Capitolias Theater Figure 3

An aerial photograph of the excavated Beit-Ras/ Capitolias theater.
Main parts of the theater are indicated. The city wall serves as a buttress in front of the scaena walls and the towers with staircases. The city wall connected with the eastern stage gate and vomitoria gate.

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)

Photo taken on 1st October 2015 and photographed by Rebecca Elizabeth Banks (courtesy of Aerial Photographic Archive of Archaeology in the Middle East [APAAME], photo. APAAME_20151001_REB-0193. Creative Commons License CC BY-NC-ND 3.3. East—west length 57 m).


Names

Transliterated Name Source Name
Beit Ras Arabic بييت راس
Capitolias Ancient Greek Καπιτωλιάς
Bet Reisha Aramaic
Introduction

Capitolias, located by the modern town of Beit Ras in Jordan, was one of the cities of the Decapolis. After the Muslim conquest, the town name was changed to Beit Ras, similar to its original Aramaic name Bet Reisha. (C. J. Lenzen in Meyers et al, 1997) A hiatus in occupation at the site has yet been found, but a gradual decrease in size and change in use from public space to private space seems to [have begun] as early as the tenth century CE. (C. J. Lenzen in Meyers et al, 1997)

Maps and Plans Chronology

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) examined archeoseismic evidence in 2019 and 2020 at the theater of Capitolias. They documented archaeoseismic evidence from two earthquakes which appear to have damaged the structure - one before 260/261 CE and one after. The 260/261 CE dividing date is based on a dedicatory inscription found in a rebuilding phase where the eastern aditus maximus gate was walled up. There also appears to be archaeoseismic evidence for later earthquakes. Estimated phasing and chronological discussions for individual earthquakes are listed below.

Phasing - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)

Maps and Plans

  • Major parts of a Roman Theater
    Figure 4

    Major parts of a Roman theater. It is mostly the shape of Beit-Ras/Capitolias theater at the time of construction. Modified after Fayyad and Karasneh (2004), Karasneh and Fayyad (2005), and Sears (2006), and our field observation.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    from Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
  • Timeline of the site
    Figure 12

    Timeline of the main phases, the two main phases of major destruction, which could be earthquake events and the candidate earthquakes that affected Beit-Ras and surrounding region. Historical chronology of Jordan from Early Roman to Umayyad modified after Stager et al. (2000).

    JW: 233 and 245 earthquake dates are spurious. 130 CE earthquake is questionable and may be a duplicate of the Incense Road Earthquake (listed on the timeline as 114 CE). This is why this archaeoseismic evidence represents an earthquake not reported in the historical record but discovered by archaeoseismic means.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    from Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Phase Comments
The foundation of Capitolias and the construction of the theater
  • According to Lenzen and Knauf (1987), based on numismatic and epigraphic evidence, the city reached its peak of prosperity in the latter half of the second century and the first half of the third century A.D., and the evidence of the coins suggests that the city certainly existed when coins were minted at Capitolias in A.D. 97/98 (Spijkerman, 1978). - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:5-6)
  • The good economic position of the city promoted the construction of a theater—usually a project of decadal duration - possibly as early as the coins were minted (i.e., at the end of the first century A.D.). The theater was built against a hill slope, a typical engineering solution until the end of the second century A.D. (Sear, 2006). According to Frezouls (1959), many theaters were built in the region throughout the first to third centuries. - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6)
1st damage and construction
  • It can be understood that the original theater was heavily damaged by an earthquake, where the perimeter corridor, the ambulacrum, the staircases, and the scaenae were damaged beyond repair, whereas the lateral portions of the cavea survived, including the eastern arched gate of the aditus maximus. Subsequent restoration was made using stones of inferior quality for the scaenae. The staircases and the eastern stage gate were rebuilt (still visible today), whereas the ambulacrum was not. Instead, the gate to the aditus maximus was walled up and marked with a dedicatory inscription. All these were built before A.D. 261—the date of the inscription. A subsequent earthquake cracked the ashlars of the gate, causing stone spalling and breaking off. Finally, the basalt stone portion of the wall is evidence for a later local damage and repair at an unknown time (Fig. 9f
    Figure 9

    External view of the eastern orchestra gate leading from the outside into the aditus maximus.

