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Hippos/Sussita

Fallen Columns from Cathedral at Hippos Sussita Photo of Hippos Sussita

Wechsler and Marco (2017)


Names

Transliterated Name Language Name
Hippos Greek Ἵππος
Antiochia Hippos Greek Αντιοχεία Ἵππος
Hippum Latin
Sussita Hebrew סוסיתא
Sus Hebrew סוס
Sussita Aramaic
Qal‘at al-Ḥuṣn Arabic قلعة الحصن
Introduction
Introduction

Hippos-Sussita was one of the ten cities of the Decapolis. It declined during Byzantine and Early Arab periods and is believed to have been largely abandoned after it was badly damaged in one of the Sabbatical Year earthquakes. It is situated atop a flat topped ridge which overlooks the Sea of Galilee. Hippos Sussita appears to be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.

Identification and History

Hippos, a Greek city, known in Arabic as Qal'at el-Husn, is situated some 2 km (1 mi.) east of the Sea of Galilee on a promontory rising 350 m above the sea (map reference 212.242). It was founded by the Seleucids in the Hellenistic period, possibly on the site of an earlier settlement. The town, known by its Greek name, Antiochia Hippos (hippos, "horse"), continued to exist until the Arab conquest. In Aramaic it was known as Sussita. It was conquered in one of the campaigns of Alexander Jannaeus (Syncellus, ed. Dindorf, I, 559). Pompey took it from the Jews (Josephus, Antiq. XIV, 75); according to Pliny (NHV, 74), it was one of the cities of the Decapolis (League of Ten Greek Cities). Augustus gave the city to Herod, much to the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants. After Herod's death it became part of the Province of Syria (Josephus, Antiq. XV, 217; XVII, 320; War I, 396; II, 97). During the First Revolt against Rome, the Jews attacked Hippos (War II, 459, 4 78). Jews from the city were among the defenders of Taricheae (Magdala) (War III, 542). The territory of Hippos extended down to the Sea of Galilee (Josephus, Life 31, 153), and the city was the sworn enemy of Jewish Tiberias on the opposite shore of the lake (Lam. Rab. 19), despite the trade connection between them (J.T., Shevi'it 8, 38a). Jewish villages east of the lake were included in the territory of Hippos and were exempt from tithes in the time of the patriarch Judah I, being considered beyond the frontiers of the land of Israel proper (Tosefta, Shevi'it 4:10; Tosefta, Ohal. 18:4). Remains of ancient synagogues have been found at Fiq (Aphek) and at Umm el-Qanatir, both of which lay within the territory of Hippos. In the Byzantine period, Hippos was the seat of a bishop, being one of the sees of Palaestina Secunda. Like many other towns in the Byzantine period, it enjoyed great prosperity, and many churches and public buildings were erected. The city was probably abandoned after the Arab conquest at the beginning of the seventh century. Isolated buildings were erected on its ruins in later times.

In the nineteenth century Hippos was identified with the neighboring village of Sussiya, which preserved the city's ancient name (Sussita), while Qal'at el-Husn, whose natural shape resembles a camel's hump, was considered to be the site of ancient Gamala. However, following recent surveys of the ruins at Qal'at el-Husn, its identification with Hippos is now generally accepted.

Surveys and Excavations

Survey

With the settlement at 'En Gev in 1937, surface surveys were again carried out at Hippos by members of the kibbutz. These owed much to the earlier, thorough studies made by G. Schumacher during the latter part of the nineteenth century. However, the new information from observation on the spot, as well as from aerial photographs, made possible a reliable reconstruction of the city plan, on which the positions of its chief public buildings were correctly plotted.

Although Hippos is known to have been founded in the Hellenistic period, few remains from that time have been found, probably because of the comparatively small size of the Hellenistic town. The inhabitants were entirely dependent on a natural water supply, which was inadequate for a large population. After its conquest by Pompey in 63 BCE, Hippos, as one of the cities of the Decapolis, was rebuilt in accordance with standard contemporary town planning. The town plan, which had been preserved, is essentially that of the Roman period, although many buildings were erected later The streets of the city ran at right angles to one another over the length and breadth of the town, forming the characteristic insulae. The public buildings stood at the intersections of the important streets. Of these, the main street is easily distinguishable. It is paved with large basalt flagstones and runs from north-northeast to south-southwest through the center of the town. It is still in use today as a path. Halfway along the main street was the nymphaeum. Close to it was a large subterranean cistern with a vaulted roof and plastered walls and a flight of steps leading down to the water level. After the water had been brought to the nymphaeum and used in its ornamental fountains, it was collected in the cistern for further use. In Hippos, water was a valuable commodity; the main water supply was brought from some distance by a specially constructed aqueduct (see below). Not far from the cistern are Byzantine baths that also required a considerable amount of water.

Evidence that this town of the Decapolis had imposing buildings in Roman times can be seen in the many architectural remains strewn over the surface: massive red-granite column shafts, numerous capitals (Corinthian and Ionic), decorated pilasters, molded lintels, and carved cornices, many of which were reused in the Byzantine period. Most of these lie along the main street or in the center of the city.

The town wall has also been well preserved. It is provided with a number of towers at strategic points. The wall follows the contours of the hill and makes use of the natural cliff wherever possible. On the south side, sectors of the wall still stand to a considerable height, providing an excellent view of the Roman road that ascends from the lakeside through Wadi Jamusiyeh (Nahal Sussita). It is very likely that there was a harbor of some kind at the point where this valley opens upon the lake and where the Roman road coming from the city turned south to continue along the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee. Evidence of such a harbor may be seen in the heaps of stones extending for some distance into the water at this spot.

At the eastern end of Wadi Jamusiyeh is a small promontory or bluff in which there are caves containing niches, stone sarcophagi, ornamented tomb doors, and other evidence of burials. This was doubtless one of the places the people of Hippos used as a cemetery, other graves having been found in the west, also outside the city walls.

