Transliterated Name | Language | Name |
---|---|---|
Hippos | Greek | Ἵππος |
Antiochia Hippos | Greek | Αντιοχεία Ἵππος |
Hippum | Latin | |
Sussita | Hebrew | סוסיתא |
Sus | Hebrew | סוס |
Sussita | Aramaic | |
Qal‘at al-Ḥuṣn | Arabic | قلعة الحصن |
Hippos-Sussita was one of the ten cities of the Decapolis. It declined during Byzantine and Early Arab periods and is believed to have been largely abandoned after it was badly damaged in one of the Sabbatical Year earthquakes. It is situated atop a flat topped ridge which overlooks the Sea of Galilee. Hippos Sussita appears to be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.
Hippos, a Greek city, known in Arabic as Qal'at el-Husn, is situated some 2 km (1 mi.) east of the Sea of Galilee on a promontory rising 350 m above the sea (map reference 212.242). It was founded by the Seleucids in the Hellenistic period, possibly on the site of an earlier settlement. The town, known by its Greek name, Antiochia Hippos (hippos, "horse"), continued to exist until the Arab conquest. In Aramaic it was known as Sussita. It was conquered in one of the campaigns of Alexander Jannaeus (Syncellus, ed. Dindorf, I, 559). Pompey took it from the Jews (Josephus, Antiq. XIV, 75); according to Pliny (NHV, 74), it was one of the cities of the Decapolis (League of Ten Greek Cities). Augustus gave the city to Herod, much to the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants. After Herod's death it became part of the Province of Syria (Josephus, Antiq. XV, 217; XVII, 320; War I, 396; II, 97). During the First Revolt against Rome, the Jews attacked Hippos (War II, 459, 4 78). Jews from the city were among the defenders of Taricheae (Magdala) (War III, 542). The territory of Hippos extended down to the Sea of Galilee (Josephus, Life 31, 153), and the city was the sworn enemy of Jewish Tiberias on the opposite shore of the lake (Lam. Rab. 19), despite the trade connection between them (J.T., Shevi'it 8, 38a). Jewish villages east of the lake were included in the territory of Hippos and were exempt from tithes in the time of the patriarch Judah I, being considered beyond the frontiers of the land of Israel proper (Tosefta, Shevi'it 4:10; Tosefta, Ohal. 18:4). Remains of ancient synagogues have been found at Fiq (Aphek) and at Umm el-Qanatir, both of which lay within the territory of Hippos. In the Byzantine period, Hippos was the seat of a bishop, being one of the sees of Palaestina Secunda. Like many other towns in the Byzantine period, it enjoyed great prosperity, and many churches and public buildings were erected. The city was probably abandoned after the Arab conquest at the beginning of the seventh century. Isolated buildings were erected on its ruins in later times.
With the settlement at 'En Gev in 1937, surface surveys were again carried out at Hippos by members of the kibbutz. These owed much to the earlier, thorough studies made by G. Schumacher during the latter part of the nineteenth century. However, the new information from observation on the spot, as well as from aerial photographs, made possible a reliable reconstruction of the city plan, on which the positions of its chief public buildings were correctly plotted.
Excavations were carried out at Hippos by C. Epstein (1950-1955), M. Avi-Yonah (195l), A. Shulman(1951), and E. Anati (l952), on behalf of the lsrael Department of Antiquities.
Following an urban survey of the site in 1999, a large-scale archaeological project, planned to include at least ten seasons of excavation, was inaugurated at Hippos (Sussita). The project is directed by A. Segal, under the auspices of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa. Assisting in the direction of the expedition during the seasons reported were J. Mlynarczyk of the Polish Academy of Sciences and M. Burdajewicz of the National Museum in Warsaw. In the summer of 2002, the third season of excavation, the expedition was joined by a group from Concordia University, St. Paul, Minnesota, headed by M. Schuler.
