Avdat

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Avdat	Hebrew	עבדת
Abdah, Abde	Arabic	عبدة
Oboda	Ancient Greek	Ὀβόδα
Ovdat
Obodat

Introduction

Avdat started out in the 3rd or 4th century BCE as a Nabatean way station on the Incense Road (Avraham Negev in Stern et al, 1993). By the 1st century BCE, the town was named Oboba after Nabatean King Obodas I. It was occupied continuously until it was abandoned perhaps as late as the 9th or 10th centuries CE. Situated at the end of a ~4 km. long ridge, Avdat may have suffered from seismic amplification during past earthquakes as it may be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.

Identification

from Avraham Negev in Stern et al (1993 v. 3)

Oboda was named for a Nabatean king, whose name has been preserved in the Arabic 'Abdah. The Tabula Peutingeriana shows Oboda to have been situated on the main Aila (Elath)-Jerusalem road. It has been identified by all scholars with Eboda of Arabia Petraea mentioned by Ptolemy (V, 17, 4). However, according to this writer, Ptolemy's Eboda was a village east of the Arabah and thus, this identification is unacceptable. Oboda ('Οβοδα) is also mentioned by Uranius, quoted by Stephanus of Byzantium. It appears in a papyrus from Nessana (no. 39), tentatively dated to the sixth century CE. Its identification with 'Abdah is certain, in view of the similarity of the ancient and the Arabic names and the geographical locations. Furthermore, the name Oboda occurs in third-century CE Nabatean-Greek inscriptions found at Oboda. The site lies in the Negev desert on a spur of a mountain ridge running from southeast to northwest (map reference 1278.0228). At its highest point it is 655 m above sea level.

History

from Avraham Negev in Stern et al (1993 v. 3)

Oboda was founded at the end of the fourth or the beginning of the third century BCE as a station on a junction on the caravan routes from Petra and Aila to Gaza. Temples were constructed there during the reigns ofObodas III (30-9 BCE) and Aretas IV (9 BCE-40 CE). During that period it became an important center for sheep, goat, and camel breeding and the manufacture of Nabatean pottery. The military camp for the camel corps guarding the caravan routes, which stood northeast of the town, may also date from that time. During the reign of Malichus II (40-70 CE), Oboda suffered destruction at the hands of pre-Islamic Arab tribes. Under Rabbel II (70-106 CE), agricultural projects were developed in the vicinity, as is evidenced by dedicatory inscriptions on libation altars found there.

Oboda was not adversely affected by the annexation of the Nabatean kingdom and the rest of the Negev into the Provincia Arabia in 106 CE. The second and third centuries were a period of great prosperity for the town, and in the third century CE a suburb was constructed on the southern spur of the city's ridge, in part on the ruins of Nabatean residences. An old Nabatean temple was dedicated to the local Zeus (Zeus Oboda) and a shrine to Aphrodite was built on the acropolis, apparently on the spot where a former Nabatean sanctuary had stood. A large catacomb (en-Nusrah) was dug into the southwestern slope. Construction in the Late Roman town went on as late as 296 CE.

In the time of Diocletian, the town was incorporated in the defense system of the eastern Roman Empire. Early in his reign, a fortress was built on the eastern half of the acropolis hill. Part of the local population was mobilized to serve as a militia against threatening Arab tribes. The payments from the imperial military treasury helped in the town's economy. With the advent of Christianity in the Negev, by the middle of the fourth century, two churches and a monastery replaced the pagan temples. Most of the remains of agricultural works in the town's vicinity belong to this period, when its economy rested, at least in part, on the cultivation of a fine variety of grapes and wine production. Oboda was abandoned after the Arab conquest in 636 CE

Exploration

from Avraham Negev in Stern et al (1993 v. 3)

U. J. Seetzen was the first traveler to reach 'Abdah (l807). In 1838, E. Robinson located Oboda at 'Auja el-Hafir (later identified as Nessana). The town was surveyed by E. H. Palmer and T. Drake in 1870. In the summer of 1902, A. Musil conducted a more detailed survey, and in the winter of 1904 'Abdah was thoroughly explored by A. Jaussen, R. Savignac, and L. H. Vincent on behalf of the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique in Jerusalem. In 1912, the site was visited by a team headed by C. L. Woolley and T. E. Lawrence, on behalf of the Palestine Exploration Fund. W. Bachmann, C. Watzinger, and T. Wiegand, serving as officers of the unit for the Preservation of Monuments attached to the German-Turkish army, came to the area in 1916 and drew precise sketches of the churches and some architectural details. In 1921, A. Alt published a corpus of the Oboda inscriptions known at that time.