Early Excavations

Excavations were carried out at Hippos by C. Epstein (1950-1955), M. Avi-Yonah (195l), A. Shulman(1951), and E. Anati (l952), on behalf of the lsrael Department of Antiquities.

Renewed Excavations

Following an urban survey of the site in 1999, a large-scale archaeological project, planned to include at least ten seasons of excavation, was inaugurated at Hippos (Sussita). The project is directed by A. Segal, under the auspices of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa. Assisting in the direction of the expedition during the seasons reported were J. Mlynarczyk of the Polish Academy of Sciences and M. Burdajewicz of the National Museum in Warsaw. In the summer of 2002, the third season of excavation, the expedition was joined by a group from Concordia University, St. Paul, Minnesota, headed by M. Schuler.

Aerial Views, Plans, and Drawings
Aerial Views, Plans, and Drawings

Aerial Views

  • Hippos-Sussita in Google Earth
    Hippos-Sussita

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Hippos-Sussita on govmap.gov.il
    Hippos-Sussita

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Aerial Views, Plans and Drawings

Site Plans

Normal Size

Magnified

Area Plans, Aerial Views, and Drawings

Various locations

Normal Size

  • Aerial Photo and plan
    Hippos: aerial photograph and plan of the site

    Stern et. al. (2008)
    of central Hippos from Stern et. al. (2008)
  • Plan of the Forum,
    Plan of the Forum. Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church

    Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
    Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church from Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
  • Fig. 9 - Aerial View
    Figure 9

    The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

    Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Cathedral from Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 3 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 3

    VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF HIPPOS CITY CENTER

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of Hippos City Center from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 4 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 4

    VERTICAL AERIAL OF THE BASILICA AND ITS ENVIRONS

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)

Magnified

  • Aerial Photo and plan
    Hippos: aerial photograph and plan of the site

    Stern et. al. (2008)
    of central Hippos from Stern et. al. (2008)
  • Plan of the Forum,
    Plan of the Forum. Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church

    Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
    Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church from Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
  • Fig. 9 - Aerial View
    Figure 9

    The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

    Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Cathedral from Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 3 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 3

    VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF HIPPOS CITY CENTER

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of Hippos City Center from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 4 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 4

    VERTICAL AERIAL OF THE BASILICA AND ITS ENVIRONS

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)

Northeast Church

Normal Size

  • Plan of Northeast Church
    Northeast church

    Stern et. al. (2008)
    from Stern et. al. (2008)
  • Fig. 26 - Plan of the northeast Church
    Figure 26

    Hippos, North-East Church, schematic plan showing walls and loci

    Segal et al (2004)
    from Segal et al (2004)

Magnified

  • Plan of Northeast
    Northeast church

    Stern et. al. (2008)
    Church from Stern et. al. (2008)
  • Fig. 26 - Plan of
    Figure 26

    Hippos, North-East Church, schematic plan showing walls and loci

    Segal et al (2004)
    the northeast Church from Segal et al (2004)

Northwest Church

Normal Size

  • Fig. 16 - Plan of the
    Figure 16

    plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004)

    Segal et al (2004)
    northwest Church from Segal et al (2004)

Magnified

  • Fig. 16 - Plan of the
    Figure 16

    plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004)

    Segal et al (2004)
    northwest Church from Segal et al (2004)

Basilica

Normal Size

  • Fig. 3 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 3

    VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF HIPPOS CITY CENTER

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of Hippos City Center from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 4 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 4

    VERTICAL AERIAL OF THE BASILICA AND ITS ENVIRONS

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 5 - Plan of the
    Figure 5

    THE BASILICA

    1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
    2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


    (Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 6 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 6

    THE BASILICA, AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH TOWARDS SOUTHWEST. THE ARROW IS MARKING THE CAVITY IN THE BASALT BEDROCK

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica towards the SW from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 7 - Southern part
    Figure 7

    THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE BASILICA. NOTE THE PREBASILICA STYLOBATE FOUNDATION ON THE BOTTOM AND NARI AND BASALT WALLS IN THE CENTER. A VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 18 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 18

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTIONS:

    1. SECTION OF THE NORTHERN SIDE
    2. LENGTH SECTION
    3. SIDE VIEW OF THE SOUTHERN FACADE


    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 19 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 19

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA, A SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTION. VIEW TOWARDS NORTHEAST

    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 20 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 20

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA, A SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERIOR. VIEW TOWARDS NORTH

    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the interior of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)

Magnified

  • Fig. 3 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 3

    VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF HIPPOS CITY CENTER

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of Hippos City Center from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 4 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 4

    VERTICAL AERIAL OF THE BASILICA AND ITS ENVIRONS

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 5 - Plan of the
    Figure 5

    THE BASILICA

    1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
    2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


    (Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 6 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 6

    THE BASILICA, AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH TOWARDS SOUTHWEST. THE ARROW IS MARKING THE CAVITY IN THE BASALT BEDROCK

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica towards the SW from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 7 - Southern part
    Figure 7

    THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE BASILICA. NOTE THE PREBASILICA STYLOBATE FOUNDATION ON THE BOTTOM AND NARI AND BASALT WALLS IN THE CENTER. A VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)

Chronology
Phasing

Basilica

Phase Date Comments
Pre-basilica Building Phases Hippos’ Roman basilica stood on naturally almost flat basalt bedrock that extended east of the rectangular temenos of the HLC (Figs. 2 – 6). This area was occupied by other structures before the erection of the basilica in the 1st century CE (Figs. 4 – 5).
A late 4th – early 2nd century BCE Scattered pottery sherds of the late 4th century and mainly 3rd century BCE were found in numerous loci above the bedrock, particularly abundant in the northern part of the area, in the west, adjacent to the eastern HLC wall 10, and in the south inside a cavity (L2347) covered by a Phase-D wall (W2232, Figs. 5 – 6). The cavity also produced four out of nine of the coins dated to the 3rd–2nd century BCE from the area of the basilica (Table 1). Phase A represents the earliest remains of settlement at Hippos11. Similar Ptolemaic-period pottery types and coins were recovered in the neighboring HLC probes.12
Footnotes

11 Excluding the traces of Chalcolithic activity in various areas around the site and the one instance of Iron Age (11th century BCE) pottery discovered in the above mentioned cavity L2347.

