Jerusalem has been surrounded by a series of different walls since ancient times. The walls that are currently visible surrounding the Old City were constructed in Ottoman times in the 16th century CE.

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Historical evidence and limited archaeological evidence indicates that Jerusalem's city walls were reconstructed in the late 10th - early 11th century CE - possibly partly in response to seismic damage. Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011:421-423) discussed this.

The Abandonment of the Roman–Byzantine Wall and the Construction of a New Line of Fortifications in the Late Early Islamic Period (Late 10th–Early 11th Century)

The precise date of the abandonment of the Roman–Byzantine wall is difficult to determine. Archaeological finds and historical sources indicate a date around the late 10th or early 11th century C.E. Ceramic finds and coins in earthen layers that abut the wall indicate that the Roman–Byzantine wall was used continuously from the time of its construction until the mid-8th century, after which it was partially damaged, probably by an earthquake (Weksler-Bdolah 2007: 97). Evidence of renovations discovered in several places along its route indicate that the wall continued to be used after the mid-8th century. In 870 C.E., the monk Bernard (Bernardus Monachus) described the Zion Church and the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion as being located within the city (Tobler 1874), thus indicating that at this time the Roman–Byzantine wall was still being used. The archaeological remains of some Early Islamic buildings of the 8th and 9th centuries on the Ophel–– outside the present line of the city walls (Ben Ami and Tchehanovetz 2008) support the assumption that this area was included within the city’s domain at that time, thus indicating that the Roman–Byzantine wall was still being used. Finally, Muqaddasi’s description from 985 C.E. (quoted in le Strange 1890: 212–13) enumerates eight gates within the walls of the city and has been interpreted in the past as referring to the new, shorter line of the city wall that was built on the route of the Ottoman wall (Tsafrir 1977). However, it is possible that Muqaddasi described the Roman–Byzantine city wall that was still in use at the time of his writing (Ben-Dov 1993; Bahat 1986; 2003).

In June 1099, the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem after a long siege. The description of the blockade in the Crusader chronicles indicates that the wall they faced followed a route similar to the present Ottoman walls. It appears, therefore, that during the late 10th or early 11th century, at some time before the Crusaders’ conquest of Jerusalem, the Roman–Byzantine wall was abandoned, and a new, Early Islamic line of walls was erected around Jerusalem. The late Early Islamic (either Abbasid or Fatimid) wall enlarged the city’s area in its northwestern and northeastern corners, whereas in the south, the size of the city was significantly reduced, with the City of David, the Ophel, and Mount Zion left outside the walls.⁵

... Tsafrir (1977: 154) suggested dating the construction of the new Early Islamic wall to the Abbasid period in the late 10th century. A different suggestion has been made by Prawer (1985; 1991) and by Bahat (2003: 63 n. 7), who related the construction of the wall to the Fatimid rulers following the probable destruction of the Roman–Byzantine wall in the earthquake of 1033. Prawer and Bahat relied on historical sources, which attest to the construction and repair of a wall in Jerusalem between 1033 and 1063 (Prawer 1991: 5). Yahya Ibn Saʿid of Antioch, for example, described the renovation of Jerusalem’s walls during the reign of the Early Islamic Sultan al-Zahir. He specifically mentioned that “the oficers in charge intended to destroy the church of Mount Zion, as well as other churches, so as to bring their stones to the wall.” 6 It is therefore apparent that the new perimeter left the churches on Mount Zion outside the new line of the walls (Prawer 1985: 2; 1991: 5). Furthermore, the testimony by Nasir-i-Khusraw, from the year 1047, 7 describes Tsafrir (1977: 154) suggested dating the construction of the new Early Islamic wall to the Abbasid period in the late 10th century. A different suggestion has been made by Prawer (1985; 1991) and by Bahat (2003: 63 n. 7), who related the construction of the wall to the Fatimid rulers following the probable destruction of the Roman–Byzantine wall in the earthquake of 1033. Prawer and Bahat relied on historical sources, which attest to the construction and repair of a wall in Jerusalem between 1033 and 1063 (Prawer 1991: 5). Yahya Ibn Saʿid of Antioch, for example, described the renovation of Jerusalem’s walls during the reign of the Early Islamic Sultan al-Zahir. He specifically mentioned that “the officers in charge intended to destroy the church of Mount Zion, as well as other churches, so as to bring their stones to the wall.”⁶ It is therefore apparent that the new perimeter left the churches on Mount Zion outside the new line of the walls (Prawer 1985: 2; 1991: 5). Furthermore, the testimony by Nasir-i-Khusraw, from the year 1047,⁷ describes Jerusalem as a city surrounded by formidable walls and mentions the Siloam Pool as located some distance outside the city wall.

Footnotes

5. See Wightman 1993: 246–48. For a detailed study of the Crusaders siege and conquest of Jerusalem and reference to the sources, see Prawer 1991: Maps 1–3, 8, 10, 16. Earlier studies include Röhricht 1901: 183–214; Peyré 1859).

6. Annals Yahia ibn Said Antiochensis (CSCO; Scriptores Arabici, Textus, Series 3, vii; Paris, 1909) 272.

7. Nasir-I-khusraw, Relation de Voyage, trans. C. Scheffer (Paris, 1881).

Baruch, Avni, and Parnos in Stern et al (2008) encountered what they interpreted as the Early Islamic Wall in areas A and C near Herod's Gate (location 14 in Fig. 5 of Maps and Plans). They found a stone collapse which they dated using ceramics to the end of the Early Islamic period (tenth–eleventh centuries CE). They suggested that the wall they uncovered was probably the fortification penetrated by the Crusaders in 1099 which, if correct, would indicate that the collapse was caused by human agency

AN EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD FORTIFICATION AND QUARTER

The principal Early Islamic period remains were exposed in area A, where a massive wall was revealed directly beneath and along the course of the Old City wall. It is built of roughly shaped stones and is of entirely different construction than the Roman–Byzantine wall found in area B. Additional segments of the wall were exposed in area C. Also exposed in area C were carefully carved, profiled masonry stones—perhaps part of a gate that once stood in this area—among a stone collapse. The pottery found within this collapse, like that of the earth fill associated with segments of the wall found in area A, is dated to the end of the Early Islamic period (tenth–eleventh centuries CE). The wall uncovered is probably the fortification penetrated by the Crusaders in 1099.