The exploratory soundings made at 'Abdah by the Colt expedition brought to light the large Late Nabatean building at the southern end of the town and investigated the southwestern tower of the Late Roman-Byzantine fortress, which they identified as Hellenistic. Extensive excavations were undertaken from April 1958 until June 1961 by theN ational Parks Authority. The 1958 excavations were directed by M. Avi-Yonah and those of 1959-1961 by A. Negev. In 1975, 1976, and 1977, excavations at Oboda were conducted on behalf at the Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums, directed by Negev and R. Cohen. In 1989, excavations were again conducted on behalf of the Hebrew University, directed by Negev.

Excavations

1999–2000

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Sections, Radiocarbon Dates, and Photos

Maps

Terrain Map of Avdat

Terrain Map for Avdat/Oboda

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showing how the site may be subject to a ridge effect

Aerial Views

Annotated Satellite Image (google) of

Annotated Satellite Image (google) of Avdat

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Used with permission from BibleWalks.com

Avdat from biblewalks.com
Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
Figure 1

Avdat, looking east

Army Camp from Roman Period

Residential District

Acropolis

Cave City Avdat - W slope

Cave City Avdat - E slope

Orchards and Winepresses ?

Orchards

Orchards

Orchards

"Cave of the Saints"

(Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

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Zion et al (2022)
Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
Avdat/Oboda in Google Earth

Avdat/Oboda

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Avdat/Oboda on govmap.gov.il

Avdat/Oboda

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Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Plan of Avdat from biblewalks.com

Plan of of Avdat

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Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Fig. 3 Avdat Settlement Plan

Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

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Zion et al (2022)

from Zion et al (2022)
Avdat/Oboda General Plan

Oboda: general plan of the site and military camp.

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Stern et al. (1993)

from Avraham Negev in Stern et al. (1993)

Magnified

Plan of Avdat from biblewalks.com

Plan of of Avdat

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Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Fig. 3 Avdat Settlement Plan

Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

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Zion et al (2022)

from Zion et al (2022)
Avdat/Oboda General Plan

Oboda: general plan of the site and military camp.

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Stern et al. (1993)

from Avraham Negev in Stern et al. (1993)

Area Plans

Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

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Stern et al. (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al. (2008)
Fig. 1.72 Plan and Photo

Fig. 1.72

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations, plan and photo

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

of Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.73 Plan of

Fig. 1.73

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, occupational phases and rooms

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter with Phases and Rooms from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.77 Detailed Plan of

Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Magnified

Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

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Stern et al. (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al. (2008)
Fig. 1.72 Plan and Photo

Fig. 1.72

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations, plan and photo

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

of Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.73 Plan of

Fig. 1.73

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, occupational phases and rooms

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter with Phases and Rooms from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.77 Detailed Plan of

Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Roman/Byzantine Quarter examined by Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Normal Size

Fig. 2 Site Map and Excavation

Fig. 2

Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle).

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Location from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 3 Residential Quarter

Fig. 3

The residential quarter, looking north.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 4 Residential Quarter

Fig. 4

The residential quarter, looking east.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 5 Residential Quarter

Fig. 5

The residential quarter, looking west (Phase 1 structure in foreground).

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 1 Residential Quarter

Plan 1

The residential quarter, plan and sections.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 1 Sections

Plan 1 (cont.)

Sections through Rooms 13, 16, and 23.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 6 Phase 1 Structure

Fig. 6

Phase 1 structure (Rooms 24, 44, 27, 28), looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 2 Phase 2

Plan 2

Phase 2, schematic plan.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 7 Phase 2

Fig. 7

Phase 2, Room 13 and Courtyard 19, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 8 Phase 2 Room 13

Fig. 8

Phase 2, Room 13, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 9 Blocked Doorway in Room 12

Fig. 9

Phase 2, blocked doorway in Room 12 in corner of W3, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Magnified

Fig. 2 Site Map and Excavation

Fig. 2

Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle).

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Location from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 3 Residential Quarter

Fig. 3

The residential quarter, looking north.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 4 Residential Quarter

Fig. 4

The residential quarter, looking east.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 5 Residential Quarter

Fig. 5

The residential quarter, looking west (Phase 1 structure in foreground).

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 1 Residential Quarter

Plan 1

The residential quarter, plan and sections.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 1 Sections

Plan 1 (cont.)