    1. Above the gate arch, there are two rows of ashlars of the former vault of the ambulatorium.
    2. Upon the collapse of the passage, the gate was walled up, allowing access to the theater via a smaller stone door below (in the lower part).
    3. A carved inscription from A.D. 261 dates the walling up event.
    4. About a meter to the right, there is a different wall, made of chalky limestone of lighter color, and has irregular contact with the original wall.
    5. The wall suture clearly indicates that the lighter chalk wall was attached to the darker limestone wall later, as a repair structure.
    6. Repair on the left by basalt cubes was carried out after the wall with the inscription was built.


    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    ).     - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6-7)
  • The ambulacrum was never restored, while the scaenae was rebuilt, but from stones of inferior quality. The idea that the ambulacrum collapsed previously is further evidenced by the walling up with chalk limestone masonry on four of the six vomitoria. This was probably done at the same time as when the eastern gate was walled up. - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:7)
Conversion of use
  • Observations strongly indicate that after the first collapse and subsequent reconstruction as a theater, the building was transformed into an amphitheater - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:7)
2nd collapse and abandonment
  • It is likely that after the conversion into an amphitheater, at least one other earthquake was responsible for deformation seen in the scaenae wall (i.e., tilting, shifted stones, dropped keystones, stones rotations). The scaenae itself is strongly tilted toward the north, so much so that two-thirds of the original height collapsed and is missing, and leaving behind only a 3-5-meter-high truncated wall. This seismic event definitely contributed to the theater's abandonment, when all damage remained unrepaired (Karasneh et al., 2002). Later, a buttress wall was built to support the tilted scaenae, making it a part of the city wall, in Late Roman-Early Byzantine.
    The second collapse of the theater certainly occurred, after the conversion into an amphitheater and just before buttressing the scaenae wall system. This succession of events is proven by the severely damaged vomitoria arches, which were left unrepaired. It can be suggested that this final collapse led to a final abandonment of the theater.     - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:8)
2nd restoration phase
  • conversion into a fortification: The unused theater structure was kept standing by a buttress wall, 1.5 m thick, joining the 1-meter-thick tilted scaenae. This wall encircled both staircases, providing support to the damaged northern facade. Also, there are two walls (part of the city wall) adjacent to the eastern side of the theater
    (trend northwest-southeast) (Figs. 3
    Figure 3

    An aerial photograph of the excavated Beit-Ras/ Capitolias theater.
    Main parts of the theater are indicated. The city wall serves as a buttress in front of the scaena walls and the towers with staircases. The city wall connected with the eastern stage gate and vomitoria gate.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)

    Photo taken on 1st October 2015 and photographed by Rebecca Elizabeth Banks (courtesy of Aerial Photographic Archive of Archaeology in the Middle East [APAAME], photo. APAAME_20151001_REB-0193. Creative Commons License CC BY-NC-ND 3.3. East—west length 57 m).
    and 5
    Figure 5

    Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    ).     - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:8)
  • Mlynarczyk (2017) dated a portion of the city wall that has a width of 2.5 m and is located 140 m west of the theater to not later than second century A.D., based on ceramics embedded in abutting floor levels. We think that this dating is not valid for the portion of the city walls adjacent to the theater, where the buttress wall is 1.5 m thick. At this time, the building was still functioning as designed, as a theater or amphitheater, as proven by the inscription dated A.D. 261 (Bader and Yon, 2018). The original city wall was probably somewhere to the south of the theater at that time. The city wall, which blocks most entrances of the theater, was built later, most likely after the second damaging earthquake. Mlynarczyk's doubts can be accepted on "tentatively dated" and "not easy to be dated" ceramics from the lower two stratigraphic levels (i.e., phases) abutting the wall. However, we agree with her assignment of the upper phase (fifth phase) of the wall as Late Roman (fourth-fifth centuries), and consider this period as terminus ante quem when the wall was constructed. - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:9)
The landfill
  • burying phase: Following the final abandonment, the empty space above the cavea, orchestra, and stage was filled up naturally and/or deliberately with sand and debris (Fig. 11
    Figure 11

    Sand and debris found at the theater during the excavation (after Lucke et al., 2012, modified).

