• Fig. 2 - Location Map
  Figure 2
  
  Map of Petra with the locations of major excavations marked
  
  Jones (2021)
  
  Basemap: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics, USDA FSA, USGS, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, and the GIS User Community
  from Jones (2021)

• ez-Zantur in Google Earth
  ez-Zantur in Google Earth
  
  click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
• Fig. 1 - Annotated Aerial View
  Fig. 1
  
  General view of the sites EZ I, EZ III and EZ IV north and south of az-Zantur
  
  photo: R. Frank
  
  AUAC website
  showing EZ I, III, and IV from AUAC website
• Fig. 2 - Annotated Aerial View
  Fig. 2
  
  Aerial view of the Nabatean villa on EZ IV
  
  photo: E. Dozio
  
  AUAC website
  showing EZ I, III, and IV from AUAC website

• from Schmid (1995)
• Ez-Zantur Excavations utilized Nabatean fineware chronology of Schmid (2000) - which I don't currently have access to

Maps and Plans

Discussion

Kolb (2002:260) reported on excavations of a large residential structure (i.e. the mansion) in ez-Zantur in Petra. They dated the earliest phase of the structure to the 20's CE based on fragments of Nabatean fine wares, dating to 20-70/90 CE, found in the mortar below the opus sectile flooring in rooms 1,10, and 17 as well as in the plaster bedding of the painted wall decorations in room 1. Earthquake induced structural damage led to a remodeling phase which was dated to the early decades of the 2nd century CE (Kolb, 2002:260-261). A terminus post quem of 103-106 CE for the remodel was provided by a coin struck under King Rabbel II found in some rough plaster (rendering coat) in Room 212 of site EZ III (Kolb, 1998:263).

Grawehr M. (2007:399) described a destruction layer at a bronze workshop at ez-Zantur

Room 33 is the work-shop proper. This is indicated by the finds that were encountered in a thick and seemingly undisturbed destruction layer, sealed by the debris of the rooms arched roof. While any indication for the cause of this destruction evades us, the dating of the event is clear. Through the evidence of the coins an the floor we arrive at a terminus post quem of 98 AD. As there is plenty of fine ware in the destruction level, belonging to Schmid's phase 3b, but none of phase 3c, which according to him starts ±100 AD, the destruction must have taken place at the end of the first or early in the second century AD.

Kolb B. and Keller D. (2002:286) also discussed archeoseismic evidence at ez-Zantur

Stratigraphic excavation in square 86/AN unexpectedly brought useful data on the history of the mansion' s construction phases and destruction. The ash deposit in Abs. 2 with FK 3524 and 3533 provided clear indications as to the final destruction in 363. A further chronological "bar line" — a some-what vaguely defined construction phase 2 in various parts of the terrace in the late first or second century AD — received clear confirmation in the form of a thin layer of ash. The lamp and glass finds from the associated FK 3546 date homogeneously from the second century AD, and confirm the assumption of a moderately severe (not historically documented) earthquake that led to the structural repairs observed in various places and the renewal of a number of interior decorations.

Maps and Plans

Discussion

Erickson-Gini and Tuttle (2017) proposed re-dating the relevant ez-Zantur phasing to later dates.

A re-examination of the Zantur fineware chronology by the writer has revealed that it contains a number of serious difficulties.²⁵ The main difficulties in the Zantur chronology center on Phase 3, which covers most of the 1st through 3rd c. CE. Zantur Phase 3 is divided into three sub-phases: 3a (20-80 CE), 3b (80-100 CE) and 3c (100-150 CE). The dating of Phase 3 is based on a very small amount of datable material, for example, the main table showing the datable material (Schmid 2000: Abb. 420) shows that no coins were available to date either Phase 3a or Phase 3c. Moreover, the earliest sub-phase, 3a, was vastly underrepresented.²⁶ At Zantur, there appears to be little justification for the beginning dates for either Phase 3b (80 CE) or 3c (100 CE) or their terminal dates (100 CE and 150 CE respectively). No `clean' loci, i.e., sealed contexts, were offered to prove the dating of Phases 3b and 3c and the contexts are mixed with both earlier (3b) and later (3c) material (ibid., 184). This raises the question as to why a terminal date of 100 CE was fixed for Sub-phase 3b. The coin evidence for Sub-phase 3b is scanty and some of the coins could date as late as 106 CE while there is a discrepancy between the dates of the coins and the imported wares, many of which date later than 100 or 106 CE. In order to date Phase 3 in Zantur, there was a heavy dependence an a very small quantity of imported fineware sherds, mainly ESA. Of the forms used, Hayes 56 is listed in both Phase 3b and 3c (ibid.) and since this particular form dates later than 150 CE (Hayes 1985: 39) the majority of the forms and motifs of both sub-phases 3b and 3c should be assigned to the later 2nd and early 3rd centuries. with its purported range of 60 years.