Phase | Date | Comments |
---|---|---|
Pre-basilica Building Phases | Hippos’ Roman basilica stood on naturally almost flat basalt bedrock that extended east of the rectangular temenos of the HLC (Figs. 2 – 6). This area was occupied by other structures before the erection of the basilica in the 1st century CE (Figs. 4 – 5). | |
A | late 4th – early 2nd century BCE | Scattered pottery sherds of the late 4th century and mainly 3rd century BCE
were found in numerous loci above the bedrock, particularly abundant in the
northern part of the area, in the west, adjacent to the eastern HLC wall 10, and in
the south inside a cavity (L2347) covered by a Phase-D wall (W2232, Figs. 5 – 6).
The cavity also produced four out of nine of the coins dated to the
3rd–2nd century BCE from the area of the basilica (Table 1). Phase A represents the earliest
remains of settlement at Hippos11. Similar Ptolemaic-period pottery types and
coins were recovered in the neighboring HLC probes.12
Footnotes
11 Excluding the traces of Chalcolithic activity in various areas around the site and the one instance
of Iron Age (11th century BCE) pottery discovered in the above mentioned cavity L2347. |
B | ca. mid-2nd century BCE | Probes all over the basilica area revealed pottery and a few coins dated to ca.
mid-2nd century BCE (Table 1)13. Also part of this phase are several
plaster installations for liquids, located in the northern side of the area, and probably also two
cisterns and three silos (Figs. 4 – 7). The silos and cisterns adapted natural cavities in
the basalt bedrock and they were plastered with a thick layer of high-quality white
hydraulic plaster. Their function was recognized based on their shape, depth and
the analysis of pollen from the plaster. The silos’ plastersamples contained 65% and
54% of cerealis (grain) pollen14. Some installations were rendered out of use when
the eastern HLC wall (W1151) was constructed on top of them. Other installations
were blocked not later than Phase D – the Early Roman period15.
Footnotes
13 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 92. |
C | late 2nd – mid-1st century BCE | This phase represents the activity from the time of construction and use of
the HLC temenos walls16: plaster floors exposed to the east of the HLC that clearly
adjoin the eastern temenos wall (W1151), patched plaster floors exposed in the
northeast and southern parts of the area, and a tower-like structure (W3054,
W3095, W3065)17 in the northwest corner of the area, on the edge of the cliff,
built against the HLC eastern wall (W1151, Figs. 4 – 6). Some of the Phase B silos
and cistern continued in use. The important finds that most probably should be assigned to this phase (although they could also be of an earlier date) are three Doric capitals and four engaged drums found reused in buttresses, constructed on the northern cliff edge for support of the basilica (W2278 and W3204, Fig. 8). Additional eroded architectural elements, apparently from the same structure, were salvaged in the same area too. All the ashlars are made of local soft caliche (nari) and bear remnants of stucco. These elements were part of one of the first public buildings at Hippos18.
Footnotes
16 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 93. |
D | last third of the 1st century BCE – early 1st century CE | Several wall foundations in nari and basalt are attributed to this phase. The
walls are concentrated in the central southern part of the area and in the west,
along the HLC eastern wall (W1151). Some of the walls are cut by the western
stylobate of the basilica (W2358, Figs. 5 – 7, 9). Only two or three coins are assigned to this phase (Table 1), but the pottery is abundant, found in almost all the
fills inside the cavities in the bedrock, sealed by the basilica’s plaster floors19. The nature of the structure/s to which these walls belonged is unclear. The most curious is W2227 – a ca. 20 m long basalt wall foundation, which runs parallel to the basilica’s western stylobate (W2358), and at the same time almost parallel to the eastern HLC wall, 2.70 m (in the north) to 3.0 m (in the south) away from it (Figs. 5 – 7). W2227 is ca. 1.0 m wide, built of partially dressed basalt ashlars on the outer faces, with medium-sized basalt stones in the core. This building technique is similar to that used for some other walls in the central southern part of the area. Five rectangular foundations (EPW1–5, some ca. 1.5 x 1.3 m and some ca. 1.7 x 1.4 m) were built adjacent to W2227 at intervals of 1.7 – 2.0 m (Fig. 5). The intervals were filled with reinforcing walls 0.6 m wide. Each of the foundations almost adjoints its corresponding basilica pedestal. The sixth foundation (EPW6) was located 6.5 m north of EPW1, above W3095. These pre-basilica walls and rectangular foundations must have been part of a public building. All efforts to locate additional walls of this structure to the east were in vain. It is tempting to interpret the rectangular foundations as podia of the colonnade of an earlier basilica. Since the foundations abut W2227, this wall could not have been part of the superstructure of the earlier basilica – the earlier basilica western wall would have to be located further west, within the HLC (no such wall was located) or directly on top of the remains of the eastern HLC wall (W1151, ca. 2.9 m away from the speculative podia; but this wall has only three securely identified layers – the original Hellenistic, late-1st-century CE connected to the basilica, and Byzantine). The existence of a pre-basilica public structure is supported by the find of seven fragments of large basalt Ionic capitals, recovered from fills and reused in the foundations of the basilica (B7411; Fig. 10). Based on the diameter of the fully preserved volute, the capital belonged to a column 0.78 m in diameter (for comparison, the basilica columns were 0.80 m in diameter).
