Transliterated Name | Source | Name |
---|---|---|
Beit Ras | Arabic | بييت راس |
Capitolias | Ancient Greek | Καπιτωλιάς |
Bet Reisha | Aramaic |
hiatus in occupation at the site has yet been found, but a gradual decrease in size and change in use from public space to private space seems to [have begun] as early as the tenth century CE.(C. J. Lenzen in Meyers et al, 1997)
Phase | Comments |
---|---|
The foundation of Capitolias and the construction of the theater |
|
1st damage and construction |
|
Conversion of use |
|
2nd collapse and abandonment |
|
2nd restoration phase |
|
The landfill |
|
Lenzen (2003) provided the following phasing:
Phase | Date | Comments |
---|---|---|
I | c. 1900 CE - present | |
II | c. 1800-1900 CE | |
III | c. 1500-1800 CE | |
IV | c. 900-1500 CE | |
V | c. 600-900 CE | |
VI | c. 300-600 CE | |
VII | foundation to c. 300 CE |
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) bracketed the date of the first earthquake between 97/98 CE
and a dedicatory inscription dated to 260/261 CE. Although
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10) noted that
a definitive judgment on the time separating the first earthquake occurrence from its subsequent reconstruction [] is difficult to support
,
restoration efforts memorialized by the inscription suggests that the earthquake likely occurred close to the 260/261 CE date - within a few decades.
Numismatic and epigraphic evidence indicated that the city was fairly prosperous
from the later half of the second century CE into the first half of the 3rd century CE
and thus capable (and willing) to convert their theater to an amphitheater fairly quickly after the damaging earthquake.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) discovered only a few recent earthquakes in the earthquake catalogues near to the 260/261 CE date - in 233, 242, and 245 CE.
However, these all appear to be false events propagated from
Willis' (1928) first
uncorrected catalog which misdated these earthquakes reported by Arab
Chronicler As-Soyuti by ~622 years due to a failure to recognize that
As-Soyuti's dates were reported in the Islamic calendar (A.H.) rather than the Julian calendar.
Ambraseys (2009)
reports a possible earthquake in Palmyra, Syria in
233 CE based on an inscription however Palmyra is 310 km. away from the the theater at Capitolias so it is doubtful that an earthquake
could have caused heavy damage in both places. Hence, this archeoseismic evidence points towards a previously unrecognized earthquake not reported in the earthquake
catalogues and not reported in any extant historical source that I am currently aware of. More details on the false earthquake events
propagated from
Willis (1928)
can be found in in the collapsible panel below.
Earthquake Catalogs that reference earthquakes in 233 CE and 245 CE go back to
Willis (1928)
whose source was As-Soyuti. Although he later issued a correction,
Willis' (1928)
initial paper did not recognize that As-Soyuti provided Islamic AH (After Hejira) dates instead of Julian dates hence
Willis' (1928)
earthquake dates from As-Soyuti are off by ~622 years (too early). Later catalogers
copied these erroneous dates. Catalog entries going backwards illustrate this below :
Sbeinati et al (2005)
The second earthquake is believed to have tilted the
scaenae wall approximately
8 degrees to the north where the upper 2/3 of that wall is now missing.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:8) suggest this event led to final abandonment of the theater
as so much was left unrepaired. Later, an adjacent buttress wall was built providing a terminus
ante quem for the second event. They dated this terminus ante quem to the 4th to 5th centuries CE. Sediment infill in the theater provides a second later terminus ante quem based on ceramics of Late Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad ages
and radiocarbon dating of ash bands within the sediment infill which indicated that most of the sediment was deposited between 521 and 667 CE
( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:10). While their evidence strongly suggests earthquake damage,
the dating of the causative event is unfortunately not well constrained.
[Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10]. The blocks lay on a compacted earthen floor F IV, approximately 0.65 m below F III. The ceramic material sealed below [Floor] F IV does not seem to be contaminated and pertains to the late Byzantine to Umayyad period. It is to be assumed, therefore, that the earthquake evidenced by the collapsed blocks was that of AD 749.![]()
Figure 10
Blocks tumbled from wall W K with part of floor F III above, view facing east (PCM/1 Belt Ras Project/photo J. Mlynarczyk)
Mlynarczyk (2017)
The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s). The collected pottery is evidence of earthquake destruction in AD 749, even if this unsealed debris contained some intrusive material of a later (Abbasid) period. The lack of a floor above this deposit proves that habitation ceased in this particular area after the earthquake. The rubble was left in place without ascertaining the floor on which it rested.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:14) discussed archaeoseismic evidence for later post abandonment earthquakes
We believe that filling up the cavea and orchestra of the theater happened parallel with the construction of the enclosing wall that essentially put all of the remaining building underground. Underground facilities are significantly less vulnerable to seismic excitation than that above-ground buildings (Hashash et aL, 2001). Understandably, when each wall and arch are supported by embedding sediment (dump in Beit-Ras), the observed deformations of the excavated theater mostly cannot develop unless unsupported. Therefore, evidence of damage due to any subsequent events, such as A.D. 551, 634, 659, and 749, cannot be observed, because the possibility of collapse of buried structures is not plausible. However, potential collapse of other above-ground structures within the site of Beit-Ras cannot be ignored, such as the upper elements of the theater's structures, which were still exposed after the filling of the theater with debris. Several observations indicated that many collapsed elements of the upper parts of the theater were mixed with the debris, as documented in excavation reports by Al-Shami (2003, 2004). Another example suggesting the effect of the later events, such as that of A.D. 749. Mlynarczyk (2017) attributed the collapse of some sections of the city wall of Beit-Ras to this event, based on the concentration of collapsed ashlars and the age of collected pottery from two trenches excavated to the west of the theater structure.Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) also noted the following about the eastern orchestra gate:
The basalt masonry in the upper left (Fig. 9f) suggests a later local collapse and repair phase, where the basalt courses are overlaying the marly-chalky limestone to the left of the walled arched eastern gate.![]()
Figure 9
External view of the eastern orchestra gate leading from the outside into the aditus maximus.
- Above the gate arch, there are two rows of ashlars of the former vault of the ambulatorium.
- Upon the collapse of the passage, the gate was walled up, allowing access to the theater via a smaller stone door below (in the lower part).
- A carved inscription from A.D. 261 dates the walling up event.
- About a meter to the right, there is a different wall, made of chalky limestone of lighter color, and has irregular contact with the original wall.
- The wall suture clearly indicates that the lighter chalk wall was attached to the darker limestone wall later, as a repair structure.
- Repair on the left by basalt cubes was carried out after the wall with the inscription was built.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
Damage Type | Event | Figure | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
Displaced Arches | ?4 | 6a
![]() ![]() Damage features within displaced arches: dropped blocks of the flat arch, east door in scaena Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
The flat arches are seen as the lintel arches above the stage gates (Fig. 6a)(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1 |
Displaced Arches | ?4 | 6b
![]() ![]() dropped blocks of the flat arch of the eastern stage gate (versura) Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
The eastern stage gate (versurae), trending north-south, has a flat arch and a stress-releasing segmental arch above, where two stones of the flat arch dropped down almost 3 cm (Fig. 6b)(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1 |
Displaced Arches | ?4 | 6c
![]() ![]() dropped blocks of the flat arch of vomitorium, small spaces between the stones formed due to the ground shaking Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
The flat arches of most vomitoria to the cavea also are dropped down (Fig. 6c)(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1 |
Displaced Arches | ?4 | 6d
![]() ![]() dropped keystone of the stress-releasing segmental arch above eastern stage gate (versura) Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
The keystone of the segmental arch above is also dropped down —4 cm. (Fig. 6d)(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:4)1 |
Chipped corners and edges of ashlars | ?5 | 7
![]() ![]() Chipped corners and edges of stones: (a,b) back part of the western orchestra gate (c) front part of the western orchestra gate (d) some parts of the eastern orchestra gate. The edges of blocks cracked and spalled off. Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