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    ), composed of sand-sized to boulder-sized clasts and containing fragments of ceramics and thin charcoal layers.     - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10)
  • It is most likely that the sediment burying the theater can roughly be dated as Late Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad, because it contained a chaotic mixture of ceramics from these ages, including stamped Late Roman pottery (Karasneh and Fayyad, 2004). According to Lucke et al (2012), four ash bands were identified across the fill material. The 14C dating of these bands indicated that the major part of the sediment was deposited, approximately, between A.D. 521 and 667 (Lucke et al., 2012). This is the period before and during the early years of the Umayyad caliphate (A.D. 661-750). Considering the error of radiocarbon dates measured on old timber (Schiffer, 1986), it is difficult to know exactly how old the living tree and age of dead wood was, when carbonized. This is a terminus post quem for the deposition of the landfill. - Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10)

Phasing - Lenzen (2003)

Lenzen (2003) provided the following phasing:

Phase Date Comments
I c. 1900 CE - present
II c. 1800-1900 CE
III c. 1500-1800 CE
IV c. 900-1500 CE
V c. 600-900 CE
VI c. 300-600 CE
VII foundation to c. 300 CE

mid 3rd century CE Earthquake

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) bracketed the date of the first earthquake between 97/98 CE and a dedicatory inscription dated to 260/261 CE. Although Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10) noted that a definitive judgment on the time separating the first earthquake occurrence from its subsequent reconstruction [] is difficult to support, restoration efforts memorialized by the inscription suggests that the earthquake likely occurred close to the 260/261 CE date - within a few decades. Numismatic and epigraphic evidence indicated that the city was fairly prosperous from the later half of the second century CE into the first half of the 3rd century CE and thus capable (and willing) to convert their theater to an amphitheater fairly quickly after the damaging earthquake.

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) discovered only a few recent earthquakes in the earthquake catalogues near to the 260/261 CE date - in 233, 242, and 245 CE. However, these all appear to be false events propagated from Willis' (1928) first uncorrected catalog which misdated these earthquakes reported by Arab Chronicler As-Soyuti by ~622 years due to a failure to recognize that As-Soyuti's dates were reported in the Islamic calendar (A.H.) rather than the Julian calendar. Ambraseys (2009) reports a possible earthquake in Palmyra, Syria in 233 CE based on an inscription however Palmyra is 310 km. away from the the theater at Capitolias so it is doubtful that an earthquake could have caused heavy damage in both places. Hence, this archeoseismic evidence points towards a previously unrecognized earthquake not reported in the earthquake catalogues and not reported in any extant historical source that I am currently aware of. More details on the false earthquake events propagated from Willis (1928) can be found in in the collapsible panel below.

Earthquake Catalog Error Propagation

Earthquake Catalogs that reference earthquakes in 233 CE and 245 CE go back to Willis (1928) whose source was As-Soyuti. Although he later issued a correction, Willis' (1928) initial paper did not recognize that As-Soyuti provided Islamic AH (After Hejira) dates instead of Julian dates hence Willis' (1928) earthquake dates from As-Soyuti are off by ~622 years (too early). Later catalogers copied these erroneous dates. Catalog entries going backwards illustrate this below :

Sbeinati et al (2005)

  • [019] 233 Damascus: VII.

    Parametric catalogues
    − Ben-Menahem (1979): 233 A.D., Ml= 6.3,damage in Damascus.
    Seismological compilations
    − Sieberg (1932): 233 A.D., there was an earthquake in Syria causing destruction of many houses at Damascus.

  • [020] 242-245 Antioch: VI-VII; Syria: VI-VII; Egypt: III; Iran: III.