Footnotes

25 "Problems and Solutions in the Dating of Nabataean Pottery of the Roman Period," presented on February 20, 2014 in the 2nd Roundtable "Roman Pottery in the Near East" in Amman, Jordan on the premises of the American Center of Oriental Research (ACOR).

26 In the words of the report: "Unfortunately, so far only a few homogeneous FKs (find spots/loci) have been registered with fineware exclusively from Phase 3a. After all, if the Western Terra Sigillata form, Conspectus 20, 4 from FK 1122 (Abb. 420, 421 Nr. 43) accurately reflects the duration of Phase 3a, we can thus estimate [the period] as from 20 to 70/80 CE" (Schmid 2000: 38).

Maps, Plans, Figures, and Photos

Discussion

Stucky (1990:270-271) discovered two skeletons (a woman and child - see Figures and Photos above) along with 65 bronze coins (see Figures and Photos above) between the woman's ankles thought to come from a purse which was attached to her belt. These were found beneath a destruction layer (collapsed roof and masonry) in Room 1 of area EZ 1 in Ez-Zantur. The coins dated from 336 - 361 CE providing a strong chronological correlation to severe earthquake damage in Petra due to the southern Cyril Quake. Bedal et al. (2007) also excavated the Ez-Zantur domestic complex at Petra. They identified a destruction layer composed of architectural elements of the pool complex of Ez-Zantur which they attributed to the southern Cyril Quake. Pottery fragments in the layer below the destruction layer were dated from the 1st to 4th century AD.

Kolb et al (1998) offered the following regarding chronology of earthquakes at ez-Zantur

EZ IV: The Nabataean "Villa"

The Last Phase of Occupation

Household objects such as a basalt hand mill, two bone spoons, an alabaster pyxis and a number of unidentifiable iron objects, as well as large quantities of ceramics and glass vessels of the fourth century AD lay buried on the pavement, along walls H and K, beneath innumerable fragments of stucco from the wall and ceiling decoration (see below for the contributions of D. Keller and Y. Gerber). The datable objects confirm last year's findings from room 2, where the coins indicated that the end of the final phase of occupation came with the earthquake of 363 AD (Kolb 1997: 234).

The thick layer of mural and moulded stucco fragments on top of the household utensils of the fourth century proves beyond any doubt that the Nabataean decor remained on the walls up till the aforementioned natural catastrophe.³

Footnotes

3 In Palmyra M. Gawlikowski demonstrated stratigraphically that a dwelling of the second century AD was still decorated with its original stuccoed and painted wall decoration in the Abassid period, i.e. about 600 years later! Cf. M. Gawlikowski, Fouilles recentes a Palmyre, in: Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. Comptes rendus des seances de l'annee 1991: 399-410.3"

Seismic effects from Room 6 at ez-Zantur IV (EZ IV) included broken columns, debris, and a cracked flagstone floor under 6 carbonized wood beams which Kolb et al (1998) described as a witness to the violence with which the wood hit the floor. Also found in ez-Zantur IV were cracked steps (see Fig. 10 in Figures and Photos above) which may have been seismically damaged. There were no indications from the article what lay below the steps and whether geotechnical factors could have played a role in cracking the steps. Kolb et al (1998) report that some structures at EZ IV were built directly on bedrock.

Kolb B. and Keller (2002:286) also discussed archeoseismic evidence at ez-Zantur for both an early 2nd c CE earthquake and the southern 363 CE Cyril Quake.