12 Eisenberg 2017a, 59 – 64.

B ca. mid-2nd century BCE Probes all over the basilica area revealed pottery and a few coins dated to ca. mid-2nd century BCE (Table 1)13. Also part of this phase are several plaster installations for liquids, located in the northern side of the area, and probably also two cisterns and three silos (Figs. 4 – 7). The silos and cisterns adapted natural cavities in the basalt bedrock and they were plastered with a thick layer of high-quality white hydraulic plaster. Their function was recognized based on their shape, depth and the analysis of pollen from the plaster. The silos’ plastersamples contained 65% and 54% of cerealis (grain) pollen14. Some installations were rendered out of use when the eastern HLC wall (W1151) was constructed on top of them. Other installations were blocked not later than Phase D – the Early Roman period15.
Footnotes

13 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 92.

14 The data was reported by P. S. Geyer, who took and analyzed the samples in 2015 (not published).

15 Eisenberg 2017a, 63.

C late 2nd – mid-1st century BCE This phase represents the activity from the time of construction and use of the HLC temenos walls16: plaster floors exposed to the east of the HLC that clearly adjoin the eastern temenos wall (W1151), patched plaster floors exposed in the northeast and southern parts of the area, and a tower-like structure (W3054, W3095, W3065)17 in the northwest corner of the area, on the edge of the cliff, built against the HLC eastern wall (W1151, Figs. 4 – 6). Some of the Phase B silos and cistern continued in use.

The important finds that most probably should be assigned to this phase (although they could also be of an earlier date) are three Doric capitals and four engaged drums found reused in buttresses, constructed on the northern cliff edge for support of the basilica (W2278 and W3204, Fig. 8). Additional eroded architectural elements, apparently from the same structure, were salvaged in the same area too. All the ashlars are made of local soft caliche (nari) and bear remnants of stucco. These elements were part of one of the first public buildings at Hippos18.
Footnotes

16 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 93.

17 The tower-like structure has an inner nari frame of walls (W3053, W3080, W3063) adjacent to the basalt walls. The function of the structure is unclear, but its dating is suggested by the use of bossed corner ashlars identical to the ones of the HLC walls.

18 Eisenberg 2016, 5; Peleg-Barkat 2017, 150 – 51.

D last third of the 1st century BCE – early 1st century CE Several wall foundations in nari and basalt are attributed to this phase. The walls are concentrated in the central southern part of the area and in the west, along the HLC eastern wall (W1151). Some of the walls are cut by the western stylobate of the basilica (W2358, Figs. 5 – 7, 9). Only two or three coins are assigned to this phase (Table 1), but the pottery is abundant, found in almost all the fills inside the cavities in the bedrock, sealed by the basilica’s plaster floors19.

The nature of the structure/s to which these walls belonged is unclear. The most curious is W2227 – a ca. 20 m long basalt wall foundation, which runs parallel to the basilica’s western stylobate (W2358), and at the same time almost parallel to the eastern HLC wall, 2.70 m (in the north) to 3.0 m (in the south) away from it (Figs. 5 – 7). W2227 is ca. 1.0 m wide, built of partially dressed basalt ashlars on the outer faces, with medium-sized basalt stones in the core. This building technique is similar to that used for some other walls in the central southern part of the area. Five rectangular foundations (EPW1–5, some ca. 1.5 x 1.3 m and some ca. 1.7 x 1.4 m) were built adjacent to W2227 at intervals of 1.7 – 2.0 m (Fig. 5). The intervals were filled with reinforcing walls 0.6 m wide. Each of the foundations almost adjoints its corresponding basilica pedestal. The sixth foundation (EPW6) was located 6.5 m north of EPW1, above W3095.

These pre-basilica walls and rectangular foundations must have been part of a public building. All efforts to locate additional walls of this structure to the east were in vain. It is tempting to interpret the rectangular foundations as podia of the colonnade of an earlier basilica. Since the foundations abut W2227, this wall could not have been part of the superstructure of the earlier basilica – the earlier basilica western wall would have to be located further west, within the HLC (no such wall was located) or directly on top of the remains of the eastern HLC wall (W1151, ca. 2.9 m away from the speculative podia; but this wall has only three securely identified layers – the original Hellenistic, late-1st-century CE connected to the basilica, and Byzantine). The existence of a pre-basilica public structure is supported by the find of seven fragments of large basalt Ionic capitals, recovered from fills and reused in the foundations of the basilica (B7411; Fig. 10). Based on the diameter of the fully preserved volute, the capital belonged to a column 0.78 m in diameter (for comparison, the basilica columns were 0.80 m in diameter).
Footnotes

19 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 94.

18 Eisenberg 2016, 5; Peleg-Barkat 2017, 150 – 51.

363 CE earthquake

Plans, Drawings, and Aerial Views

Plans, Drawings, and Aerial Views

  • Fig. 1 - Plan of Hippos-Sussita
    Figure 1

    Plan of the site showing the main excavated areas.

    Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
    with excavation areas from Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 5 - Plan of the
    Figure 5

    THE BASILICA

    1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
    2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


    (Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 5 - Plan of the
    Figure 5

    THE BASILICA

    1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
    2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


    (Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    Basilica and environs from Eisenberg (2021) - magnified
  • Fig. 6 - Aerial Photo
    Figure 6

    THE BASILICA, AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH TOWARDS SOUTHWEST. THE ARROW IS MARKING THE CAVITY IN THE BASALT BEDROCK

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica towards the SW from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 7 - Southern part
    Figure 7

    THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE BASILICA. NOTE THE PREBASILICA STYLOBATE FOUNDATION ON THE BOTTOM AND NARI AND BASALT WALLS IN THE CENTER. A VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

    (M. EISENBERG)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 18 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 18

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTIONS:

    1. SECTION OF THE NORTHERN SIDE
    2. LENGTH SECTION
    3. SIDE VIEW OF THE SOUTHERN FACADE


    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 19 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 19