    Parametric catalogues
    − Ben-Menahem (1979): 245, Ml= 7.5, near Antioch (Willis).
    Seismological compilations
    − Sieberg (1932): 242 or 245, a strong earthquake in Antioch and all over Syria. It was felt in Egypt and Iran.
Ben-Menahem (1979)
  • 233 Damage in Damask. ML = 6.3 Source: Sieberg (1932)
  • 245 Near Antiochia. ML = 7.5 Source: Willis (1927)
Sieberg (1932a)
  • 233. Severe earthquake in Syria only destroys Damascus (Sehweres Erdbeben in Syrien nut Zerstiirungen in Damaskus)
Willis (1928)
  • 220 Antioch; very destructive, lasted forty days Source: As-Soyuti
  • 233 Damascus ; many buildings destroyed Source: As-Soyuti
  • 242 Syria in general ; very violent and extended from Egypt to Persia Source: As-Soyuti
  • 245 Antioch ; excessive, very widespread Source: As-Soyuti
As-Soyuti from Sprenger (1843) - A.H. dates
  • 220 Antiochia was destroyed by an earthquake, which lasted forty days.
  • 224 An earthquake at Fergana, by which 15,000 persons perished.
  • 225 An earthquake at Ahwaz for sixteen days ; it was also felt in Jebal.
  • 233 At Damascus many persons were buried under their houses; the earthquake extended to Antiochia, Mesopotamia, and Mausil. It is supposed that 50,000 persons perished.
  • 232 Several earthquakes, more particularly in the Maghrib and in Syria, where the walls of Damascus and Emessa were destroyed. It was felt at Antiochia and El-Awassim in Mesopotamia and Mausil.
  • 233 On Thursday, the 11th of Rabi-al-Akhar, many buildings were destroyed at Damascus by an earthquake. note
  • 234 At Herat, the houses were destroyed.
  • 239 At Tiberias.
  • 240 In the Maghrib, thirteen villages of Kairowan sunk.
  • 242 In Shaban a very violent earthquake. At Tunis about 45,000 persons were buried under their houses; it extended also over Yemen, Khorasan, Fars, Syria, Bastam, Komm Kashan, Rai, el-Damaghan, Nishapur, Taberistan and Ispahan. The mountains fell down, and the earth opened so extensively that men could walk into it ; and in the village El-sud in Egypt, five stones fell from heaven. One stone fell on the tent of a Bedouin and set it on fire. The weight of these stones was ten rotles. In Yemen a hill covered with fields moved from its place and became the property of another tribe.
  • 245 Earthquakes prevailed over the whole earth, and many towns and bridges were destroyed. At Antiochia a mountain fell into the sea, with 1005 houses. It had been covered with about ninety villages. The river disappeared one farsang's distance. Dreadful noises were heard at Tinnis. In Mecca all the springs disappeared. The earthquake extended over Rakka, Harran, Ras el-'Ain, Emessa, Damascus, Rokha, Tarsus, Massissa and Adina. On the shores of Syria, in Laodicea, mountains moved with their inhabitants, and when it had destroyed, El-son, it crossed the Euphrates, and was felt in Khorassan.
QED

Note: Fourmilabs webpage converts between Islamic dates and Julian dates.

3rd-5th century CE Earthquake

The second earthquake is believed to have tilted the scaenae wall approximately 8 degrees to the north where the upper 2/3 of that wall is now missing. Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:8) suggest this event led to final abandonment of the theater as so much was left unrepaired. Later, an adjacent buttress wall was built providing a terminus ante quem for the second event. They dated this terminus ante quem to the 4th to 5th centuries CE. Sediment infill in the theater provides a second later terminus ante quem based on ceramics of Late Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad ages and radiocarbon dating of ash bands within the sediment infill which indicated that most of the sediment was deposited between 521 and 667 CE ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:10). While their evidence strongly suggests earthquake damage, the dating of the causative event is unfortunately not well constrained.

mid 8th Century CE Earthquake

Maps and Plans

  • Excavation area map from Mlynarczyk (2017)
    Figure 1

    Trenches excavated by the PCMA project (C) in relation to the Vaults area (A) and the Theater (B) (PCMA Beit Ras Project/R. Bieńkowski)