Footnotes
19 Kapitaikin 2018, 91 – 94. |
The destruction of the basilica was caused by the 363 CE earthquake, as evident by the coins (Table 1) and the pottery51 from the fills directly above the basilica floor and the floor of room III. The latest of the trapped coins date to 361/2 CE. The recovered wall painting and stucco fragments date from the 1st century BCE until the 3rd century CE, with most pieces (including the in-situ ones) assigned to the 2nd-3rd century CE52. Interestingly, none of the fragments are dated to the 4th century CE. Moreover, the basilica debris did not include broken marble statues or significant amount of any small finds that could attest to a sudden destruction of an active public building. Consequently, it seems that the basilica was not maintained and fully active for some years before the 363 CE earthquake53. The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave54. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones. The pendant (B7769) is one of most luxurious pieces of jewelry found to date in Hippos, made of pure gold and semi-precious stones55.Wechsler, N., et al. (2018) noted that
Following the earthquake, the basilica was never rebuilt, nor was the area reused for any significant public structure. The southern part of the basilica debris was covered with floors dated to the 380s CE, constructed ca. 1 m above the basilica floor. Most of the basilica’s architectural fragments, especially from the northern and central parts, were looted and reused in the nearby Byzantine building. During the Umayyad period, additional structures were built on top of the debris, and one building even penetrated through the basilica’s southern walls and reused many of the basilica’s architectural fragments (Figs. 4 – 6).Footnotes51 Kapitaikin 2018, 95 – 96, and there for additonal references.
52 Rozenberg 2018.
53 An urban decline is generally noticeable in Hippos from the end of the 3rd-early 4th century CE. At this time the Southern Bathhouse was abandoned and, not later than 363, the odeion, the Saddle Compound and its theater and the mausolea of the Saddle Necropolis were destroyed, never to be rebuilt (Eisenberg 2019a, 376).
54 The physical anthropology unpublished report concerning the skeletons was prepared in 2014 by Y. Abramov and I. Hershkovitz of the Tel Aviv University.
55 Eisenberg 2017b, 17, Fig. 15.
it is possible that some of the later, strong, post-abandonment earthquakes caused some additional damage at the site.
has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the [northwest] church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively.The church referred to is the Northwest Church. This is not the same church Wechsler et al (2018) and others refer to as the Cathedral. It is the Cathedral which contains the fallen columns that Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) analyzed to estimate a lower limit of paleo-PGA during the earthquake.