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA, A SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTION. VIEW TOWARDS NORTHEAST

    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 20 - Suggested Reconstruction
    Figure 20

    HIPPOS’ BASILICA, A SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERIOR. VIEW TOWARDS NORTH

    (Y. NAKAS)

    Eisenberg (2021)
    of the interior of the Basilica from Eisenberg (2021)

Discussion

Eisenberg (2021:171) reports that the Basilica was destroyed by an earthquake in 363 CE - presumably the northern Cyril Quake. Eisenberg (2021:171-173) reports the evidence as follows:
The destruction of the basilica was caused by the 363 CE earthquake, as evident by the coins (Table 1) and the pottery51 from the fills directly above the basilica floor and the floor of room III. The latest of the trapped coins date to 361/2 CE. The recovered wall painting and stucco fragments date from the 1st century BCE until the 3rd century CE, with most pieces (including the in-situ ones) assigned to the 2nd-3rd century CE52. Interestingly, none of the fragments are dated to the 4th century CE. Moreover, the basilica debris did not include broken marble statues or significant amount of any small finds that could attest to a sudden destruction of an active public building. Consequently, it seems that the basilica was not maintained and fully active for some years before the 363 CE earthquake53. The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave54. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones. The pendant (B7769) is one of most luxurious pieces of jewelry found to date in Hippos, made of pure gold and semi-precious stones55.

Following the earthquake, the basilica was never rebuilt, nor was the area reused for any significant public structure. The southern part of the basilica debris was covered with floors dated to the 380s CE, constructed ca. 1 m above the basilica floor. Most of the basilica’s architectural fragments, especially from the northern and central parts, were looted and reused in the nearby Byzantine building. During the Umayyad period, additional structures were built on top of the debris, and one building even penetrated through the basilica’s southern walls and reused many of the basilica’s architectural fragments (Figs. 4 – 6).
Footnotes

51 Kapitaikin 2018, 95 – 96, and there for additonal references.

52 Rozenberg 2018.

53 An urban decline is generally noticeable in Hippos from the end of the 3rd-early 4th century CE. At this time the Southern Bathhouse was abandoned and, not later than 363, the odeion, the Saddle Compound and its theater and the mausolea of the Saddle Necropolis were destroyed, never to be rebuilt (Eisenberg 2019a, 376).

54 The physical anthropology unpublished report concerning the skeletons was prepared in 2014 by Y. Abramov and I. Hershkovitz of the Tel Aviv University.

55 Eisenberg 2017b, 17, Fig. 15.

Wechsler, N., et al. (2018) noted that it is possible that some of the later, strong, post-abandonment earthquakes caused some additional damage at the site.

mid 8th century CE earthquake

Plans and Aerial Views

Plans and Aerial Views

  • Plan of Hippos-Sussita
    Plan of Hippos Sussita

    Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
    from BibleWalks.com
  • Fig. 16 - Plan of the northwest Church
    Figure 16

    plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004)

    Segal et al (2004)
    from Segal et al (2004)
  • Fig. 9 - Aerial View of the Cathedral
    Figure 9

    The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

    Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
    from Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)

Discussion

The Cathedral is the largest of several churches found on the site and is situated south of the Cardo. A fragmentary Greek inscription reveals that it was built in 590 CE (Wechsler et al (2018) citing Latjar, 2014:250-2781) and remained in use until the mid 8th century CE (Wechsler et al (2018) citing Segal, 2007). Excavations in the 1950's revealed columns lying on the floor of the cathedral in sub parallel directions (Wechsler et al, 2018). These columns are presumed to have fallen during one of the Sabbatical Year earthquakes.

Segal et al (2004:65) reports that chronological evidence for the one of the Sabbatical Year earthquakes "destroying" Hippos Sussita has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the [northwest] church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively. The church referred to is the Northwest Church. This is not the same church Wechsler et al (2018) and others refer to as the Cathedral. It is the Cathedral which contains the fallen columns that Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) analyzed to estimate a lower limit of paleo-PGA during the earthquake.

Footnotes

1 Greek Inscriptions [in:] A. Segal et al, Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis. The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, vol. I, Haifa 2013, pp. 250-278

Mlynarczyk (2008:256-257) reported the following about archaeoseismic evidence for an earthquake in 749 CE.
The so-called North-West Church, excavated by the Polish team in 2000- 2008,19 yielded a number of invaluable archaeological deposits securely sealed by the debris of an earthquake. There can be no doubt that the earthquake in question was that of January 18th, A.D. 749, since (apart from scores of typical Umayyad-period ceramic vessels) the latest coin, sealed on the floor of the northern aisle, was minted in Tiberias between A.D. 737 and 746.20 Most importantly, the contents of destruction deposits prove that the church was liturgically active till that very moment.21 It was built to the north of the agora (Fig. 1), the central public square (termed “Forum” by the excavators), on the site of an Augustan/Tiberian-period sanctuary,22 not earlier than at the turn of the fifth century (based on the material associated with the stylobate foundation in the atrium)23 or even during the first half of the sixth century. The church builders re-used parts of the cella walls (like the northern wall, in extenso incorporated into the northern wall of the basilica) as well as the stylobate of the eastern portico of the temenos.
Footnotes

19 The institutions, represented by the team members, were the Research Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology (Polish Academy of Sciences), the National Museum in Warsaw and the Institute of Archaeology (University of Warsaw). The work was financially supported by Grant No 1H01 B009 29 of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (2005-2007).

20 Berman 2001, 38, cat. no. 31. The same earthquake largely destroyed Beisan, cf. Bar-Nathan, Mazor 2007, XIV.

21 Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2003, 31-32; cf. Mlynarczyk 2008a, passim.

22 Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2004, 67-68, fig. 25; Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2005a, 53; Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz. 2005b, 16.