... CRUSADER AND AYYUBID PERIOD FORTIFICATIONS

Based upon detailed historical descriptions of the Crusader conquest, it was in this area of the city that the Crusaders broke through the walls of Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. Actual evidence for the line of the city wall of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages was found in the excavation next to the Old City wall in areas A and C. The above mentioned Early Islamic period wall was buttressed by a fortification preserved as a row of piers. Another wall was found to extend 25 m from the remains of the massive piers southward. Earth fills containing numerous iron arrowheads were associated with the remains of the wall with piers.

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Partially Damaged Walls            Repairs and Rebuilding	Various locations Fig. 2. The Roman-Byzantine city wall (after Tsafrir 2000, Weksler-Bdolah 2006-7). Dots mark places where segments of the Roman-Byzantine wall were exposed. Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011) city walls near the Damascus Gate Fig. 1 Plan of north wall of the Old City of Jerusalem, showing the location of the areas excavated by Hamilton. In 1937-38, Hamilton conducted excavations in five areas along the north wall. Sounding A, located against the western face of the western tower at the Damascus Gate, provided the most substantial and valuable sequence. Figure caption from Magness (1991) Hamilton (1944) southwest corner of the city walls in the Armenian Garden Fig. 2. The Roman-Byzantine city wall (after Tsafrir 2000, Weksler-Bdolah 2006-7). Dots mark places where segments of the Roman-Byzantine wall were exposed. Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011)		the Roman-Byzantine wall was used continuously from the time of its construction until the mid-8th century, after which it was partially damaged, probably by an earthquake (Weksler-Bdolah, 2007:97). Evidence of renovations discovered in several places along its route indicate that the wall continued to be used after the mid-8th century. - Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011:421) Magness (1991) examined ceramics and numismatics from Hamilton (1944)'s excavations of Jerusalem's city walls near the Damascus Gate and established a terminus post quem of the first half of the 8th century CE for wall repairs. Magness (1991) characterized the level used to establish the terminus post quem as one of the most securely dated assemblages of published Byzantine and Umayyad pottery from an excavation in Jerusalem. Magness (1991) examined ceramics from Tushingham (1985)'s excavations of the southwest corner of the city walls in the Armenian Garden. Magness (1991) redated rebuilding from the 7th century CE to the 8th century CE.

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Partially Damaged Walls (Displaced Walls ?) Repairs and Rebuilding	Various locations Fig. 2. The Roman-Byzantine city wall (after Tsafrir 2000, Weksler-Bdolah 2006-7). Dots mark places where segments of the Roman-Byzantine wall were exposed. Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011) city walls near the Damascus Gate Fig. 1 Plan of north wall of the Old City of Jerusalem, showing the location of the areas excavated by Hamilton. In 1937-38, Hamilton conducted excavations in five areas along the north wall. Sounding A, located against the western face of the western tower at the Damascus Gate, provided the most substantial and valuable sequence. Figure caption from Magness (1991) Hamilton (1944) southwest corner of the city walls in the Armenian Garden Fig. 2. The Roman-Byzantine city wall (after Tsafrir 2000, Weksler-Bdolah 2006-7). Dots mark places where segments of the Roman-Byzantine wall were exposed. Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011)		the Roman-Byzantine wall was used continuously from the time of its construction until the mid-8th century, after which it was partially damaged, probably by an earthquake (Weksler-Bdolah, 2007:97). Evidence of renovations discovered in several places along its route indicate that the wall continued to be used after the mid-8th century. - Weksler-Bdolah in Galor and Avni (2011:421) Magness (1991) examined ceramics and numismatics from Hamilton (1944)'s excavations of Jerusalem's city walls near the Damascus Gate and established a terminus post quem of the first half of the 8th century CE for wall repairs. Magness (1991) characterized the level used to establish the terminus post quem as one of the most securely dated assemblages of published Byzantine and Umayyad pottery from an excavation in Jerusalem. Magness (1991) examined ceramics from Tushingham (1985)'s excavations of the southwest corner of the city walls in the Armenian Garden. Magness (1991) redated rebuilding from the 7th century CE to the 8th century CE.	VII+? ?

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Wellhausen (1927:382-383) relates that in the summer of 746 CE (A.H. 128) during the 3rd Muslim Civil War, Marwan II ordered the walls of Hims, Jerusalem, Baalbek, Damascus, and other prominent Syrian cities razed to the ground. In Theophanes entry for A.M._a 6237, we can read in Mango and Scott (1997:587)'s translation (Turtledove's translation is available here):

[A.M. 6237, AD 744/5]

• Constantine, 5th year
• Marouam, 2nd year
• Zacharias, 12th year
• Anastasios, 16th year
• Theophylaktos, 2nd year

...

At that time Marouam, after victoriously taking Emesa [aka Homs], killed all the relatives and freedmen of Isam. He also demolished the walls of Helioupolis^h [aka Baalbek] Damascus, and Jerusalem, put to death many powerful men, and maimed those remaining in the said cities.

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kmz	Description	Reference
Right Click to download	Master Jerusalem kmz file	various