1 Greek Inscriptions [in:] A. Segal et al, Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis. The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, vol. I, Haifa 2013, pp. 250-278
The so-called North-West Church, excavated by the Polish team in 2000- 2008,19 yielded a number of invaluable archaeological deposits securely sealed by the debris of an earthquake. There can be no doubt that the earthquake in question was that of January 18th, A.D. 749, since (apart from scores of typical Umayyad-period ceramic vessels) the latest coin, sealed on the floor of the northern aisle, was minted in Tiberias between A.D. 737 and 746.20 Most importantly, the contents of destruction deposits prove that the church was liturgically active till that very moment.21 It was built to the north of the agora (Fig. 1), the central public square (termed “Forum” by the excavators), on the site of an Augustan/Tiberian-period sanctuary,22 not earlier than at the turn of the fifth century (based on the material associated with the stylobate foundation in the atrium)23 or even during the first half of the sixth century. The church builders re-used parts of the cella walls (like the northern wall, in extenso incorporated into the northern wall of the basilica) as well as the stylobate of the eastern portico of the temenos.Footnotes19 The institutions, represented by the team members, were the Research Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology (Polish Academy of Sciences), the National Museum in Warsaw and the Institute of Archaeology (University of Warsaw). The work was financially supported by Grant No 1H01 B009 29 of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (2005-2007).
20 Berman 2001, 38, cat. no. 31. The same earthquake largely destroyed Beisan, cf. Bar-Nathan, Mazor 2007, XIV.
21 Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2003, 31-32; cf. Mlynarczyk 2008a, passim.
22 Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2004, 67-68, fig. 25; Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz 2005a, 53; Mlynarczyk, Burdajewicz. 2005b, 16.
23 Ibidem, 46.
Effect | Location | Image(s) | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Collapsed Walls and re-used building elements |
Basilica![]() ![]() THE BASILICA
(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG) Eisenberg (2021) |
|
|
Collapsed Roof | Northern part of the nave of the Basilica![]() ![]() THE BASILICA
(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG) Eisenberg (2021) |
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones.- Eisenberg (2021:171-173) |
|
Human Remains | Northern part of the nave of the Basilica![]() ![]() THE BASILICA
(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG) Eisenberg (2021) |
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones.- Eisenberg (2021:171-173) |
Effect | Location | Image(s) | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Tilted and displaced walls (tilted and displaced to the west) |
Wall W1386 in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC 5)![]() ![]() Segal and Eisenberg (2007) |
![]() ![]() Hippos 2009, area to the east of the HLC (Hellenistic Compound). Wall 1386. Note the extent of damage, most probably the results of the landslide caused by the earthquake JW: located in HLC 5 Segal et al (2019) |
Segal et al (2019:18) uncovered a wall displaced towards the west (Fig. 21) in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC5) which they attributed to one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes. |
Collapsed walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
Tilted Walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
Displaced Walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
Fallen columns ? (? because the collapse is undated but likely due to this earthquake) |
Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
|
Collapsed Walls | Northwest Church![]() ![]() plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004) Segal et al (2004) |
In terms of the relative chronology, the existence of the church was comprised between that of the sanctuary and the earthquake which destroyed the town of Sussita. Year 749 CE as a generally assumed date for this earthquake has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively.- Segal et al (2004:65) |
Effect | Location | Image(s) | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Tilted walls | ? |
![]() ![]() Tilted wall,Susita. In addition to the effects of construction and ground instability, the unequal load distribution of the rubble should be considered (i.e. post-destruction effects) Karcz and Kafri (1978) ![]() ![]() Tilted building, Susita. Karcz and Kafri (1978) |
Tilted wall and building - Karcz and Kafri (1978) |
1 Granite Quarrying at Aswan is discussed in
Kelany, a., Negem, m., tohami, a. and Heldal, t. (2009) Granite quarry survey in the aswan region, egypt: shedding new light on
ancient quarrying. In abu-Jaber, N., bloxam, e.G., Degryse, p. and Heldal, t. (eds.) QuarryScapes: ancient stone quarry landscapes
in the Eastern Mediterranean, Geological Survey of Norway Special publication,12, pp. 87–98.