Sections through Rooms 13, 16, and 23.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 6 Phase 1 Structure

Fig. 6

Phase 1 structure (Rooms 24, 44, 27, 28), looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Plan 2 Phase 2

Plan 2

Phase 2, schematic plan.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 7 Phase 2

Fig. 7

Phase 2, Room 13 and Courtyard 19, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 8 Phase 2 Room 13

Fig. 8

Phase 2, Room 13, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 9 Blocked Doorway in Room 12

Fig. 9

Phase 2, blocked doorway in Room 12 in corner of W3, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Army Camp

Normal Size

Fig. 1.70 Army Camp from

Fig. 1.70

The 1999 excavation of the army camp at Oboda

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Magnified

Fig. 1.70 Army Camp from

Fig. 1.70

The 1999 excavation of the army camp at Oboda

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Sections

Normal Size

Fig. 1.71a Cross section of

Fig. 1.71a

Cross section of the principia in the army camp at Oboda

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

the principia in the army camp from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.79 Photo and section of

Fig. 1.79

Room 23 in situ plaster on wall 55, and b. section drawing of the room

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Room 23 in Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Plan 1 Sections

Plan 1 (cont.)

Sections through Rooms 13, 16, and 23.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Magnified

Fig. 1.71a Cross section of

Fig. 1.71a

Cross section of the principia in the army camp at Oboda

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

the principia in the army camp from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.79 Photo and section of

Fig. 1.79

Room 23 in situ plaster on wall 55, and b. section drawing of the room

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

Room 23 in Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Plan 1 Sections

Plan 1 (cont.)

Sections through Rooms 13, 16, and 23.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Radiocarbon Dates

Normal Size

Fig. 13 Radiocarbon date

Fig. 13

Camel scapula: (a) photograph; (b) radiocarbon dates.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Camel Scapula from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Magnified

Fig. 13 Radiocarbon date

Fig. 13

Camel scapula: (a) photograph; (b) radiocarbon dates.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Camel Scapula from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Photos

Normal Size

Fig. 2 Warped external wall

Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 3 arch springer along

Fig. 3

Area A, the arch springer along the northern interior of W1, looking northwest

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

the northern interior of Wall W1 in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 4 remains of earlier

Fig. 4

Area A, remains of earlier wall over which W1 was constructed and the line of stones (W5), looking west

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

wall over which Wall W1 was constructed in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 5 southern wall (W3)

Fig. 5

Area A, the southern wall (W3) and the foundation of original western W1 on the right, looking south

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and the foundation of original western Wall W1 on the right in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 6 repairs in the

Fig. 6

Area A, repairs in the northern wall (W2), looking north.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

northern wall (W2) in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8 Collapsed arches

Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in

Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 10 Arch Stone from

Fig. 10

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 11 Arch Stone from

Fig. 11

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 15 Remains of pantry

Fig. 15

Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

in L2/01 of Room 2 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock

Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

shelf fronting cave above Dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 18 probe in front of

Fig. 18

Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Dipinti Wall in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 19 blocked entrance of

Fig. 19

Area D, blocked entrance of Dipinti Cave, looking north

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Dipinti Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 1.78a Fallen arch

Fig. 1.78a

Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

attributed to 363 CE earthquake in Room 4 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.78b Crushed Pottery

Fig. 1.78b

Vessels crushed under the collapse of Room 7, phase 3, early fifth c. CE

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

attributed to 5th c. CE earthquake in Room 7 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.80a Fallen lintel on

Fig. 1.80a

Fallen lintel on the floor of Room 22

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.80b In situ brazier

Fig. 1.80b

In situ brazier made from a “Gaza” wine jar on same floor [Room 22]

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

made from a “Gaza” wine jar on the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Photo 6 So-called Potter's

Photo 6

The khan, potter's workshop

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Negev (1997:5)

Workshop and Khan from Negev (1997:5)
Photo of so-called Potter's

So-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda

(JW: or so I thought at the time - I could be wrong)

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Photo by Jefferson Williams

Workshop (?) by Jefferson Williams
Fig. 9 Blocked Doorway in Room 12

Fig. 9

Phase 2, blocked doorway in Room 12 in corner of W3, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 37 Fallen Lintel

Fig. 37

Fallen lintel in situ in Room 22.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 25 Blocked doorway

Fig. 25

Blocked doorway leading into Room 7 from Room 4, looking north

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

leading into Room 7 from Room 4 from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 38 Collapse of W53

Fig. 38

Collapse of W53 (early fifth century CE), looking southwest.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Magnified

Fig. 2 Warped external wall

Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 3 arch springer along

Fig. 3

Area A, the arch springer along the northern interior of W1, looking northwest

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

the northern interior of Wall W1 in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 4 remains of earlier