23 Ibidem, 46.

Seismic Effects
363 CE earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Notes
Collapsed Walls            
and re-used building elements		 Basilica
Figure 5

THE BASILICA

  1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
  2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

Eisenberg (2021)
  • fallen architectural fragment - Wechsler et al, 2018
  • Most of the basilica’s architectural fragments, especially from the northern and central parts, were looted and reused in the nearby Byzantine building. - Eisenberg (2021:171-173)
Collapsed Roof Northern part of the nave of the Basilica
Figure 5

THE BASILICA

  1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
  2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

Eisenberg (2021)
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones. - Eisenberg (2021:171-173)
Human Remains Northern part of the nave of the Basilica
Figure 5

THE BASILICA

  1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
  2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

Eisenberg (2021)
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones. - Eisenberg (2021:171-173)

mid 8th century CE earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Notes
Tilted and displaced walls
(tilted and displaced to the west)		 Wall W1386 in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC 5)
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Plan of the Forum. Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church

Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
Figure 21

Hippos 2009, area to the east of the HLC (Hellenistic Compound). Wall 1386. Note the extent of damage, most probably the results of the landslide caused by the earthquake

JW: located in HLC 5

Segal et al (2019)
Segal et al (2019:18) uncovered a wall displaced towards the west (Fig. 21) in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC5) which they attributed to one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes.
Collapsed walls             Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
Tilted Walls Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
Displaced Walls Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
Fallen columns ?
(? because the collapse is undated but likely due to this earthquake)		 Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Excavations in the 1950's revealed columns lying on the floor of the cathedral in sub parallel directions - Wechsler et al (2018)
  • Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) estimated a minimum paleo-PGA of 0.2-0.4 g to overturn the columns found in the Cathedral. This paleo-PGA is a lower bound and therefore an underestimate. Assuming a PGA of 0.4-0.6 g and converting from PGA to Intensity via Wald et al (1999), one arrives at an Intensity of 8 - 8.5 which reduces to ~6.5 - 7.5 when one considers a site effect.
Collapsed Walls Northwest Church
Figure 16

plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004)

Segal et al (2004)
In terms of the relative chronology, the existence of the church was comprised between that of the sanctuary and the earthquake which destroyed the town of Sussita. Year 749 CE as a generally assumed date for this earthquake has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively. - Segal et al (2004:65)

Undated Archaeoseismic Evidence

Effect Location Image(s) Notes
Tilted walls ?
Figure 9

Tilted wall,Susita. In addition to the effects of construction and ground instability, the unequal load distribution of the rubble should be considered (i.e. post-destruction effects)

Karcz and Kafri (1978)
Figure 10

Tilted building, Susita.

Karcz and Kafri (1978)
Tilted wall and building - Karcz and Kafri (1978)

Archaeoseismic Analysis
mid 8th century CE earthquake

The Cathedral

Fallen Columns from Cathedral at Hippos Sussita Fig. 2.3

Photo of the cathedral with the fallen columns, looking west.

Wechsler et al (2018)


Plans, Photos, and Figures
Plans, Photos, and Figures

  • Plan of Hippos-Sussita
    Plan of Hippos Sussita

    Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
    from BibleWalks.com
  • Fig. 9 - Aerial View of the Cathedral
    Figure 9

    The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

    Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
    from Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Fig. 2c - DDA model for
    Figure 2 (C)

    The DDA model for a characteristic Susita column.

    Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010)
    a characteristic Hippos/Sussita column from Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010)
  • Fig. 3 - Model Results -
    Figure 3

    Required PGA for overturning the modeled Susita column under one (A) and three (B) input loading cycles.

    • Solid triangles-stable columns
    • solid diamonds—overturned columns


    Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010)
    PGA required to topple a column from Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010)
  • Fig. 2.4 - 3D laser scan
    Fig. 2.4

    Perspective clear view to a 3D laser scan model of the Cathedral of Hippos with a view from the northeast.

    Wechsler et al (2018)
    of the Cathedral from Wechsler et al (2018)

Discussion

Nine columns of the northern row of the cathedral are oriented N220°E ± 10° and two remaining columns of the southern row are oriented N295°E ± 10° (Wechsler et al, 2018).

Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) utilized a two-dimensional formulation of the discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) method (Shi, 1993) to produce a lower bound of 0.2 - 0.4 g for Peak Horizontal Ground Acceleration (PGA) required to topple the columns. The model for their columns was free standing as shown in Figure 2c of their paper and does not include a superstructure such as an architrave or a roof indicating it is likely to produce a conservative (i.e. low) value of minimum PGA required to topple the columns. Input material values for the columns, consisting of red and gray granite possibly imported from Aswan1, were
  • E = 40 GPa
  • ν =0.18
  • ρ = 2700 kg/m3
The friction angle (Φ) between column base and pedestal was assumed to be 45°. Optimal contact spring stiffness (2 x 108 N/m) was determined numerically. Simulations were performed for both one and three sinusoidal loading cycles at a variety of frequencies up to 5 Hz. (shown in Figure 3 of their paper). At frequencies of 1.5 Hz. and below, minimum PGA to topple the columns was about 0.2 g for both 1 and 3 loading cycles. Above 1.5 Hz., the single loading cycle simulations were more sensitive to frequency and required a higher PGA to topple the columns. The authors suggested that if only sinusoidal inputs are considered, 3 cycle simulations were more likely be representative of PGA thresholds required to topple the columns. Thus they used the three cycle simulations to produce a range of frequency dependent threshold PGA's required to topple the column that varied from 0.2 g below 1.5 Hz. up to 1 g at 5 Hz..

Recognizing the fairly wide range of threshold PGA's resulting from this analysis, Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) performed a subsequent set of simulations using strong motion records applied to the centroid of the column and base. The strong motion records came from instrumentally recorded earthquakes thought to be representative of the Dead Sea Transform2. The predominant frequencies of these strong motion records varied from 0.45 - 2.2 Hz. and produced threshold PGA's between 0.2 and 0.4 g. Although Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) did not conclude that their column analysis resulted in an estimated threshold PGA of 0.2 - 0.4 g to topple the columns, it can be reasonably assumed that this is result. However, as mentioned previously, these threshold PGA's are likely underestimated as they modeled free standing columns without a superstructure.
Footnotes

1 Granite Quarrying at Aswan is discussed in

Kelany, a., Negem, m., tohami, a. and Heldal, t. (2009) Granite quarry survey in the aswan region, egypt: shedding new light on ancient quarrying. In abu-Jaber, N., bloxam, e.G., Degryse, p. and Heldal, t. (eds.) QuarryScapes: ancient stone quarry landscapes in the Eastern Mediterranean, Geological Survey of Norway Special publication,12, pp. 87–98.