2
The Cathedral is, so far, the only structure that has been at the center of quantitative archaeoseimsic studies. Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor (2010) tried to estimate minimum levels of peak ground acceleration (PGA) during the earthquake ground motion which was necessary to topple the Cathedral columns. However, they used the model of a freestanding column of the same size as the ones found in the Cathedral, but with no capital, architrave or other superstructure. Since 2D models were used and forces were applied to the center of gravity of the columns and pedestals, the reported 0.2 - 0.4 m/s2 PGA threshold at frequencies between 0.2 and 4.4 Hz can only be regarded as a rough estimate and are not necessarily representative for the complete structure of the Cathedral which has a significantly different response to earthquake ground motions than a solitary column. Hinzen (2010) used 3D discrete element models conforming to the size of the toppled columns of the Cathedral and showed that the toppling direction during a realistic earthquake ground motion in three dimensions is a matter of chance. A column that is being rocked by earthquake ground motions is in a nonlinear dynamic system and its behavior tends to be of a chaotic character. Small changes to the initial conditions can have a strong influence on the general dynamic reaction and significantly alter the toppling direction. The same paper shows that the parallel orientation is probably an effect of the superstructure connecting the columns mechanically and not a consequence of the ground motion character. This interpretation is also strongly supported by the fact that the two remaining columns of the southern row rest at angles of ~90° compared with the columns from the northern row, as shown in a 3D laser scan model of the site (Fig. 2.4). A similar analysis of the Hippos columns was performed by Hinzen (2010)
Effect | Location | Image(s) | Notes | Intensity |
---|---|---|---|---|
Collapsed Walls and re-used building elements |
Basilica![]() ![]() THE BASILICA
(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG) Eisenberg (2021) |
|
VIII+ | |
Collapsed Roof suggesting displaced walls | Northern part of the nave of the Basilica![]() ![]() THE BASILICA
(Y. NAKAS AND M. EISENBERG) Eisenberg (2021) |
The sole evidence for a sudden disaster is the find of parts of skeletons of at least four humans that were buried under the collapsed roof in the northern part of the nave. Two of the almost intact skeletons belonged to an adult male and a young female. The female was found with an iron nail (most probably from the roof ) stuck in her knee bones and a dove-shaped pendant resting between her neck bones.- Eisenberg (2021:171-173) |
VII+ |
Effect | Location | Image(s) | Notes | Intensity |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tilted and displaced walls (tilted and displaced to the west) |
Wall W1386 in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC 5)![]() ![]() Segal and Eisenberg (2007) |
![]() ![]() Hippos 2009, area to the east of the HLC (Hellenistic Compound). Wall 1386. Note the extent of damage, most probably the results of the landslide caused by the earthquake JW: located in HLC 5 Segal et al (2019) |
Segal et al (2019:18) uncovered a wall displaced towards the west (Fig. 21) in the area east of the Hellenistic Compound (HLC5) which they attributed to one of the mid 8th century CE earthquakes. | VI-VII+ |
Collapsed walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
VIII+ |
Tilted Walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
VI+ |
Displaced Walls | Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
The atrium and the southern aisle floors were covered with collapsed building debris, composed mainly of basalt ashlars. Only the lowest ashlar courses of the building’s walls were extant, and in some places even the lowest course was tilted and pushed out of place. The eastern area of the opus sectile floor of the southern aisle was well preserved.- Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
VII+ |
Fallen columns ? (? because the collapse is undated but likely due to this earthquake) |
Cathedral |
![]() ![]() The Cathedral at the end of the 2021 excavation, aerial view from 3D model. Kowalewska and Eisenberg (2021) |
|
VI+ (EAE) 6.5-8.5 (Yagoda-Biran and Hatzor, 2010) |
Collapsed Walls | Northwest Church![]() ![]() plan of of the North-West Church (2000-2004) Segal et al (2004) |
In terms of the relative chronology, the existence of the church was comprised between that of the sanctuary and the earthquake which destroyed the town of Sussita. Year 749 CE as a generally assumed date for this earthquake has been confirmed by the objects found in the sealed contexts at the church such as the coins and pottery (including oil lamps): see our Report 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively.- Segal et al (2004:65) |
VIII+ |
The saddle-like structure of the Sussita hill is prone to topographic amplification of strong ground motion during earthquakes, especially at the hilltop. The focusing effects of seismic waves in similar situations have been reported to lead to significant ground motion amplification (e.g., Massa et al., 2010). In the case of Hippos, the special geometry of the hill is combined with the unusual situation of high impedance material in the form of a basalt flow on top of weaker conglomerates. Figure 2.5 (above) shows a simplified north-south trending profile through the site and the neighboring valleys of Ein-Gev and Sussita. Estimates of ground motion amplification of vertically traveling shear waves from 1D model calculations indicate amplification factors at the hilltop in the range of 8 at frequencies of 2-3 Hz, a frequency range at which constructions such as colonnades show high vulnerability. In any further archaeoseismic studies of the damaged structures in Hippos, the exceptional location of the site and the local conditions must be taken into account.