Fig. 4

Area A, remains of earlier wall over which W1 was constructed and the line of stones (W5), looking west

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

wall over which Wall W1 was constructed in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 5 southern wall (W3)

Fig. 5

Area A, the southern wall (W3) and the foundation of original western W1 on the right, looking south

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and the foundation of original western Wall W1 on the right in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 6 repairs in the

Fig. 6

Area A, repairs in the northern wall (W2), looking north.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

northern wall (W2) in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8 Collapsed arches

Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in

Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 10 Arch Stone from

Fig. 10

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 11 Arch Stone from

Fig. 11

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 15 Remains of pantry

Fig. 15

Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

in L2/01 of Room 2 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock

Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

shelf fronting cave above Dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 18 probe in front of

Fig. 18

Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2.

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Dipinti Wall in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 19 blocked entrance of

Fig. 19

Area D, blocked entrance of Dipinti Cave, looking north

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Erickson-Gini (2022)

Dipinti Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 1.78a Fallen arch

Fig. 1.78a

Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

attributed to 363 CE earthquake in Room 4 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.78b Crushed Pottery

Fig. 1.78b

Vessels crushed under the collapse of Room 7, phase 3, early fifth c. CE

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

attributed to 5th c. CE earthquake in Room 7 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.80a Fallen lintel on

Fig. 1.80a

Fallen lintel on the floor of Room 22

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.80b In situ brazier

Fig. 1.80b

In situ brazier made from a “Gaza” wine jar on same floor [Room 22]

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Erickson-Gini (2010)

made from a “Gaza” wine jar on the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
Photo 6 So-called Potter's

Photo 6

The khan, potter's workshop

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Negev (1997:5)

Workshop and Khan from Negev (1997:5)
Photo of so-called Potter's

So-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda

(JW: or so I thought at the time - I could be wrong)

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Photo by Jefferson Williams

Workshop (?) by Jefferson Williams
Fig. 37 Fallen Lintel

Fig. 37

Fallen lintel in situ in Room 22.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 25 Blocked doorway

Fig. 25

Blocked doorway leading into Room 7 from Room 4, looking north

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

leading into Room 7 from Room 4 from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)
Fig. 38 Collapse of W53

Fig. 38

Collapse of W53 (early fifth century CE), looking southwest.

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Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Chronology of earthquakes at Avdat

Archeological excavations have uncovered several earthquakes which struck Avdat/Oboda. Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) noted approximate dates and Intensities:

Substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE
Some damage due to an earthquake in 363 CE.
A massive earthquake in the early 5th century CE
A massive earthquake in the early 7th century CE [JW: recent work (2022) may suggest this should revised to the 7th century rather than the early 7th century]

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) conducted two archaeoseismic surveys at Avdat and were able to distinguish between 7th century CE seismic effects and effects from a "previous" earthquake where the "previous" earthquake would likely be the massive earthquake in the early 5th century CE.

Phasing

Roman and Early Byzantine residential quarter - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)