|
Tilted and Collapsed Walls | after 260/261 CE |
8
![]() ![]() Deformation of scaena:
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
Figure 8 shows a deviation of the scaenae wall from the vertical toward the north by 8°.(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5) |
Tilted and Collapsed Walls | after 260/261 CE |
5
![]() ![]() Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing. Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) 8 ![]() ![]() Deformation of scaena:
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
a vertical buttress wall (portion of the city wall) was erected behind the tilted scaenae wall (Figs. 5 and 8).(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)3 |
Shifted blocks and extensional gaps | after 260/261 CE | 8 b&c
![]() ![]() Deformation of scaena:
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
A number of out-of-plane extruded and shifted blocks are observed and developed across single or multiple masonry courses (Fig. 8b,c). Such features are typically associated with intervening gaps produced due to shaking directed at high angle to the wall (Kazmer, 2014), suggesting an intensity range of IX-XII (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224).(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5) |
Collapsed Staircases | before 260/261 CE and after 260/261 CE |
5
![]() ![]() Theater plan and the position of the observed damage features. Most of the locations' damage features are marked in the drawing. Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020) |
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) notes that the staircases were rebuilt after the first damaging event (before 260/261 CE); presumably with locally derived marly-chalky limestone associated with the rebuild rather than the better quality imported phosphatic limestone associated with original construction. This would indicate that the collapsed staircases presently observed collapsed a second time after another (not necessarily the 2nd) damaging event - location of the collapsed staircases is shown in the bottom left and bottom right of Figure 5. |
Masonry arches are common above openings in walls, spanning wall openings by diverting vertical loads from above to compressive stress laterally (Dym and Williams, 2010). Dropped arches in a masonry building indicate an EAE having an earthquake intensity of VII or higher (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224). (Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5).
Chipping of stone corners can occur during ground motion at any structure, especially the ones with well-cut and sharp-edged blocks. This is because a large pressure is applied more on the corners than other parts (Marco, 2008).(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)
The normal elevation of the scaenae is presumed to be the same as the colonnade on top of the cavea or even higher (i.e., almost 13 m). Today, only the lower 5.2 m of the scaenae is preserved. Tilted and collapsed archaeological walls suggested an EAE seismic intensity range of IX and higher (Rodríguez-Pascua et al, 2013:221-224).(Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5)
usually an arch stone drop occurs when ground motion is parallel to the trend of the arches ( Hinzen et al., 2016; Martin-Gonzalez, 2018) or if it is ±45° to their strike ( Rodriguez-Pascua et al., 2011).Since Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:8) note that the
severely damaged vomitoria archeswere
left unrepairedafter the second earthquake event, this might suggest that these E-W trending arches were damaged in the second event and the ~N-S trending arches were damaged in the first event. However, Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) cautioned that it was not possible to date the arch damage noting, for example, that some arch damage could have occurred after the building of the buttress wall and not be attributable to either the mid 3rd century CE earthquake or the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Thus, while the varied orientations of the arches do indicate damage from more than one event, it is not possible to assign a date to that damage at this time. It should also be noted that dropped keystones are also present in ~NW and ~NNW trending arches of the vomitoria which can be observed in the Plan of the Capitolias Theater with damage locations (Fig. 5 of Al-Tawalbeh et al, 2020). This might suggest arch damage in more than two events.
a subsequent earthquake cracked the ashlars of the gate, causing stone spalling and breaking off.where the gate is the eastern aditus maximus where the dedicatory inscription is located. The
subsequentearthquake is not dated. It is entirely possible however that the spalling occurred during the pre 260/261 CE earthquake.
The first major proposed earthquake may be responsible for the destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium), which was followed by a reconstruction that was marked by a A.D. 261 inscription. However, a definitive judgment on the time separating the first earthquake occurrence from its subsequent reconstruction, which was evidently concluded in a documentary or celebrational activity, is difficult to support.
The second earthquake activity resulted in tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall. As a result, the upper two-thirds collapsed, and the vaulted corridors were totally demolished, which were never to be restored again.
