reconstructing the landscape. On the right: location and azimuth (angle towards Tiberias from the given point) of the visual sources, i.e., air photos, drawings and photographs (Appendix 1). The map also presents topographic contours. On the left: Id – sequential numeration in chronological order (compatible with the numbering in Appendix 1) Item – reference of the source Azimuth – azimuth of drawing/photographing towards Tiberias Type of the source Height – height above sea level Relative height – height above the city of Tiberias (−210 below sea level) Zohar (2017)	Figure 3	Visual sources used for reconstructing the landscape	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 5 Detecting Tiberias features in visual sources (example, northern view) 1828 (item 8, Appendix 1) 3D model of the city prior to the earthquake 1837 (item 18, Appendix 1) 3D model of the city after the earthquake Note the simultaneous detection of the depicted features in Figure C and in the model (Figure D). Zohar (2017)	Figure 5	Feature Detection	Zohar (2017)
Table 1 Localities in Tiberias reported to be damaged during the 1837 earthquake. Symbol: identification of the structure (as mapped in Figure 6) Damage: a rough estimation of the scope of the damage N (no damage) S (slight damage) P (partial damage) T (total destruction) Zohar (2017)	Table 1	Damage Table	Zohar (2017)
Table 2 The number of damaged dwellings and structures in the Tiberias quarters classified by an estimated damage degree. Note that the maximal degree of damage in the Jewish quarter is less than that of the Muslim and Christian quarters. See also Figure 8. Zohar (2017)	Table 2	Damage in the Quarters	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 Tiberias and its major features prior to the 1837 earthquake (for notations see Table 1). The city interior was compiled using pre-1837 drawings (Appendix 1), maps of Palestine (1938), PEF (1918), Burckhardt (1822) and historical accounts (Mariti 1791, Clarke 1810–1823, Light 1818, Turner 1820, Buckingham 1822, Richardson 1822, Scholz 1822, Wilson 1823, Carne 1826, Jowett 1826, Maden 1829, Madox 1834, Horne 1836, Stephens 1839, Kinglake 1848). Zohar (2017)	Figure 6	Tiberias before the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 3D view of Tiberias Before the earthquake, superimposed on a topographic (DEM) surface after the earthquake overlain on a geological surface layer Al: Alluvium, colluvium, soil Nbg: Bira and Gesher formations Pβc: cover basalt Prominent features (Table 1) are labelled in black. Note that the majority of Tiberias is located on basalt rocks and note the extensive damage along the fault that crosses the western walls. Zohar (2017)	Figure 7	3D reconstruction of Tiberias before and after the 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 The spread of the earthquake damage that resulted in Tiberias by comparing the two HGIS models of before and after the earthquake (Figure 7). Zohar (2017)	Figure 8	Map of damage in Tiberias due to 1837 CE Safed Quake	Zohar (2017)

Old Drawings, Maps, and Photos from Zohar (2017) Supplemental

Normal Size

Image	Figure	Description	Source
Fig. 1 1681: Tiberias walls before the reconstruction of Dahir al-Umar. Note the church of St. Peter (C1) and the probable location of the Jewish quarter (de-Bruyn, 1702) Zohar (2017)	Figure 1	Painting of Tiberias in 1681 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2 1799: Tiberias at the end of the 18th century as mapped by Jacotin for military purposes. Note the roads leading to the city and the fact that there is no road entering Tiberias from the north. See also the location of the main (G1) and southern (G2) gates (Jacotin, 1799) Zohar (2017)	Figure 2	Map of Tiberias in 1799 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 3 1810-12: Tiberias at the beginning of the 19th century (in brackets - identification according to Table 3) the town gate [the western gate, G1] the Seraiah or palace of the Musellim [the citadel, P1] the mosque [al-Zaydani mosque, M1] the Catholic church [St. Peter church, C1] the gate of the Jewish quarter [JG1] a mosque [probably al-Bahri mosque, M2] a range of large vaults [P8) a small town‐gate now walled up [the southern gate, G2] newly built bazaar [P7] (Burckhardt, 1822) Note that Burckhardt confuses the number of turrets (counts 25 instead of 21) and neglects a northern turret (T1) Zohar (2017)	Figure 3	Map of Tiberias in 1810-1812 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017)	Figure 4	al-Zaydani Mosque in 1814 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 5 1816: Buckingham draws the citadel (P1) as having only one turret but the other turrets (e.g., T10, T16, T20, T21) seems to be drawn correctly. Note the al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Buckingham, 