Phase	Date	Description
Pre-Phase 1	2nd century BCE	The Hellenistic-period occupation (second century BCE) was found on bedrock below an early Byzantine (Phase 3) street or passage (L4201, L4324; Plan 1) between houses that were undisturbed by later construction. None of that material was found in association with contemporary architectural elements, although a coin of Aradus (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 1) was discovered on bedrock in nearby Room 22 (L4222). This find reflects the general character of the site in its earliest phase of occupation in the third–second centuries BCE when it was apparently frequented by Nabataean traders and used as a campground (Negev 1997:1). Negev’s extensive excavations at the site did not uncover any Hellenistic architecture but did produce pottery and coins of this period in various parts of the site, particularly just above bedrock (Negev 1997:1). Excavations in the Roman army camp at the site revealed middens with ash and Hellenistic pottery (Erickson-Gini 2002:115).
Phase 1	late 1st century BCE–early 2nd century CE	Four rooms belonging to a large structure were uncovered on the northwestern limits of the excavation area (Rooms 24, 27, 28, 44; Plan 1; Fig. 6). Surface remains indicate that the unexcavated part of this structure extends at least 10 m to the north and includes a large open courtyard with rooms located around its perimeter. The four excavated rooms appear to belong to the southern wing of this structure. Their walls were constructed of hewn fieldstones, some of which survived to a height of three or four courses. The eastern wall of Room 28 (W66) was built of large, roughly-cut pieces of stone slabs laid on top of rows of smaller hewn stones. The lack of uniform construction may have been a result of a secondary stage or a repair of the building in the wake of earthquake damage to Oboda in the early second century CE, an event whose impact is known from other sites in the region (Erickson-Gini 2010:47; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139–140). Nearly identical construction using rough flat stones of this type was found at nearby Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa in repairs made to a structure that was damaged by earthquake in the early second century CE (Erickson-Gini 2019:167). A floor made from hard-packed soil over bedrock was found in Room 28 at an elevation of 655.26 m asl. A Nabataean coin of Aretas IV, dated 39/40 CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 2), and the rim of a glass bowl, dated to the first century CE (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 1:5), and numerous pottery sherds from the later first–early second centuries CE, were found in this layer. This room was entered from Room 27 (W75). Room 27 was the only one with arch voussoirs located midway along its eastern and western walls (for a single arch) to support a roof. Although there is some evidence of use in Phase 2, these four rooms appear to have been filled with refuse in Phase 3, e.g., building stones were found piled on the floor of Room 27 (655.48 m asl). Room 24 (655.17 m asl) was filled with building debris, pottery sherds, bones, etc., primarily from the second–early third centuries CE, but also from the fourth century CE, when the building was apparently not in use. The doorway between Rooms 24 and 44 in W64 was blocked.
Phase 2	2nd–early 3rd centuries CE	A Phase 2 building with an adjoining courtyard (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19; Plans 1, 2; Fig. 7) was found west of the Phase 1 structure. Walls 1 and 3 of this building were visible on the surface prior to excavation, probably owing to the fact that they were preserved to nearly their full height. The structure appears to have been entered from openings on the eastern side of Room 13 along W52 (Fig. 8). Room 12 had three entrances: the first leading from Room 13; a second entrance, leading to the west, blocked in Phase 3 (Fig. 9); and a third, leading to the courtyard (Room 19). The stairwell of Room 6 (L1132; Fig. 10) was accessed from the south; the pantry under the stairwell (see below) was reached through a small opening along its western wall, next to the stairs. The entrance to Room 7 was apparently destroyed during the construction of Rooms 3 and 4 in Phase 3 (see below) but it was presumably located along the southern wall of the room. The walls in this building were made from medium-sized blocks. The floors of all the rooms except for Room 13 were made of beaten earth over bedrock. A complete ceramic krater (Fig. 45:3) was found sunk into the floor of Room 12 (L1023; 655.26 m asl). The floor of Room 13 was made from a layer of packed soil over a cobblestone surface (L903). A Roman provincial coin of the second–third centuries CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 6) was discovered in a layer (L901) above rubble, while a coin of Trajan (98−117 CE) was uncovered between the cobblestones below Floor 903 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 5). No traces of arches were found in any of the rooms despite the existence of a stairwell in Room 6 that obviously led to the roof or an upper story. The presence of a stairwell leading to an upper story is extensively documented in Nabataean buildings of the post-annexation period uncovered at Mampsis (Mamshit; Negev 1988a). Presumably, the roof was made from some type of organic material and mud plaster, supported by wooden beams. A small space located near the stairway in Room 6 (L1122; 1.5 × 2.0 m) seems to have served as a pantry, as indicated by the dozens of complete pottery and glass vessels (Figs. 11; 12) dated to the second and early third centuries, found in situ (655.42 m asl). The pantry was entered from the ground level, under what was probably another level of wooden stairs.⁴ Glass vessels dating to the first–third centuries were also found here (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Figs. 2:2, 3; 3:1, 3). The orderly layers of ceramic vessels uncovered here suggest that they had been placed on wooden shelves that had long since disintegrated. At the top of this deposit, two parts of a single camel scapula were found. The scapula was perforated in one corner and bears the remains of both Nabataean and probably Greek letters etched in parallel lines (Fig. 13:a). Presumably, the scapula served as a kind of written inventory and the perforation was for a string that allowed it to be hung on a vessel, on the shelves or under the wooden stairwell. Combined radiocarbon determinations of the two scapula parts indicate a date range of 128–240 CE at 95.4% probability with 64% of that probability distribution falling between 161–237 CE. So, a date in the second half of the second century or early third century CE seems quite likely (Fig. 13:b).