    Mlynarczyk (2017)
  • Map of area excavated (sectors N, S, and SS) in 2015 and 2016 from Mlynarczyk (2017)
    Figure 2

    Sector investigated by the PCMA Project: top, results of the electrical resistivity survey (2014); bottom, extent of trenches excavated in 2015–2016 in relation to the results of the electrical resistivity survey (PCMA Beit Ras Project/interpretation of survey results J. Ordutowski; plan J. Ordutowski [2014] and M. Burdajewicz [2015–2016])

    Mlynarczyk (2017)
  • Detailed plan of Sector S excavation from Mlynarczyk (2017)
    Figure 5

    Trench in Areas 1-S and 1-S(W). Key

    • light grey — floors
    • hatched — mosaic floor of the winery


    (PCMA Beit Ras Project/drawing M Drzewiecki [2015], drawing and digitizing M Burdajewicz [2015-2016]

    Mlynarczyk (2017)
Mlynarczyk (2017) identified archaeoseismic evidence from what they believed to be a mid 8th century CE earthquake from excavations conducted in 2015 and 2016 in an area west of the theater. She presumed that destruction of the city wall was due to this earthquake.
Area 1-S (W) Square 1 (W)
Mlynarczyk (2017:484) described the archaeoseismic evidence as follows:
[Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10
Figure 10

Blocks tumbled from wall W K with part of floor F III above, view facing east (PCM/1 Belt Ras Project/photo J. Mlynarczyk)

Mlynarczyk (2017)
]. The blocks lay on a compacted earthen floor F IV, approximately 0.65 m below F III. The ceramic material sealed below [Floor] F IV does not seem to be contaminated and pertains to the late Byzantine to Umayyad period. It is to be assumed, therefore, that the earthquake evidenced by the collapsed blocks was that of AD 749.
Area 1-S Square 9
Mlynarczyk (2017:489) described the archaeoseismic evidence as follows:
The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s). The collected pottery is evidence of earthquake destruction in AD 749, even if this unsealed debris contained some intrusive material of a later (Abbasid) period. The lack of a floor above this deposit proves that habitation ceased in this particular area after the earthquake. The rubble was left in place without ascertaining the floor on which it rested.

Later Earthquakes

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:14) discussed archaeoseismic evidence for later post abandonment earthquakes

We believe that filling up the cavea and orchestra of the theater happened parallel with the construction of the enclosing wall that essentially put all of the remaining building underground. Underground facilities are significantly less vulnerable to seismic excitation than that above-ground buildings (Hashash et aL, 2001). Understandably, when each wall and arch are supported by embedding sediment (dump in Beit-Ras), the observed deformations of the excavated theater mostly cannot develop unless unsupported. Therefore, evidence of damage due to any subsequent events, such as A.D. 551, 634, 659, and 749, cannot be observed, because the possibility of collapse of buried structures is not plausible. However, potential collapse of other above-ground structures within the site of Beit-Ras cannot be ignored, such as the upper elements of the theater's structures, which were still exposed after the filling of the theater with debris. Several observations indicated that many collapsed elements of the upper parts of the theater were mixed with the debris, as documented in excavation reports by Al-Shami (2003, 2004). Another example suggesting the effect of the later events, such as that of A.D. 749. Mlynarczyk (2017) attributed the collapse of some sections of the city wall of Beit-Ras to this event, based on the concentration of collapsed ashlars and the age of collected pottery from two trenches excavated to the west of the theater structure.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) also noted the following about the eastern orchestra gate:
The basalt masonry in the upper left (Fig. 9f
Figure 9

External view of the eastern orchestra gate leading from the outside into the aditus maximus.

  1. Above the gate arch, there are two rows of ashlars of the former vault of the ambulatorium.
  2. Upon the collapse of the passage, the gate was walled up, allowing access to the theater via a smaller stone door below (in the lower part).
  3. A carved inscription from A.D. 261 dates the walling up event.
  4. About a meter to the right, there is a different wall, made of chalky limestone of lighter color, and has irregular contact with the original wall.
  5. The wall suture clearly indicates that the lighter chalk wall was attached to the darker limestone wall later, as a repair structure.
  6. Repair on the left by basalt cubes was carried out after the wall with the inscription was built.


Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
) suggests a later local collapse and repair phase, where the basalt courses are overlaying the marly-chalky limestone to the left of the walled arched eastern gate.

Seismic Effects
mid 3rd century CE and 3rd-5th century CE Earthquake

Maps and Plans

  • Major parts of a Roman Theater
    Figure 4

    Major parts of a Roman theater. It is mostly the shape of Beit-Ras/Capitolias theater at the time of construction. Modified after Fayyad and Karasneh (2004), Karasneh and Fayyad (2005), and Sears (2006), and our field observation.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    from Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
  • Plan of the Capitolias Theater with damage locations
    Figure 5

    Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing.

    Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
    from Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Seismic Effects observed by Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) in the Capitolias Theater are listed below. See plan above (referred to as Figure 5 by Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020) for locations.

Damage Type Event Figure Comments
Displaced Arches ?4 6a
Figure 6a

Damage features within displaced arches: dropped blocks of the flat arch, east door in scaena

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
The flat arches are seen as the lintel arches above the stage gates (Fig. 6a) (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1
Displaced Arches ?4 6b
Figure 6b

dropped blocks of the flat arch of the eastern stage gate (versura)

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
The eastern stage gate (versurae), trending north-south, has a flat arch and a stress-releasing segmental arch above, where two stones of the flat arch dropped down almost 3 cm (Fig. 6b) (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1
Displaced Arches ?4 6c
Figure 6c

dropped blocks of the flat arch of vomitorium, small spaces between the stones formed due to the ground shaking

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
The flat arches of most vomitoria to the cavea also are dropped down (Fig. 6c) (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1
Displaced Arches ?4 6d
Figure 6d

dropped keystone of the stress-releasing segmental arch above eastern stage gate (versura)

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
The keystone of the segmental arch above is also dropped down —4 cm. (Fig. 6d) (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1
Chipped corners and edges of ashlars ?5 7
Figure 7

Chipped corners and edges of stones:

(a,b) back part of the western orchestra gate

(c) front part of the western orchestra gate

(d) some parts of the eastern orchestra gate. The edges of blocks cracked and spalled off.

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Tilted and Collapsed Walls after 260/261 CE 8
Figure 8

Deformation of scaena:

  1. scaena tilted toward the viewer and is supported by the buttress vertical wall (city wall)
  2. out-of-plane shift of blocks of scaena
  3. blocks sequentially shifted to the right, in direction of tilting
  4. extreme tilt of scaena, segment supported by buttress vertical wall (city wall)


Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Figure 8 shows a deviation of the scaenae wall from the vertical toward the north by 8°. (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)
Tilted and Collapsed Walls after 260/261 CE 5
Figure 5

Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing.

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
8
Figure 8

Deformation of scaena:

  1. scaena tilted toward the viewer and is supported by the buttress vertical wall (city wall)
  2. out-of-plane shift of blocks of scaena
  3. blocks sequentially shifted to the right, in direction of tilting
  4. extreme tilt of scaena, segment supported by buttress vertical wall (city wall)


Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
a vertical buttress wall (portion of the city wall) was erected behind the tilted scaenae wall (Figs. 5 and 8). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)3
Shifted blocks and extensional gaps after 260/261 CE 8 b&c
Figure 8

Deformation of scaena:

  1. scaena tilted toward the viewer and is supported by the buttress vertical wall (city wall)
  2. out-of-plane shift of blocks of scaena
  3. blocks sequentially shifted to the right, in direction of tilting
  4. extreme tilt of scaena, segment supported by buttress vertical wall (city wall)


Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
A number of out-of-plane extruded and shifted blocks are observed and developed across single or multiple masonry courses (Fig. 8b,c). Such features are typically associated with intervening gaps produced due to shaking directed at high angle to the wall (Kazmer, 2014), suggesting an intensity range of IX-XII (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)
Collapsed Staircases before 260/261 CE and after 260/261 CE 5
Figure 5

Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing.