Variable | Input | Units | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
g | Peak Horizontal Ground Acceleration | ||
km. | Distance to earthquake producing fault | ||
unitless | Site Effect due to Topographic or Ridge Effect (set to 1 to assume no site effect) |
||
Variable | Output - Site Effect not considered | Units | Notes |
unitless | Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999) | ||
unitless | Attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009) used to calculate Magnitude |
||
Variable | Output - Site Effect removed | Units | Notes |
unitless | Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999) | ||
unitless | Attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009) used to calculate Magnitude |
Source :
Kramer (1996:92-93)
Variable | Input | Units | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
GPa | Shear Modulus | ||
m | Displacement | ||
km. | Fault width | ||
km. | Fault length | ||
Variable | Output | Units | Notes |
N-m | Seismic Moment | ||
dynes-cm. | Seismic Moment | ||
unitless | Moment Magnitude |
Variable | Input | Units | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
unitless | Radiation Patttern | ||
unitless | Free surface effect | ||
km./s | Shear Wave velocity of the rock | ||
g/cc | Density of the rock | ||
Moment Magntidue | |||
Hz. | cutoff frequency - 15 Hz. typical for W N Am. | ||
bars | 50 bars typical for W N Am. | ||
Hz. | frequency | ||
km. | Fault Distance | ||
Variable | Output | Units | Notes |
constant | |||
dyne-cm. | Seismic Moment | ||
Hz. | Corner frequency | ||
Amplitude (UNDER CONSTRUCTION) |
|A(f)| = [C*Mo*(f2/{1-(f/fc)2})*(1/sqrt{1 + (f/fmax)8})]e-{π*f*R/Q(f)*vs}/R
(3.30 -
Kramer, 1996:92)
|A(f)| = fourier amplitudes
C = constant
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)
f = frequency (Hz.)
fc = corner frequency (Hz.)
fmax = cutoff frequency (Hz.)
Q(f) = frequency dependent quality factor, inversely proportional to the damping ratio of the rock
π = Pi
R = distance from circular rupture surface
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock
C = RθΦ*F*V / 4*π*ρ*vs3
(3.31 -
Kramer, 1996:92)
RθΦ = Radiation Pattern ≈ 0.55
F = Free-surface effect =2
V = √2/2 - accounts for partitioning of energy into two horizontal components
π = Pi
ρ = density of the rock
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock
fc = 4.9 x 106*vs*(Δσ/Mo)1/3
(3.32 -
Kramer, 1996:93)
fc = corner frequency (Hz.)
vs = shear wave velocity of the rock (km/sec.)
Δσ = stress drop (bars) - 50 and 100 are typically used for western and eastern North America
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)
Mw = (2/3)*log10Mo-10.7
(2.5 -
Kramer, 1996:49)
Mw = Moment Magnitude
Mo = Seismic Moment (dyne-cm.)
fxsolver
Mo = μ*A*D
(2.1 -
Kramer, 1996:42)
μ = Shear Modulus (Pa)
A = Area of rupture (m2)
D = displacement (m)
fxsolver
Eisenberg, M. (2021) The Basilica of Hippos of the Decapolis and a Corpus of the Regional Basilicae
in The Basilica in Roman Palestine, Adoption and Adaptation Processes, in Light of Comparanda in
Italy and North Africa, A. Dell’acqua and O. Peleg-Barkat (eds)
Hinzen, K. G. (2010). Sensitivity of earthquake-toppled columns to small changes in ground motion and geometry,
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