1822). Zohar (2017)	Figure 5	Painting of Tiberias in 1816 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 1822: al-Zaydani (M1) and al-Bahri (M2) mosques. The minaret of al-Zaydani is portrayed relatively high above the dome. Note the possible identification of St. Peter church (C1) (Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017)	Figure 6	Painting of Tiberias in 1822 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Figure 7	Painting of Tiberias in 1828 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 1828: Tiberias from the west (de Laborde, 1837). Note the accuracy in counting the turrets: six (T16-T21) at the south of the city and six (T10‐T15) at its western side. Zohar (2017)	Figure 8	Painting of Tiberias in 1828 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 9 1832: The city drawn from the north (Russell, 1832). Zohar (2017)	Figure 9	Painting of Tiberias in 1832 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 10 1833: Sketch of Tiberias drawn from northeast of the city. Despite the exaggerated topography one can detect prominent features, e.g., the western main gate (G1) and the surrounding turrets. Note that two minarets appear, probably of the al-Zaydani (M1) and al-Bahri (M2) mosques (Skinner, 1836). Zohar (2017)	Figure 10	Painting of Tiberias in 1833 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 11	Painting of Tiberias in 1835 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 12 Prior to 1837 (1835?): Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee. No significant identification of features (Thomas Allom in Carne, 1838). Zohar (2017)	Figure 12	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE (1835?)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 13 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Lindsay, 1858). The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date is unresolved. The drawing appears only in the 5th edition of the book of Lord Lindsay published in 1858. However, Lindsay visited Palestine only after the earthquake, in 1837 and 1847. Thus, in my opinion, it was copied from a previous drawing, perhaps from Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 13	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 14 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the north (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 14	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 15	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 16	Painting of Tiberias in 1837 CE after the earthquake compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Figure 17	Painting of Tiberias before 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. Zohar (2017)	Figure 18	Painting of Tiberias in 1837 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 19	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 20	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 21 1839c: The western walls are drawn as partially ruined (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 21	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Figure 22	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 23 1840: Tiberias from the south, probably from a spot close to the thermal baths. The depiction of the city is vague but one can detect the citadel (P1) drawn as slightly damaged and few turrets (T1, T2 and T21) (Egerton, 1841) Zohar (2017)	Figure 23	Painting of Tiberias in 1840 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 24 1841: Tiberias from the south by Barnes (1841). Although few features are depicted differently, it seems that this drawing was copied from the drawing of Egerton (1841). Yet, note that in this drawing the lean of T1 and T2 is clearly seen. Zohar (2017)	Figure 24	Painting of Tiberias in 1841 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017)	Figure 25	Painting of Tiberias in 1841 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017)	Figure 26	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 27 1842b: Tiberias drawn from the thermal baths. Note the four turrets that erect above the others (probably ruined) and remains of damaged walls (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 27	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 28 1842c: Tiberias from the west. Several turrets seem to be relatively higher than the others and in the western walls large breaches appear (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 28	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 29 1842d: Tiberias view drawn from the citadel of Safed. Note the citadel of Tiberias (P1) (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 29	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 30	Sketch of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 31	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017)	