2

  • Fill and Rock Responses from the Gulf of Aqaba earthquake of 1995
  • The Yerba Buena Island record from the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989
  • SF Bay Area record (Treasure Island record from the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 ?)
  • An El Centro record from the Imperial Valley earthquake of 1940

Wechsler et al (2018) commented on modeling the column falls as follows:
The Cathedral is, so far, the only structure that has been at the center of quantitative archaeoseimsic studies. Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) tried to estimate minimum levels of peak ground acceleration (PGA) during the earthquake ground motion which was necessary to topple the Cathedral columns. However, they used the model of a freestanding column of the same size as the ones found in the Cathedral, but with no capital, architrave or other superstructure. Since 2D models were used and forces were applied to the center of gravity of the columns and pedestals, the reported 0.2 - 0.4 m/s2 PGA threshold at frequencies between 0.2 and 4.4 Hz can only be regarded as a rough estimate and are not necessarily representative for the complete structure of the Cathedral which has a significantly different response to earthquake ground motions than a solitary column. Hinzen (2010) used 3D discrete element models conforming to the size of the toppled columns of the Cathedral and showed that the toppling direction during a realistic earthquake ground motion in three dimensions is a matter of chance. A column that is being rocked by earthquake ground motions is in a nonlinear dynamic system and its behavior tends to be of a chaotic character. Small changes to the initial conditions can have a strong influence on the general dynamic reaction and significantly alter the toppling direction. The same paper shows that the parallel orientation is probably an effect of the superstructure connecting the columns mechanically and not a consequence of the ground motion character. This interpretation is also strongly supported by the fact that the two remaining columns of the southern row rest at angles of ~90° compared with the columns from the northern row, as shown in a 3D laser scan model of the site (Fig. 2.4). A similar analysis of the Hippos columns was performed by Hinzen (2010)

Deformation Maps
mid 8th century CE earthquake

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. 9 of Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)

Intensity Estimates
363 CE earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Notes Intensity
Collapsed Walls            
and re-used building elements		 Basilica
Figure 5

THE BASILICA

  1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
  2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

Eisenberg (2021)
  • fallen architectural fragment - Wechsler et al, 2018
  • Most of the basilica’s architectural fragments, especially from the northern and central parts, were looted and reused in the nearby Byzantine building. - Eisenberg (2021:171-173)
 VIII+
Collapsed Roof suggesting displaced walls Northern part of the nave of the Basilica
Figure 5

THE BASILICA

  1. A PLAN WITH BUILDING PHASES
  2. A SCHEMATIC PLAN


(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG)

Eisenberg (2021)
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones. - Eisenberg (2021:171-173) VII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Hippos Sussita appears to be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.

mid 8th century CE earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Notes Intensity
Tilted and displaced walls
(tilted and displaced to the west)		 Wall W1386 in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC 5)
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Plan of the Forum. Hellenistic compound, and Northwest Church

Segal and Eisenberg (2007)
Figure 21

Hippos 2009, area to the east of the HLC (Hellenistic Compound). Wall 1386. Note the extent of damage, most probably the results of the landslide caused by the earthquake

JW: located in HLC 5

Segal et al (2019)
Segal et al (2019:18) uncovered a wall displaced towards the west (Fig. 21) in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC5) which they attributed to one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes. VI-VII+
Collapsed walls             Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) VIII+
Tilted Walls Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) VI+
Displaced Walls Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved. - Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) VII+
Fallen columns ?
(? because the collapse is undated but likely due to this earthquake)		 Cathedral
Plan of Hippos Sussita

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 9

The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model.

Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021)
  • Excavations in the 1950's revealed columns lying on the floor of the cathedral in sub parallel directions - Wechsler et al (2018)
  • Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) estimated a minimum paleo-PGA of 0.2-0.4 g to overturn the columns found in the Cathedral. This paleo-PGA is a lower bound and therefore an underestimate. Assuming a PGA of 0.4-0.6 g and converting from PGA to Intensity via Wald et al (1999), one arrives at an Intensity of 8 - 8.5 which reduces to ~6.5 - 7.5 when one considers a site effect.
 VI+ (EAE)
6.5-8.5 (Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor, 2010)
Collapsed Walls Northwest Church
Figure 16

plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004)

Segal et al (2004)
In terms of the relative chronology, the existence of the church was comprised between that of the sanctuary and the earthquake which destroyed the town of Sussita. Year 749 CE as a generally assumed date for this earthquake has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively. - Segal et al (2004:65) VIII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Hippos Sussita appears to be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.

Site Effect
Topographic or Ridge Effect

Topographic or Ridge Effect at Hippos Sussita Fig. 2.5

Simplified north-south trending geological profile through the saddle-like structure of the Sussita hill. On top of the profile, a frequency-dependent seismic amplification is shown which was derived for ten one-dimensional linear elastic models of the subsurface. Abbreviations for the geologic units are given at the bottom of the figure.

Wechsler et al (2018)


Wechsler et al (2018) pointed out that a topographic or ridge effect is likely present Hippos Sussita:
The saddle-like structure of the Sussita hill is prone to topographic amplification of strong ground motion during earthquakes, especially at the hilltop. The focusing effects of seismic waves in similar situations have been reported to lead to significant ground motion amplification (e.g., Massa et al., 2010). In the case of Hippos, the special geometry of the hill is combined with the unusual situation of high impedance material in the form of a basalt flow on top of weaker conglomerates. Figure 2.5 (above) shows a simplified north-south trending profile through the site and the neighboring valleys of Ein-Gev and Sussita. Estimates of ground motion amplification of vertically traveling shear waves from 1D model calculations indicate amplification factors at the hilltop in the range of 8 at frequencies of 2-3 Hz, a frequency range at which constructions such as colonnades show high vulnerability. In any further archaeoseismic studies of the damaged structures in Hippos, the exceptional location of the site and the local conditions must be taken into account.