Stratigraphic excavation in square 86/AN unexpectedly brought useful data on the history of the mansion' s construction phases and destruction. The ash deposit in Abs. 2 with FK 3524 and 3533 provided clear indications as to the final destruction in 363. A further chronological "bar line" — a some-what vaguely defined construction phase 2 in various parts of the terrace in the late first or second century AD — received clear confirmation in the form of a thin layer of ash. The lamp and glass finds from the associated FK 3546 date homogeneously from the second century AD, and confirm the assumption of a moderately severe (not historically documented) earthquake that led to the structural repairs observed in various places and the renewal of a number of interior decorations.

Kolb and Keller (2000:366-368) discovered some glass lamps normally dated to a later time period associated with 363 CE debris (see "Glass finds of Kolb and Keller (2000) which cast doubt on a 363 CE date" collapsible panel).

Maps and Plans

Discussion

Jones (2021) argues that al-Zantur I Spatromisch II ceramics, rather than dating from 363 CE - 419 CE, should date to at least a century later. If true, this would negate archaeoseismic evidence for an earthquake reported in 419 CE (i.e. the Monaxius and Plinta Quake) at ez-Zantur and other sites in Petra such as in a structure outside the Urn Tomb, and in Structure I of the NEPP Project. Jones (2021) suggests instead that the causitive earthquake was more likely the late 6th century CE Inscription At Areopolis Quake. Jones (2021) provides a discussion below:

Kolb (1996: 51, 89; 2000: 238, 244; 2007: 157) attributes the destruction of the final occupation phase of al-Zantur I, Spatromisch II, to the 418/419 earthquake. As with many of the sites discussed above, this attribution is based primarily on numismatic finds, which decline sharply after the 4th century. Like most other regions of the Eastern Mediterranean, however, a lack of 5th century coinage is typical for sites in southern Jordan. For example, in their discussion of coins collected (and purchased) in Faynan, Kind et al. (2005: 188) note a decline in coin frequencies after about 420 AD. While this does not rule out an earthquake, many sites that seem to lack 5th century coinage were, on close inspection, occupied during the 5th century.

The discussion of the coin finds at al-Zantur I also gives cause for pause. The author states,

An end of the settlement of ez Zantur after the earthquake of 419 AD could be harmonized well with the coin series, if not for the discovery of a small bronze coin of Marcianus, which was minted in the years 450-457 AD, discovered in the ash layer of Room 28, in the immediate vicinity of the remains of a kitchen inventory destroyed in an earthquake. ( Peter 1996: 92, translation I. Jones)

Peter goes on to point out that, as the only mid-5th century coin at the site, it may be intrusive, which would allow for an earthquake destruction of Spatromisch II in 418/419. It is worth noting, however, the presence of 25 unidentifiable small bronze coins, 15 of which could be dated to the 4th-5th century ( Peter 1996: 98-100, nos 89-113). At least some of these are likely to be issues of the 5th century.

The discussion of the ceramic assemblage follows a similar pattern. The latest imports present at Spatromisch II are African Red Slip Ware (ARS) Forms 91C and 93B, both dated by Hayes (1972: 144, 148) to the 6th century (Schneider 1996: 40). Schneider (1996: 41) argues that Hayes's (1972) dating for the southern Levant is not entirely secure, and the presence of these forms in Spatromisch II is evidence for an early 5th century appearance. At production sites in Tunisia, however, neither form appears before the mid-5th century (Mackensen and Schneider 2002: 127-30). Likewise, Form 93 does not appear in Carthage until the 5th century, and first appears at Karanis, in the Fayyum, in the '420s CE or later' (Pollard 1998: 150). It is very unlikely that these forms appeared at al-Zantur earlier than they did in North Africa.

The `local' ceramic assemblage from Spatromisch II also contains several forms that postdate 419. Of note are several `Aqaba amphorae (Fellman Brogli 1996: 255, abb. 766-67), which date no earlier than the early 5th century (Parker 2013: 741); Magness's (1993: 206) Arched-Rim Basin Form 2, dating to the 6th-7th century (Fellman Brogli 1996: 260, abb. 790); and local interpretations of late 5th-6th century ARS, e.g. Forms 84 and 99 (Fellman Brogli 1996: 263, abb. 809-10). Gerber (2001: 361-62) also notes the similarity of the Spatromisch II ceramics to those apparently from 6th century phases at the Petra Church, although these contexts are not secure enough to make this comparison definitive.