Figure 32	Drawing of Tiberias in 1848 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 33	Painting of Tiberias in 1849 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 34 1851: The citadel of Tiberias from the north (Schulz, 1852). One can observe a trail leading from the shore of the lake of Galilee into the city. Zohar (2017)	Figure 34	Painting of Tiberias in 1851 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	Figure 35	Painting of Tiberias in 1851-52 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 36 1856 (?): the region surrounding the Sea of Galilee (Robinson & Smith, 1856) Zohar (2017)	Figure 36	Map of the region in 1856 (?) CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 37 1860: Tiberias from the south (Strauss, 1861). Zohar (2017)	Figure 37	Painting of Tiberias in 1860 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)	Figure 38	Drawing of Tiberias in 1863 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Figure 39	Photo of Tiberias c.1870 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 40 1880: Map of the Sea of Galilee and Tiberias (Lvov, 1880). Zohar (2017)	Figure 40	Map of the Sea of Galilee and Tiberias in 1681 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 41 1880: Tiberias and its close vicinity (PEF, 1918). Zohar (2017)	Figure 41	Map of Tiberias and vicinity 1880 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 42 1885 (?): Tiberias towards the end of the 19th century (Frei, 1885). Zohar (2017)	Figure 42	Plan of Tiberias in 1885 (?)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 43 1900-1920: (ACPD, 1900‐1920). Zohar (2017)	Figure 43	Aerial Photo of of Tiberias 1900-1920 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 44 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914a): large breaches in the western walls, similar to the drawings of Lehoux 1837 (item 16). Note the new dome of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) and that there is no minaret to al-Bahri mosque. Turrets T16-T17 marks the transitions between unharmed and harmed part of the southern wall. A southern road entering the city, probably an expansion of a large breach in the walls, is clearly observed. Zohar (2017)	Figure 44	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1914 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	Figure 45	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1914 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 46 1898-1946: (ACPD, 1898-1946b) Zohar (2017)	Figure 46	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1946 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 47 1898-1946: (ACPD, 1898-1946a) Zohar (2017)	Figure 47	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1946 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 48 . 1931: air photo of Tiberias taken from north of the city (ACPD, 1931a). The W2 part of the walls seems to be compatible with the drawing of Bartlett (item 26) and strengthens the claim that the northern parts of the walls were not affected significantly. Other breaches in the northern walls (E.g., the breach of the northern road to the city) might have been extended only after the event. The red dotted line assists in geo-tagging the location of the photographing camera/airplane (Fig. 3) Zohar (2017)	Figure 48	Aerial Photo of Tiberias 1931 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 49 1931: air photo of Tiberias taken south of the city (ACPD, 1931b). Note that some dwellings at the beginning of the 20th century were built on top of existing turrets (e.g., T19 and T20). The red dotted line assists in geo-tagging the location of the photographing camera/airplane (Fig. 3) Zohar (2017)	Figure 49	Aerial Photo of Tiberias 1931 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 50 1938: British map of Survey of Palestine, 1938 (Survey of Palestine, 1938) Zohar (2017)	Figure 50	Map of Tiberias in 1938 CE	Zohar (2017)

Magnified

Image	Figure	Description	Source
Fig. 1 1681: Tiberias walls before the reconstruction of Dahir al-Umar. Note the church of St. Peter (C1) and the probable location of the Jewish quarter (de-Bruyn, 1702) Zohar (2017)	Figure 1	Painting of Tiberias in 1681 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 2 1799: Tiberias at the end of the 18th century as mapped by Jacotin for military purposes. Note the roads leading to the city and the fact that there is no road entering Tiberias from the north. See also the location of the main (G1) and southern (G2) gates (Jacotin, 1799) Zohar (2017)	Figure 2	Map of Tiberias in 1799 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 3 1810-12: Tiberias at the beginning of the 19th century (in brackets - identification according to Table 3) the town gate [the western gate, G1] the Seraiah or palace of the