Calculators
Estimate Magnitude and Intensity with and without a Site Effect

Calculator

Variable Input Units Notes
g Peak Horizontal Ground Acceleration
km. Distance to earthquake producing fault
unitless Site Effect due to Topographic or Ridge Effect
(set to 1 to assume no site effect)
Variable Output - Site Effect not considered Units Notes
unitless Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)
unitless Attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009)
used to calculate Magnitude
Variable Output - Site Effect removed Units Notes
unitless Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)
unitless Attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009)
used to calculate Magnitude
  

Magnitude is calculated from Intensity (I) and Fault Distance (R) based on Hough and Avni (2009) who did not specify the type of Magnitude scale they were using.

Site Effect Removal Methodology

Figures

Figures

  • Figure 13a -          
    Figure 13. (a)

    Residuals between predicted acceleration response spectra (5% damping) for reference station (NRN2) and for station NRN7, for periods up to 1 s. The results are reported for the west—east component and are presented in terms of logarithmic differences. PGHA indicates peak ground horizontal component (in this case, the east—west component).

    Massa et al (2010)
    PGA vs. frequency (period is the inverse of frequency) from Massa et al (2010)

Discussion

Output with site effect removed assumes that PGA is higher than it would be if there was no site effect. In this situation, Intensity (I) with site effect removed is calculated pre-amplification (i.e. it will be lower). This is because an Intensity estimate with the site effect removed is helpful in producing an Intensity Map that will do a better job of "triangulating" the epicentral area. Site Effect is based on Figure 13a and Equation 2 of Massa et al (2010)

Equation 2

log10(Y) = a + b*M+ c*log10(R) + St + σ

where

Y = PGA
M = Magnitude
R = Hypocentral Distance (km.)
St = additional PGA from Topographic Effect
σ = standard deviation of PGA
a,b,c = coefficients relating to attenuation of source energy away from the source

In their study, they estimated a frequency dependent additional PGA (St in Eqn. 2) which is added by a topographic site effect. The additional topographic site effect PGA varied from ~0.1 g to 0.5 g for dominant frequencies of approximately 1 - 5 Hz.. Higher PGA's were shown to be present for higher frequencies which are more likely to occur when the earthquake producing fault is closer to the site. They also noted that a greater topographic effect was observed when the seismic energy arrived orthogonal (perpendicular in their words) to the ridge. Both of these considerations suggest that a topographic ridge effect should be considered at Hippos Sussita when other evidence suggests that one of the Sea of Galilee faults broke during the earthquake. The additional Site Effect PGA is linearly scaled from 0 - 0.5 g for site effects where amplitude increases from 1x to 10x. It's not the greatest transform to remove site effect from the Intensity estimate but may be useful for crude estimates.

Experimental calculators - Variation of Fourier amplitude spectra - UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Calculator

Source : Kramer (1996:92-93)

Seismic Moment and Moment Magnitude
Variable Input Units Notes
GPa Shear Modulus
m Displacement
km. Fault width
km. Fault length
Variable Output Units Notes
N-m Seismic Moment
dynes-cm. Seismic Moment
unitless Moment Magnitude
  
Variable Input Units Notes
unitless Radiation Patttern
unitless Free surface effect
km./s Shear Wave velocity of the rock
g/cc Density of the rock
Moment Magntidue
Hz. cutoff frequency - 15 Hz. typical for W N Am.
bars 50 bars typical for W N Am.
Hz. frequency
km. Fault Distance
Variable Output Units Notes
constant
dyne-cm. Seismic Moment
Hz. Corner frequency
Amplitude (UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
  

Methodology

|A(f)| = [C*Mo*(f2/{1-(f/fc)2})*(1/sqrt{1 + (f/fmax)8})]e-{π*f*R/Q(f)*vs}/R         (3.30 - Kramer, 1996:92)

|A(f)| = fourier amplitudes
C = constant
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)
f = frequency (Hz.)
fc = corner frequency (Hz.)
fmax = cutoff frequency (Hz.)
Q(f) = frequency dependent quality factor, inversely proportional to the damping ratio of the rock
π = Pi
R = distance from circular rupture surface
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock

C = RθΦ*F*V / 4*π*ρ*vs3         (3.31 - Kramer, 1996:92)

RθΦ = Radiation Pattern ≈ 0.55
F = Free-surface effect =2
V = √2/2 - accounts for partitioning of energy into two horizontal components
π = Pi
ρ = density of the rock
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock

fc = 4.9 x 106*vs*(Δσ/Mo)1/3         (3.32 - Kramer, 1996:93)

fc = corner frequency (Hz.)
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock (km/sec.)
Δσ = stress drop (bars) - 50 and 100 are typically used for western and eastern North America
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)

Mw = (2/3)*log10Mo-10.7         (2.5 - Kramer, 1996:49)

Mw = Moment Magnitude
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)

fxsolver

Mo = μ*A*D         (2.1 - Kramer, 1996:42)

μ = Shear Modulus (Pa)
A = Area of rupture (m2)
D = displacement (m)

fxsolver

Units
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 dyne is the force required to accelerate 1 gram 1 cm/s2
1 N = 100,000 dynes
1 bar = 10^6 dynes/cm2

Photogrammetry
Digital Hippos

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Eisenberg, M. (2021) The Basilica of Hippos of the Decapolis and a Corpus of the Regional Basilicae in The Basilica in Roman Palestine, Adoption and Adaptation Processes, in Light of Comparanda in Italy and North Africa, A. Dell’acqua and O. Peleg-Barkat (eds)

Hinzen, K. G. (2010). Sensitivity of earthquake-toppled columns to small changes in ground motion and geometry, Isr. J Earth Sci. 58, nos. 3-4, 309-326, doi: 10.1560/IJES.58.3-4.309.