Overall, the argument that Spatromisch II was destroyed in the 418/419 earthquake is rather circular. A lack of 5th century coinage is presented as evidence of this destruction, and this in turn is used to dismiss a mid-5th century coin as intrusive. If this is accepted, an earlier date must also be accepted for the otherwise mid-5th-6th century ceramics. When considering the evidence together, however, the more parsimonious explanation is that al-Zantur I was occupied, perhaps on a small scale or even intermittently, into the 6th century, which would bring al-Zantur I into line with other sites in Petra and the broader region with 363 and (late) 6th century destruction layers (see Table 1 - below).

Table 1 - Summary of Archeoseismic Evidence from the 4th-6th centuries CE in Petra

• from Jones (2021)

Table 1

List of sites in and near Petra (other than al-Zantur) with destructions attributable to earthquakes in 363 AD and the 6th century

Jones (2021)

If an earthquake did cause the destruction of Spatromisch II, the best candidate would seem to be the Areopolis earthquake of c. 597 AD. This event is known primarily from an inscription that describes repairs performed in the year 492, of the calender of the province of Arabia (597/8 AD), following an earthquake, found by Zayadine (1971) at al-Rabba (ancient Areopolis), on the Karak Plateau (see also Ambraseys 2009: 216-17). Rucker and Niemi (2010: 101-03) have argued, primarily on the basis of the continued use of the Petra Church into the last decade of the 6th century, as evidenced by the Petra Papyri, that this earthquake is a better fit for the 6th century destructions in Petra previously attributed to the earthquake of 551. Accepting c. 597 as the date of the destruction of Spatromisch II is not critical to this paper's argument, but it follows from accepting the excavators' identification of an earthquake destruction and considering the events postdating 418/419 that could plausibly have affected southern Jordan. The possible events listed in the most recent Ambraseys (2009: 179, 199-203, 216-17) catalogue are the 502 Acre earthquake, which seems to have caused little damage inland; the 551 Beirut earthquake, an attribution Ambraseys explicitly rejects due to the lack of major destruction in Jerusalem; and the c. 597 Areopolis earthquake, which is the most likely possibility if the first two are ruled out. Of course, it is not possible to rule out destruction during a later earthquake, an otherwise unknown earthquake, or due to another cause entirely. Likewise, the destruction of the building does not necessarily coincide with the end of the occupation; it is entirely possible for an earthquake to destroy a previously abandoned building. Regardless of the exact date of the destruction, the evidence discussed above indicates that occupation continued into the 6th century.

The ceramics from al-Zantur are an important chronological anchor in the Petra region, and it has generally been accepted that those from Spatromisch II date to the narrow period between 363 and 419. Expanding the dating of this phase to the late 4th-6th century, therefore, has implications for the dating of other sites in Petra, notably the Petra Church.

A much more extensive discussion of dating evidence and interpretation can be found in Jones (2021). Some of his conclusions follow:

A critical review of the dating evidence from al-Zantur I Spatromisch II indicates that this destruction has been misdated by at least a century. Spatromisch II was occupied at least into the 6th century, and if an earthquake was responsible for its destruction, the Areopolis earthquake of c. 597 is a more likely candidate. This returns the emergence of the Negev wheel-made lamp to the 6th century, in line with essentially every other site where it occurs. This revision also has implications for the dating of the Petra Church, which relied heavily on comparison to the material from al-Zantur, and other sites in Petra. Taken on its own, the evidence indicates that the Petra Church was built in the early 6th century, rather than the mid-5th.

• Excerpts from Kolb and Keller (2000:366-368)
• Kolb and Keller (2000:366-368) discovered some glass lamps associated with 363 CE debris which normally dated to a later time period (after 363 CE)

A few small glass fragments found on az-Zantür are of particular interest, because they are early examples of glass lamps of the late Roman and early Byzantine Near East. Their contexts allow not only exact dating, but, moreover, they give some indication of their original use.