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) notes that the staircases were rebuilt after the first damaging event (before 260/261 CE); presumably with locally derived marly-chalky limestone associated with the rebuild rather than the better quality imported phosphatic limestone associated with original construction. This would indicate that the collapsed staircases presently observed collapsed a second time after another (not necessarily the 2nd) damaging event - location of the collapsed staircases is shown in the bottom left and bottom right of Figure 5.
Footnotes
  • 1 Masonry arches are common above openings in walls, spanning wall openings by diverting vertical loads from above to compressive stress laterally (Dym and Williams, 2010). Dropped arches in a masonry building indicate an EAE having an earthquake intensity of VII or higher (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5).

  • 2 Chipping of stone corners can occur during ground motion at any structure, especially the ones with well-cut and sharp-edged blocks. This is because a large pressure is applied more on the corners than other parts (Marco, 2008). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)

  • 3 The normal elevation of the scaenae is presumed to be the same as the colonnade on top of the cavea or even higher (i.e., almost 13 m). Today, only the lower 5.2 m of the scaenae is preserved. Tilted and collapsed archaeological walls suggested an EAE seismic intensity range of IX and higher (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)

  • 4 Arches oriented ~N-S are shown in Figure 6 b&d while arches oriented ~E-W are shown in Figure 6 a&c. The two orientations would likely reflect arch damage from two separate events since as noted by Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:10), usually an arch stone drop occurs when ground motion is parallel to the trend of the arches ( Hinzen et al., 2016; Martin-Gonzalez, 2018) or if it is ±45° to their strike ( Rodriguez-Pascua et al., 2011). Since Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:8) note that the severely damaged vomitoria arches were left unrepaired after the second earthquake event, this might suggest that these E-W trending arches were damaged in the second event and the ~N-S trending arches were damaged in the first event. However, Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) cautioned that it was not possible to date the arch damage noting, for example, that some arch damage could have occurred after the building of the buttress wall and not be attributable to either the mid 3rd century CE earthquake or the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Thus, while the varied orientations of the arches do indicate damage from more than one event, it is not possible to assign a date to that damage at this time. It should also be noted that dropped keystones are also present in ~NW and ~NNW trending arches of the vomitoria which can be observed in the Plan of the Capitolias Theater with damage locations (Fig. 5 of Al-Tawalbeh et al, 2020). This might suggest arch damage in more than two events.
    • Plan of the Capitolias Theater with damage locations
      Figure 5

      Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing.

      Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
      from Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)

  • 5 Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:7) notes that a subsequent earthquake cracked the ashlars of the gate, causing stone spalling and breaking off. where the gate is the eastern aditus maximus where the dedicatory inscription is located. The subsequent earthquake is not dated. It is entirely possible however that the spalling occurred during the pre 260/261 CE earthquake.
Distinguishing Seismic Effects for individual events
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:14) distinguished seismic effects as follows:
The first major proposed earthquake may be responsible for the destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium), which was followed by a reconstruction that was marked by a A.D. 261 inscription. However, a definitive judgment on the time separating the first earthquake occurrence from its subsequent reconstruction, which was evidently concluded in a documentary or celebrational activity, is difficult to support.

The second earthquake activity resulted in tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall. As a result, the upper two-thirds collapsed, and the vaulted corridors were totally demolished, which were never to be restored again.

mid 3rd century CE Earthquake

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) reports the following seismic effects for this event:

It can be understood that the original theater was heavily damaged by an earthquake, where the perimeter corridor, the ambulacrum, the staircases, and the scaenae were damaged beyond repair, whereas the lateral portions of the cavea survived, including the eastern arched gate of the aditus maximus.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10) further noted:
The first major proposed earthquake may be responsible for the destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium), which was followed by a reconstruction that was marked by a A.D. 261 inscription.