Karcz, I. and U. Kafri (1978). "Evaluation of supposed archaeoseismic damage in Israel." Journal of Archaeological Science 5(3): 237-253.

Kelany, a., Negem, m., tohami, a. and Heldal, t. (2009) Granite quarry survey in the aswan region, egypt: shedding new light on ancient quarrying. In abu-Jaber, N., bloxam, e.G., Degryse, p. and Heldal, t. (eds.) QuarryScapes: ancient stone quarry landscapes in the Eastern Mediterranean, Geological Survey of Norway Special publication,12, pp. 87–98.

Kowalewska, Arleta and Eisenberg, Michael (2021) Horbat Sussita (Hippos) – Preliminary Report Hadashot Arkheologiyot Volume 135 Year 2023

Massa et al. (2010) An Experimental Approach for Estimating Seismic Amplification Effects at the Top of a Ridge, and the Implication for Ground-Motion Predictions: The Case of Narni, Central Italy Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America Mlynarczyk, J. (2008). Churches and the Society in Byzantine-period Hippos. Decapolis, ARAM Society,, Oxford, ARAM.

Wechsler, N., Marco, S., Hinzen, K.G., and Hinojosa-Prieto, H. (2018) Chapter 2 - Historical Earthquakes around the Sea of Galilee in Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations, Vol. II

Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) Constraining paleo PGA values by numerical analysis of overturned columns Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 39(4):463 - 472

Excavation Reports

Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations, Vol. I

Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations, Vol. II

Websites

Digital Hippos

Publications List from Digital Hippos

Hippos-Sussita at biblewalks.com

Bibliography from Stern et. al. (1993)

G. Schumacher, ZDPV 9 (1886). 327ff.; id ., The Jaulan, London 1888, 194ff.

Schiirer, GJV 2, 155ff.

E. Anati,IEJ3 (1953), 133

J. Leibovitch, CNI 4/2-3 (1953), 31

A. Ovadiah, PEQ ll3 (1981), 101-104

Weippert 1988,6, 65

J. Peleg, Mitteilungen des Leichtweiss-lnstitutfiiur Wasserbau, 103 (1989), 325-336

V. Tzaferis, BAR 16/5 (1990), 50-58

C. Epstein and V. Tzaferis, 'Atiqot 20 (1991), 89-94

M. Nun, The Sea of Galilee: Water Levels Past and Present, Ein Gev 1991, II.

Bibliography from Stern et. al. (2008)

Main publications

Z. Meshel et al., The Water-Supply System of Susita, Tel Aviv 1996; ibid. (Review) BAR 24/3 (1998), 60

A. Segal et al., Hippos-Sussita: 1st Season of Excavations, July 2000, Haifa 2000; id., Hippos-Sussita: 2nd Season of Excavations, July 2001, Haifa 2001; id., Hippos-Sussita: 3rd Season of Excavations, July 2002, Haifa 2002

J. Mlynarczyk, Hippos-Sussita: 3rd Season of Excavations, July 2002: Pottery Report, Haifa 2002

A. Segal et al., Hippos-Sussita: 4th Season of Excavations, June–July 2003, Haifa 2003; id., Hippos-Sussita: 5th Season of Excavations, September–October 2004, and Summary of All Five Seasons (2000–2004), Haifa 2004.

Studies

C. Epstein & V. Tzaferis, ‘Atiqot 20 (1991), 89–94

M. Adinolfi, LA 44 (1994), 375–380

Z. Meshel et al., ESI 14 (1995), 29–30

H. Fahlbusch & B. Rottgardt, Cura Aquarum in Campania: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on the History of Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering in the Mediterranean Region, Pompeii, 1–8.10.1994 (BABESCH: Bulletin Antieke Beschaving Suppl. 4; eds. N. de Haan & G. C. M. Jansen), Leiden 1996, 159–167

R. C. Gregg & D. Urman, Jews, Pagans, and Christians in the Golan Hights: Greek and Other Inscriptions of the Roman and Byzantine Eras (South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 140), Atlanta, GA 1996

M. L. Fischer, Marble Studies, Konstanz 1998

A. Segal, ESI 111 (2000), 12*–13*; 113 (2001), 14*–18*; 114 (2002), 5*–8*; id., Minerva 5/5 (2004), 23–25

B. Bagatti, Ancient Christian Villages of Galilee (SBF Collectio Minor 37), Jerusalem 2001, 59–64

N. Belayche, Iudaea-Palaestina: The Pagan Cults in Roman Palestine (2nd to 4th Century) (Religion der Römischen Provinzen-Religions in Roman Provinces 1), Tübingen 2001, 273–277

J. Mlynarczyk, Sympozja Kazimierskie, 2, Lublin 2001, 215–224 (Eng. abstract); 3, Lublin 2002, 193–203 (Eng. abstract); id., Swiatowitza 3A (2001), 133–141 (Eng. abstract)

J. Peleg, Aram 13–14 (2001–2002), 423–441

C. Ben David, The Aqueducts of Israel, Portsmouth, RI 2002, 199–206

M. Eisenberg, ESI 114 (2002), 8*–9*

T. Tsuk et al., The Aqueducts of Israel, Portsmouth, RI 2002, 207–209; BAR 29/1 (2003), 54

M. Heinzelmann, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Evangelischen Instituts für Altertumswissenschaft des Heiligen Landes 10 (2004), 203–206; 30/1 (2004), 48– 49

A. Lichtenberger, Kulte und Kultur der Dekapolis: Untersuchungen zu numismatischen, archäologischen und epigraphischen Zeugnissen (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 29), Wiesbaden 2003; id., BAIAS 22 (2004), 23–34

M. Schuler et al., ASOR Annual Meeting 2004

Y. Roman, Eretz 100 (2005), 26–33

J. Siegel-Itzkovich, Artifax 20/4 (2005), 6.

Wikipedia page for Hippos Sussita