⁵ Complete and restorable pottery vessels were found from the packed earth floor surface up to one meter above the pantry floor. Directly outside its entrance and at the foot of Stairwell 1132 (655.60 m asl), fourth-century coins and parts of Gaza wine jars were found, indicating that while the pantry went out of use, the small space continued to be utilized in Phase 3 (see below). An unusual aspect of the building was the intentional fill in Rooms 12 and 13 and above the pantry (Room 6) sometime after the abandonment of the structure. This massive fill of dirt preserved the walls of these rooms to nearly their original height (c. 2 m high). The courtyard (Room 19) found north of the building was delimited by a long wall (W28) that extends northward from Room 12. An opening in this wall allowed access to the eastern exterior of the structure. Some smaller walls (W77 and W112) were found at the northern side of W28. At the extreme northern end, between W28, W78 and W112, a clay oven/ṭabun (F11) was found sunk into the surface of the courtyard (Fig. 14). An arch springer was found along the remains of one wall in this area (W50). The surface of this courtyard (655.14 m asl) was made up of packed soil over a layer of sterile compacted soil covering the bedrock. In comparison to the interior rooms of the structure, the courtyard contained fewer pottery sherds—the latest ceramic finds date to the second–early third century—and residual fragments of glass vessels attributed to Phases 1 and 2 (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 4:1–4). A well-built, nearly four-meter-long drainage channel (F13) extends parallel and close to exterior W10 of Room 13, turning slightly to the northwest near Room 11; its far end appears to have been destroyed in Phase 3. Glass windowpanes were found outside Room 49, an indication that some of the rooms had glass windows (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig.). They appear to have been carefully disassembled from the structure and placed outside where they were abandoned. Footnotes 4 In response to Wenner and Parker’s (2021:26‒27) comments considering the depth of the fill over the pantry (Room 6), it should be noted that this room was discovered under a one-meter-wide balk between the excavation squares set out before the rooms below were discerned: L1100 (657.20 m asl) and L1200 (657.07 m asl). As the balk was dismantled, finds related to the pantry began to appear in L1122 (656.87 m asl). 5 These two parts of the inscribed camel scapula underwent radiocarbon analysis in the Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory on May 31, 2022.
Phase 3	late 3rd–early 5th centuries CE	Five domestic structures were found in the remaining area, extending west and south of the Phase 2 building toward the acropolis (Plan 1; Figs. 15; 16). Unpublished probes carried out by P. Fabian in 1994 along the town wall at the western perimeter of the present area revealed that it was constructed in the middle Byzantine period over the remains of one of the structures in our excavation area (Fig. 17). This later wall abuts a tower directly east of the citadel, which appears to be identical to the one constructed in 293/4 CE on the southern side of the town (Negev 1997:65–72). Coins discovered throughout the area range between the second half of the third and the early fifth century, with the vast majority dated to the fourth century (see Kool, this volume). The construction of Phase 3 was of lower quality than that of the preceding phase, with building material consisting of small- to medium-sized worked fieldstones. The largest building is of irregular plan (Plan 1; Rooms 1‒5, 8‒11, 14‒18, 20‒23, 25‒26, 29‒31, 34‒42, 47). It abuts the still existing Phase 2 building (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19), while incorporating Room 7 and part of Room 6, and in effect, enveloping the earlier structure on nearly three sides (Fig. 18). A thin plaster floor (L900) was discovered above the fill in Room 13, only a few centimeters below the surface (656.17 m asl; Plan 1: Section 1–1). Pottery found on this floor indicates it was used in Phase 3. In contrast, although Room 7 appears to have been used in Phase 3, it apparently collapsed, probably in the earthquake of 363 CE. This collapse of building stones, loose soil and air pockets was found together with late third to mid-fourth-century pottery, an inscribed glass vessel (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 12:1) and coins on the surface of the beaten earth floor. This structure had a series of rooms used as entranceways located on the northern side of the building leading to the main courtyard (Room 5; Fig. 19). It also had several rooms located on the north side of the building (Rooms 17, 20, 21). The presence of imported storage jars in Room 17 (Fig. 76:1, 6–9) suggests that it was used for storage. Each of the Phase 3 structures possessed irregularly-sized rooms located around or next to a courtyard (Fig. 20). A passageway through the middle of the western side of the area appears to have connected these houses from Room 22 via Rooms 26, 23, 29, 33, 37, 38, 45, 46 and 47, then leading toward the tower (Figs. 21–23). One common feature in the construction of the buildings is that the courtyards in three of the houses (Rooms 5, 26 and 29) were constructed at a higher level than the surrounding rooms (Plan 1: Section 2–2). On the southern side of this area, in particular, the rooms were excavated into bedrock to achieve this effect (Fig. 24). This feature was not apparent in a house on the northwestern side of the area (Rooms 30, 31, 37, 38); however, this house contains a stairwell ‘tower’ (excavated by P. Fabian, unpublished), which is similar to the one uncovered in the Phase 2 building. Given the lack of stairwells and no evidence for arches