Seismic Effects

3rd-5th century CE Earthquake

Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:14) reports the following seismic effects for this event:

The second earthquake activity resulted in tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall. As a result, the upper two-thirds collapsed, and the vaulted corridors were totally demolished, which were never to be restored again.
Seismic Effects

mid 8th Century CE Earthquake

  • [Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10
    Figure 10

    Blocks tumbled from wall W K with part of floor F III above, view facing east (PCM/1 Belt Ras Project/photo J. Mlynarczyk)

    Mlynarczyk (2017)
    ].     - Mlynarczyk (2017:484)
  • The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s). - Mlynarczyk (2017:489)

Intensity Estimates
mid 3rd century CE Earthquake

Effect Description Intensity
Collapsed Walls the scaenae [was] damaged beyond repair ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:6) VIII +
Collapsed Walls the ambulacrum [was] damaged beyond repair ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:6) VIII +
Collapsed Vaults destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium) ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:10) VIII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).
Al-Tawalbeh et al (2020)'s Intensity Estimate

In the abstract, Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020) suggests a local Intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for both the mid 3rd century CE earthquake and the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) estimated intensity of close to IX (9) for the mid 3rd century CE earthquake based on collapse of the ambulatorium.

3rd-5th century CE Earthquake

Effect Description Intensity
Tilted Walls tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) VI+
Collapsed Walls collapse of the upper two-thirds of scaenae wall ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) VIII+
Displaced masonry blocks Shifted blocks and extensional gaps (Fig. 8 b&c
Figure 8

Deformation of scaena:

  1. scaena tilted toward the viewer and is supported by the buttress vertical wall (city wall)
  2. out-of-plane shift of blocks of scaena
  3. blocks sequentially shifted to the right, in direction of tilting
  4. extreme tilt of scaena, segment supported by buttress vertical wall (city wall)


Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
). ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5) 		VIII+
Collapsed Vaults vaulted corridors were totally demolished ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) VIII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).
Al-Tawalbeh et al (2020)'s Intensity Estimate

In the abstract, Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020) suggests a local Intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for both the mid 3rd century CE earthquake and the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) confirmed an estimated intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake largely based on the collapse and tilting of the scaenae.

mid 8th Century CE Earthquake

Effect Description Intensity
Collapsed Walls [Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10
Figure 10

Blocks tumbled from wall W K with part of floor F III above, view facing east (PCM/1 Belt Ras Project/photo J. Mlynarczyk)

Mlynarczyk (2017)
]. - Mlynarczyk (2017:484) 		VIII+
Collapsed Walls The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s). - Mlynarczyk (2017:489) VIII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Site Effect

There are no obvious indications that this location should be subject to a site effect such as a ridge effect or due to soft ground. In modeling potential causitive earthquakes from the historical record Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020:11) used the attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009) with the added site effect of Darvasi and Agnon (2019). Their VS30 values in these simulations ranged from 360-800 m/s.

Notes and Further Reading
References

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Beit Ras/Capitolias: an archaeological project 2014–2016 website

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Mlynarczyk, J. (2017). Beit Ras/Capitolias: An archaeological project 2014-2016, Pol. Archaeol. Mediterr. 1, no. 26, 475-506.

Al-Shami, A. (2003). Beit Ras Irbid Archeological Project 2002, Ann. Dept. Antiq. Jordan 47, 93-104 (in Arabic).

Al-Shami, A. (2004). Bayt Ras Irbid Archaeological Project 2002, Ann. Dept. Antiq. Jordan 48, 11-22 (in Arabic).

Al-Shami, A. (2005). A new discovery at Bayt-Ras/Capitolias - Irbid, Ann. Dept. Antiq. Jordan 49, 509-519 (in Arabic).

Al-Tawalbeh, M., M. Kazmer, R Jaradat, K. Al-Bashaireh, A. Gharaibeh, B. Khrisat, and A. Al-Rawabdeh (2019). Archaeoseismic analysis of the Roman-Early Byzantine earthquakes in Capitolias (Beit-Ras) theater of Jordan, 7th International Colloquium on Historical Earthquakes and Paleoseismology Studies, 4-6 November 2019, Barcelona, Spain, 19 pp.

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