... Fragments of beaker-shaped vessels with a round, flaring rim, a conical or slightly rounded body and three small handles belong to a first group of glass lamps.

... They were found in the layers immediately above the floors in rooms 11 and 19 (Nos. 1-3) of the mansion on EZ IV. Constantine coins, datable pottery finds and fragments of glass which accompanied the lamp sherds in the same layer, show that the destruction of the building was caused by the earthquake of 363 AD⁶ . This firm sealing date is remarkably early for glass lamps. In fact, they seem to be among the earliest examples of a type of lighting which became common during Byzantine and Islamic times.

... Fragments of a further glass lamp of the same type (No. 4) found in the upper strata of rooms 11, 12 and 14, as well as another rim sherd in room 16 (No. 5) deserve special attention. Together with two other rim sherds of this shape found on the site EZ I in mixed contexts (Nos. 6-7), these fragments may represent a shape of glass lamps distinctive of Petra. Except for the latter fragments which come from mixed contexts, all remains of this type were found in the destruction layers of the earthquake of 363, and they do not reappear anymore in later contexts . We may conclude that they represent, at least in the Petra region a specific type belonging to the mid fourth century.

At other archaeological sites of the Eastern Mediterranean such lamps are either completely absent - as in the churches of Palestine and Transjordan - or, alternatively, only a small amount of sherds is documented. The same is true for the western part of the Roman Empire⁸. Only at Sardis (Turkey) such glass lamps seem to be present in a few fragments from the Byzantine shops and churches, but they date to between the fifth and seventh centuries⁹. Similarly belonging to a late date are comparable rim sherds from Gerasa, one from a context of the fourth to fifth century (Meyer 1988: 191 Fig. 6T), and a second one dated to the fifth or early sixth century (Dussart 1998: 82 No. BVI.1211 Pl. 14,16)¹⁰. In tomb 217 on the Mount of Olives at Jerusalem, occupied between the mid fourth and the mid fifth centuries, a complete specimen of this type was discovered. This glass lamp, however, has a wick holder¹¹, a later feature of which there are no traces on the aforementioned rims and handles from EZ IV. Accordingly, the early glass lamps from az-Zantür have to be reconstructed without a wick holder.

A fragment with a tubular wick holder placed on the centre of the concave bottom, was uncovered in room 2 on site EZ I (No. 13, Fig. 15:4). Unquestionably, it belongs to the latest occupation of EZ I which was terminally disrupted by a second earthquake in the early fifth century, most probably in 419 (Kolb 1996: 51; 82). Glass lamps with wick holders therefore appear in Petra as early as the beginning of the fifth century, contradictory to the later date assigned elsewhere (Stern 1999: 480). Rim sherds of the above described type, however, are not present in later contexts anymore. Instead, a type with outfolded rim, three small handles and a conical (Nos. 9-12, Fig. 15:3) or slightly rounded body (No. 8, Fig. 15:2) is recorded. At EZ I, such rim sherds were found in rooms 8 and 28, which were destroyed in the above mentioned earthquake in the early fifth century (Kolb 1996: 51; 65; 71; 89). The simultaneous appearance of outfolded rims and wick holders suggest a new type combining both features. This type is also documented in rooms XXIX and XXX of the recently exposed shops on the Colonnaded Street which were abandoned in the early or mid fifth century¹². Additional fragments of this type of glass lamp were found in the last phase of use of rooms XXVI-XXVIII dated to the sixth century¹³. The continuous use of these lamps is con-firmed by specimens uncovered in the Byzantine monastery at Jabal Haroun¹⁴. Therefore, we may assume that glass lamps with outfolded rims, three handles and wick holders were common in the Petra region from the early fifth century onwards.

In search of parallels, two wick holders found at Jalame (Israel) should be mentioned¹⁵. Notably, these were not produced in the local glass factory of the mid fourth century, nor were they found in layers connected to the workshop. Thus they cannot predate the finale phase of occupation at Jalame which is dated by the coins to the early fifth century (Davidson Weinberg 1988: 19-21).