in many of the rooms, the Phase 3 structures appear to have had only a ground floor. A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). In Room 7, an important glass vessel inscribed in Greek was discovered (L1002; see Gorin-Rosen, this volume). Voussoirs were found only in a handful of rooms, such as two in Room 22 (Fig. 26), one each in Rooms 23 and 37, three in Room 30 and four in Room 40. These rooms apparently had roofs made from stone slabs, several of which were found in situ, collapsed in Room 22. In situ deposits of pottery and braziers made from Gaza wine jars were found throughout these structures. Braziers of this type were found under the collapse in Room 22 (Fig. 27) and in rooms located in a structure north of W15 of Room 21 (L2321; Fig. 28). Layers of braziers made from Gaza wine jars were discovered in a corner of Room 14 (655.47 m asl; Fig. 29). Apart from Room 11, which was paved with flagstones (655.55 m asl), and small Room 45, all had beaten-earth floors over bedrock (Fig. 30; 31). The eastern wall of Room 11 was built up against a pre-existing Phase 2 wall in Room 12, which produced a wall of unusual thickness (Fig. 32). Room 11 also produced a lintel stone with a tabula ansata of incised graffiti, with a scene of a person and what appears to be an olive press (see below). The courtyards appear to have been used for cooking and food storage, as heavy layers of ash and debris were found in Rooms 5, 26 and 29. A probe excavated in the floor of courtyard Room 5 (L1202; 655.91 m asl) revealed some smooth bedrock with carved depressions (L1204) that may have been used to hold storage jars upright (L1203; 655.67 m asl; Fig. 33). Installations in Room 38 include a stone bench and a large oven with a stone base that appear to have been used for baking (Fig. 34). The remains of a large clay-lined oven (F8; diam. c. 1 m, c. 0.18 deep), and what may have been an adjacent second oven, were found in Phase 3 Courtyard 19. A number of grinding implements made from basalt and limestone, as well as plaster seals of storage jars, were discovered throughout the rooms in Phase 3 (Figs. 35; 36). Examination of the numismatic and ceramic evidence revealed that the buildings were destroyed sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE, not in the 363 CE earthquake as previously assumed (Fabian 1996), as evinced by a fallen lintel found in situ (Fig. 37).⁶ Excavations carried out by Fabian in Building T inside the Byzantine town walls, and in small probes along the town wall in 1993 and 1994, revealed evidence of earthquake damage in earlier structures that were attributed to the 363 CE earthquake (Balouka 1999:40–41, n. 133). The 363 CE earthquake was a massive event and one of the best recorded in ancient history with a long list of affected towns and cities in Palestine.⁷ However, the evidence provided by the 1999 excavations, carried out on a much larger area outside of the town wall that was subsequently abandoned, shows unequivocally that the 363 CE earthquake only caused minor damage at the site. Significant earthquake damage only occurred a few decades later, in the early fifth century CE, the precise date of which is unknown. The fact that Oboda was destroyed in a massive local earthquake in the first half of the seventh century CE (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999) raises doubts as to the possibility that an earthquake with an epicenter located quite far away from the site could have produced the kind of damage evident in the early fifth century CE contexts discovered in the present excavation. Many complete or nearly complete ceramic vessels were discovered in situ in the collapse deposits and over the floors in several rooms. A cache of complete oil lamps and a coin hoard (n = 43), primarily of the fourth century were revealed in Room 16 (L3302; see Plan 1: section 2–2; see Fig. 70; see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 24, 25, 29–31, 35, 40, 42, 43, 45, 49, 51, 53, 60, 70, 72, 74–79, 93, 94, 115–117). Coin hoards of the fourth century were also discovered in the debris of Rooms 22 and 35. However, coins postdating the 363 earthquake were also present: coins dated generally to the fifth–sixth centuries were present in the hoard in Room 16 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 116, 117), a coin of Gratian (367–383 CE) was uncovered in Room 3 and a coin of Valentinian II (375–392 CE) was discovered in Room 17 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 56, 57). Wall 53 of Room 20 was found in a collapsed state, which was evidently brought about by the early fifth-century CE earthquake that ruined the entire residential quarter (Fig. 38). Although this area was left abandoned following its destruction, most of the building stones and stone roofing slabs from Phase 3 appear to have been stripped for reuse in the adjacent area to the west during the Byzantine period. The removal of building stones was particularly evident on the northern side of the excavation area. Thus, only two or three courses of most walls survived in the Phase 3 structures. Notably, the rooms that were spared the removal of building stones following the early fifth-century CE earthquake in the residential quarter were those of the Phase 2 building that had been intentionally filled before the beginning of Phase 3, possibly in the wake of an epidemic. Only Room 23 had plaster preserved on its walls (Plan 1: Section 3–3; Fig. 39), which was applied to a thick layer of cement, but had broken off and was found in large chunks throughout the collapsed construction material above the floor (L3802; 655.83 m asl; Fig. 40). An ink inscription on plaster in a Nabataean Aramaic script was found next to the arch springer along the western wall of this room, near the floor (Fig. 41; see discussion below). Footnotes 6 In her thesis on evidence of the 363 CE earthquake from Sepphoris, Balouka includes an entire section on the supposed evidence for this event at Oboda (‘Avedat) based on preliminary reports of Fabian’s excavations in the Byzantine Quarter and along the Byzantine town wall (Balouka 1999:41–42). However, the present excavations of the latter area have produced solid numismatic and ceramic evidence that refutes this earlier claim. 7 Balouka (1999: n. 132) noted that Oboda is absent from this list.