Musellim [the citadel, P1] the mosque [al-Zaydani mosque, M1] the Catholic church [St. Peter church, C1] the gate of the Jewish quarter [JG1] a mosque [probably al-Bahri mosque, M2] a range of large vaults [P8) a small town‐gate now walled up [the southern gate, G2] newly built bazaar [P7] (Burckhardt, 1822) Note that Burckhardt confuses the number of turrets (counts 25 instead of 21) and neglects a northern turret (T1) Zohar (2017)	Figure 3	Map of Tiberias in 1810-1812 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 4 1814: al-Zaydani mosque drawn from close range within the city itself (Light, 1818). Note the relatively large dome also present in other pre-1837 drawings (e.g., Buckingham, 1822; Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837; Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017)	Figure 4	al-Zaydani Mosque in 1814 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 5 1816: Buckingham draws the citadel (P1) as having only one turret but the other turrets (e.g., T10, T16, T20, T21) seems to be drawn correctly. Note the al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Buckingham, 1822). Zohar (2017)	Figure 5	Painting of Tiberias in 1816 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 6 1822: al-Zaydani (M1) and al-Bahri (M2) mosques. The minaret of al-Zaydani is portrayed relatively high above the dome. Note the possible identification of St. Peter church (C1) (Wilson, 1823). Zohar (2017)	Figure 6	Painting of Tiberias in 1822 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 7 1828: Tiberias from the south in the book of Leon de Laborde. The latter visited Palestine in 1828 but his book on Syria, Lebanon and Palestine was published only in 1837. The book contains also other artist’s drawings. This drawing was drawn by Marilhat and considered realistic. For example, the number of turrets and location of the citadel are accurate in light of our current knowledge of the Tiberias morphology (Marilhat in de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Figure 7	Painting of Tiberias in 1828 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 8 1828: Tiberias from the west (de Laborde, 1837). Note the accuracy in counting the turrets: six (T16-T21) at the south of the city and six (T10‐T15) at its western side. Zohar (2017)	Figure 8	Painting of Tiberias in 1828 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 9 1832: The city drawn from the north (Russell, 1832). Zohar (2017)	Figure 9	Painting of Tiberias in 1832 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 10 1833: Sketch of Tiberias drawn from northeast of the city. Despite the exaggerated topography one can detect prominent features, e.g., the western main gate (G1) and the surrounding turrets. Note that two minarets appear, probably of the al-Zaydani (M1) and al-Bahri (M2) mosques (Skinner, 1836). Zohar (2017)	Figure 10	Painting of Tiberias in 1833 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 11 1835: The town from the north. Note the turrets and the two minarets of al-Zaydani and al-Bahri mosques (Harding, 1835). The drawing was probably copied from the drawing of Marilhat (in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 11	Painting of Tiberias in 1835 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 12 Prior to 1837 (1835?): Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee. No significant identification of features (Thomas Allom in Carne, 1838). Zohar (2017)	Figure 12	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE (1835?)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 13 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Lindsay, 1858). The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date is unresolved. The drawing appears only in the 5th edition of the book of Lord Lindsay published in 1858. However, Lindsay visited Palestine only after the earthquake, in 1837 and 1847. Thus, in my opinion, it was copied from a previous drawing, perhaps from Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 13	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 14 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the north (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 14	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 15 Prior to 1837: Tiberias from the south (Leitch & Foster, 1855). In my opinion, this is probably a copy of the sketch after Marilhat (de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 15	Painting of Tiberias Prior to 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 16 1837: Tiberias after the earthquake drawn from the south. Note the damage to the citadel (P1), to the walls and to its turrets (T4‐T17). The Jewish quarter is depicted as partially destroyed while in the Muslim and Christian quarters there are hardly any standing