In Palestine and Transjordan, the majority of glass lamps was found in churches¹⁶ - but not exclusively: specimens from the Late Roman forts at en Boqeq and Mezad Tamar¹⁷, as well as the discussed finds from az-Zantür evidence their use in purely domestic contexts.

Erickson-Gini and Tuttle (2017) AN ASSESSMENT AND RE-EXAMINATION OF THE AMERICAN EXPEDITION IN PETRA EXCAVATION IN THE RESIDENTIAL AREA (AREA I), 1974-1977: THE EARLY HOUSE AND RELATED CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES in The Socio-economic History and Material Culture of the Roman and Byzantine Near East. Essays in Honor of S. Thomas Parker. Edited by Walter D. Ward.

Grawehr M. (2007). Production of Bronze Works in the Nabataean Kingdom. SHAJ 9, 397-403.

Jones, I. W. N. (2021). "The southern Levantine earthquake of 418/419 AD and the archaeology of Byzantine Petra." Levant: 1-15.

Kolb, B. 1996 Die spätrömischen Bauten. Pp. 47-89 in A. Bignasca et al., Petra. Ez Zantur I. Er-gebnisse der Schwiezerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen 1988-1992. Terra Archaeologica Bd. II. Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.

B. Kolb – D. Keller – Y. Gerber, 1998, Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavations at az-Zantur in Petra 1997. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 42, 1998, 259–277.

B. Kolb – L. Gorgerat – M. Grawehr, 1999, Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavations on az-Zantur in Petra 1998, ADAJ 43, 1999, 261–277.

Kolb B. and Keller D., 2000, Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavation at az-Zantur – Petra. The Tenth Season. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 44, 2000, 355–372.

Kolb, B., 2001, A Nabataean mansion at Petra: Some Reflections on its Architecture and Interior Design. in: Bisheh, G. (ed), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan VII, 2001, 437–445.

Kolb B. and Keller D., 2001, Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavation at az-Zantur – Petra. The Eleventh Season. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 45, 2001, 311–324.

Kolb B. and Keller D. (2002:286). Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavation at Az-Zantur / Petra: The Twelfth Season. ADAJ, 46, 279-294.

Kolb, B. 2007. Nabataean private architecture. In, Politis, K. D. (ed.), The World of the Nabataeans

Schmid, S. (1995) Nabataean Fine Ware from Petra SHAJ V

Schmid, S.G. 2000. Petra ez Zantur II. Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen. Teil I: Die Feinkeramik der Nabatäer. Typologie, Chronologie und kulturhistorische Hintergründe. Terra Archaeologica vol. IV. Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.

• Titles have been translated from German

Petra ez Zantur I. Results of the Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavations 1988-1992. With contributions by A. Bignasca - R. Fellmann Brogli - R. Glutz - S. Karg - D. Keller - B. Kolb - Ch. Schneider - R. Stucky - J. Studer - I. Zanoni, Terra Archaeologica II. Monographs of the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for Archaeological Research Abroad (SLSA) (Mainz 1996).

Petra ez Zantur II. results of the Swiss-Liechtenstein excavations. Part 1: S. G. Schmid, The Fine Ceramics of the Nabataeans. Typology, chronology and cultural-historical background. Part 2: B. Kolb, The late antique dwellings of ez Zantur in Petra and dwelling construction in Palestine from the 4th-6th centuries AD, Terra Archaeologica IV. Monographs of the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for Archaeological Research Abroad (SLSA) (Mainz 2000).

Petra ez Zantur III. results of the Swiss-Liechtenstein excavations. Part 1: D. Keller, The jars from Petra. Part 2: The lamps of the excavations on ez Zantur in Petra, Terra Archaeologica V. Monographs of the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for Archaeological Research Abroad (SLSA) (Mainz 2006).

Petra ez Zantur IV, results of the Swiss-Liechtenstein excavations. M. Grawehr, A 1st century AD bronze workshop from ez Zantur at Petra, Terra Archaeologica VI. Monographs of the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for Archaeological Research Abroad (SLSA) (Mainz 2010).

International Ez Zantur Project

Selected bibliography of the International Ez Zantur Project with some open access publications

Petra-Ez Zantur at Basel University