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:6) reports the following seismic effects for this event:
It can be understood that the original theater was heavily damaged by an earthquake, where the perimeter corridor, the ambulacrum, the staircases, and the scaenae were damaged beyond repair, whereas the lateral portions of the cavea survived, including the eastern arched gate of the aditus maximus.Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:10) further noted:
The first major proposed earthquake may be responsible for the destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium), which was followed by a reconstruction that was marked by a A.D. 261 inscription.Seismic Effects
the perimeter corridor, the ambulacrum, the staircases, and the scaenae were damaged beyond repair- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:6)
destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium)- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:10)
The ambulacrum was never restored, while the scaenae was rebuilt, but from stones of inferior quality. The idea that the ambulacrum collapsed previously is further evidenced by the walling up with chalk limestone masonry on four of the six vomitoria. This was probably done at the same time as when the eastern gate was walled up.- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:7)
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020:14) reports the following seismic effects for this event:
The second earthquake activity resulted in tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall. As a result, the upper two-thirds collapsed, and the vaulted corridors were totally demolished, which were never to be restored again.Seismic Effects
tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:9)
the upper two-thirdsof scaenae wall - Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:9)
vaulted corridors were totally demolished- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:9)
Shifted blocks and extensional gaps (Fig. 8 b&c- Al-Tawalbeh et. al., (2020:5))![]()
Figure 8
Deformation of scaena:
- scaena tilted toward the viewer and is supported by the buttress vertical wall (city wall)
- out-of-plane shift of blocks of scaena
- blocks sequentially shifted to the right, in direction of tilting
- extreme tilt of scaena, segment supported by buttress vertical wall (city wall)
Al-Tawalbeh et. al. (2020)
[Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10- Mlynarczyk (2017:484)].![]()
Figure 10
Blocks tumbled from wall W K with part of floor F III above, view facing east (PCM/1 Belt Ras Project/photo J. Mlynarczyk)
Mlynarczyk (2017)
The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s).- Mlynarczyk (2017:489)
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Collapsed Walls | the scaenae [was] damaged beyond repair( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:6) |
VIII + |
Collapsed Walls | the ambulacrum [was] damaged beyond repair( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:6) |
VIII + |
Collapsed Vaults | destruction of the annular passageway (ambulatorium)( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:10) |
VIII + |
In the abstract, Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020) suggests a local Intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for both the mid 3rd century CE earthquake and the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) estimated intensity of close to IX (9) for the mid 3rd century CE earthquake based on collapse of the ambulatorium.
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Tilted Walls | tilting of the rebuilt scaenae wall( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) |
VI+ |
Collapsed Walls | collapse of the upper two-thirdsof scaenae wall ( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) |
VIII+ |
Displaced masonry blocks | Shifted blocks and extensional gaps (Fig. 8 b&c( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:5) |
VIII+ |
Collapsed Vaults | vaulted corridors were totally demolished( Al-Tawalbeh et. al., 2020:9) |
VIII+ |
In the abstract, Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020) suggests a local Intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for both the mid 3rd century CE earthquake and the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake. Al-Tawalbeh (personal communication, 2021) confirmed an estimated intensity of VIII-IX (8-9) for the 3rd-5th century CE earthquake largely based on the collapse and tilting of the scaenae.
Effect | Description | Intensity |
---|---|---|
Collapsed Walls |
[Floor] F III rested in part upon quake-related debris of mostly regular limestone blocks tumbled in a northerly direction, doubtlessly from [Wall] W V [Fig. 10- Mlynarczyk (2017:484) |
VIII+ |
Collapsed Walls | The space between [Walls] W II and W III in the northeastern part of the trench was found filled with ashlars tumbled from the wall(s).- Mlynarczyk (2017:489) |
VIII+ |
There are no obvious indications that this location should be subject to a site effect such as a ridge effect or due to soft ground. In modeling potential causitive earthquakes from the historical record Al-Tawalbeh et al, (2020:11) used the attenuation relationship of Hough and Avni (2009) with the added site effect of Darvasi and Agnon (2019). Their VS30 values in these simulations ranged from 360-800 m/s.
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