dwellings. The drawing seems to be realistic: parts of the walls (e.g., W7b, W8a, and W16) and turrets (e.g., T8, T10 and T16) that were drawn as not destroyed still exist till today (Lehoux in de Laborde, 1837). Zohar (2017)	Figure 16	Painting of Tiberias in 1837 CE after the earthquake compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 17 Before 1837: The drawing portrays Tiberias prior to the earthquake but the date of painting is unresolved. It appears only in the 5th edition of Lindsay (1858). Lindsay visited Palestine twice and only after the earthquake (1837 and 1847) and thus, in my opinion, the drawing is a copy of a previous one, perhaps of Lehoux (de Laborde, 1837) Zohar (2017)	Figure 17	Painting of Tiberias before 1837 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 18 1837: Tiberias from the north, after the voyage of Bernatz and Schubert (Bernatz & Schubert, 1839). The drawing seems to be realistic as prominent features (e.g., W8 and T10) are depicted in similar shape and size as they are today. Zohar (2017)	Figure 18	Painting of Tiberias in 1837 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 19 . 1839a: Damage to the citadel and walls. Note the completeness of the Seraiah (P2) and the presence of the minaret of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 19	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 20 1839b: Tiberias from the south. Note the arched vaults (P8), al-Zaydani mosque and minaret but no dome, the ruined citadel (P1), the Seraiah (P2), a Synagogue (Etz Hayim?, S1), turret T1 in the water, and St. Peter church (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 20	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 21 1839c: The western walls are drawn as partially ruined (Roberts, 1842-1849). Zohar (2017)	Figure 21	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 22 1839d: The citadel (P1) is depicted partially ruined; the Seraiah (P2); the walls that are partially ruined, al-Zaydani mosque without a dome (Roberts, 1842-1849). Note turret T21 leaning towards the east and its lower supporting belt (noted by red arrow). Zohar (2017)	Figure 22	Painting of Tiberias in 1839 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 23 1840: Tiberias from the south, probably from a spot close to the thermal baths. The depiction of the city is vague but one can detect the citadel (P1) drawn as slightly damaged and few turrets (T1, T2 and T21) (Egerton, 1841) Zohar (2017)	Figure 23	Painting of Tiberias in 1840 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 24 1841: Tiberias from the south by Barnes (1841). Although few features are depicted differently, it seems that this drawing was copied from the drawing of Egerton (1841). Yet, note that in this drawing the lean of T1 and T2 is clearly seen. Zohar (2017)	Figure 24	Painting of Tiberias in 1841 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 25 1841: Ruins of Tiberias. The citadel (P1) is depicted as slightly damaged (Munk, 1845). Zohar (2017)	Figure 25	Painting of Tiberias in 1841 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 26 1842a: Tiberias and its citadel in a drawing drawn from the north (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Note the similarity of T4 and T5 to their recent state (upper left corner) and the accuracy of the hatch (red square) as drawn by Bartlett Zohar (2017)	Figure 26	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 27 1842b: Tiberias drawn from the thermal baths. Note the four turrets that erect above the others (probably ruined) and remains of damaged walls (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 27	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 28 1842c: Tiberias from the west. Several turrets seem to be relatively higher than the others and in the western walls large breaches appear (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 28	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 29 1842d: Tiberias view drawn from the citadel of Safed. Note the citadel of Tiberias (P1) (Bartlett in Stebbing, 1847). Zohar (2017)	Figure 29	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 30 1842e: sketch of Tiberias from the west. Large breaches appear in the western and southern walls of the city (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 30	Sketch of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 31 1842f: the leaning turret (T21) and the citadel (P1) (Bartlett, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 31	Painting of Tiberias in 1842 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 32 1848: Tiberias from the north, probably drawn somewhere on the hill of the citadel (Lynch, 1849). Prominent features: the vaulted St. Peter church (C1) Etz-Hayim synagogue (S1) al-Zaydani mosque (M1) Menahem Mendel synagogue (S3) House of Zee’v Woolf (J1) western damaged walls Zohar (2017)	Figure 32	Drawing of Tiberias in 1848 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 33 1849: the road from Safed leading to Tiberias, the citadel and the walls (Spencer, 1850). Zohar (2017)	Figure 33	Painting of Tiberias in 1849 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 34 1851: The citadel of Tiberias from the north (Schulz, 1852). One can observe a trail leading from the shore of the lake of Galilee into the city. Zohar (2017)	Figure 34	Painting of Tiberias in 1851 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 35 1851-52: Tiberias from the south (Van de Velde, 1857). Zohar (2017)	Figure 35	Painting of Tiberias in 1851-52 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 36 1856 (?): the region surrounding the Sea of Galilee (Robinson & Smith, 1856) Zohar (2017)	Figure 36	Map of the region in 1856 (?) CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 37 1860: Tiberias from the south (Strauss, 1861). Zohar (2017)	Figure 37	Painting of Tiberias in 1860 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 38 1863: Tiberias from the western road leading to the main gate. Note the possible identification of turret T17 (Unknown, 1867). In my opinion the drawing was copied from Munk (1845). Zohar (2017)	Figure 38	Drawing of Tiberias in 1863 CE compared to ~2016 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 39 c.1870: a photograph probably taken from the hill of the citadel (Bonfils, 1878?). The northern region was not populated. No minaret of al-Bahri mosque, no dome to al-Zaydani. Zohar (2017)	Figure 39	Photo of Tiberias c.1870 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 40 1880: Map of the Sea of Galilee and Tiberias (Lvov, 1880). Zohar (2017)	Figure 40	Map of the Sea of Galilee and Tiberias in 1681 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 41 1880: Tiberias and its close vicinity (PEF, 1918). Zohar (2017)	Figure 41	Map of Tiberias and vicinity 1880 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 42 1885 (?): Tiberias towards the end of the 19th century (Frei, 1885). Zohar (2017)	Figure 42	Plan of Tiberias in 1885 (?)	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 43 1900-1920: (ACPD, 1900‐1920). Zohar (2017)	Figure 43	Aerial Photo of of Tiberias 1900-1920 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 44 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914a): large breaches in the western walls, similar to the drawings of Lehoux 1837 (item 16). Note the new dome of al-Zaydani mosque (M1) and that there is no minaret to al-Bahri mosque. Turrets T16-T17 marks the transitions between unharmed and harmed part of the southern wall. A southern road entering the city, probably an expansion of a large breach in the walls, is clearly observed. Zohar (2017)	Figure 44	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1914 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 45 1898-1914: (ACPD, 1898-1914b) Zohar (2017)	Figure 45	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1914 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 46 1898-1946: (ACPD, 1898-1946b) Zohar (2017)	Figure 46	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1946 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 47 1898-1946: (ACPD, 1898-1946a) Zohar (2017)	Figure 47	Photo of Tiberias between 1898 and 1946 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 48 . 1931: air photo of Tiberias taken from north of the city (ACPD, 1931a). The W2 part of the walls seems to be compatible with the drawing of Bartlett (item 26) and strengthens the claim that the northern parts of the walls were not affected significantly. Other breaches in the northern walls (E.g., the breach of the northern road to the city) might have been extended only after the event. The red dotted line assists in geo-tagging the location of the photographing camera/airplane (Fig. 3) Zohar (2017)	Figure 48	Aerial Photo of Tiberias 1931 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 49 1931: air photo of Tiberias taken south of the city (ACPD, 1931b). Note that some dwellings at the beginning of the 20th century were built on top of existing turrets (e.g., T19 and T20). The red dotted line assists in geo-tagging the location of the photographing camera/airplane (Fig. 3) Zohar (2017)	Figure 49	Aerial Photo of Tiberias 1931 CE	Zohar (2017)
Fig. 50 1938: British map of Survey of Palestine, 1938 (Survey of Palestine, 1938) Zohar (2017)	Figure 50	Map of Tiberias in 1938 CE	Zohar (2017)

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Zohar (2017) A city hit by an earthquake: an HGIS approach to reconstructing the damage in Tiberias (Israel) in 1837

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Tiberias in the Ottoman Period