Early 2nd century CE Earthquake

Discussion

References

Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Abstract

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:1)

This report presents the results of the excavation of a Roman and Early Byzantine residential quarter at Oboda (‘Avedat), offering new evidence for the occupation history of the site and challenging long-standing assumptions regarding Nabataean settlement, trade and material culture in the Negev. The excavations revealed three principal phases: Phase 1, dating from the late first century BCE–early second century CE; Phase 2, constructed after the Roman annexation of 106 CE, linked to regional rebuilding activity following a major earthquake in the early second century CE; and Phase 3, comprising five buildings with courtyards surrounded by rooms, dating to the late third–early fifth centuries CE. The finds—mainly pottery, glass and coins— attest to the continuity of trade along the Petra–Gaza (Incense) Road into the third century CE, providing evidence for the prolonged production of Nabataean Fine Ware into the early to mid-third century CE.

Introduction

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:1-4)

Excavations carried out from November 1999 to February 2000 at Oboda (‘Aevdat) revealed a residential quarter dated primarily to the Middle Roman and Early Byzantine periods (second–early fifth centuries CE) that were preceded by two earlier phases. The site is located on a plateau 650.00 m above sea level in the central Negev Highlands along the Petra–Gaza road used by the Nabataeans in the second half of the first millennium BCE (map ref. 178310/522778; Fig. 1).

This quarter was located immediately outside the town wall and the acropolis, in an area covering approximately 4 dunams (Figs. 2–5). At least 40 rooms and courtyards were excavated (Plan 1) in which three phases of construction and occupation were discerned:² Phase 1 comprises four rooms of a large structure dating to the late first century BCE–early second century CE, excavated on the northwest perimeter of the area; Phase 2 includes a building and adjoining courtyard dating to the second–early third centuries CE excavated in the middle of the northern side of the area; and Phase 3 comprises five separate domestic structures dating to the late third–early fifth centuries CE, excavated in the remainder of the area as far south as the middle Byzantine town wall. The structures in this area appear to have adjoined a tower that was probably constructed in the late third century CE like the tower on the southern side of the town excavated by Negev (1997:65–72).

In addition to the pottery found in each of the three phases, several Hellenistic-period sherds and two complete vessels were found just above bedrock in places where that substratum was undisturbed.

Footnotes

2 The excavation of the residential quarter at Oboda was an integral part of one of the author’s (T.E.G) doctoral dissertation presented in 2004 to The Hebrew University in Jerusalem under the skilled supervision of the late Prof. Yoram Tsafrir. I am grateful to the late Prof. Tsafrir and the late Prof. S. Thomas Parker, North Carolina State University, and I wish to thank Dr. Benjamin J. Dolinka, Israel Antiquities Authority, Dr. Christopher A. Tuttle, the former Associate Director of the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, Jordan, Prof. Jodi Magness, North Carolina State University at Chapel Hill, and Prof. David F. Graf, the University of Florida at Miami, for their friendship, advice and assistance. Thanks are due to Prof. Guy Bar-Oz from the University of Haifa for his help in identifying, examining and photographing the inscribed camel scapula from the pantry in Room 6 (Fig. 13:a) as well as initiating the radiocarbon analysis of the two parts (Fig. 13:b).

Phasing of Roman and Early Byzantine residential quarter - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)

Phase	Date	Description
Pre-Phase 1	2nd century BCE	The Hellenistic-period occupation (second century BCE) was found on bedrock below an early Byzantine (Phase 3) street or passage (L4201, L4324; Plan 1) between houses that were undisturbed by later construction. None of that material was found in association with contemporary architectural elements, although a coin of Aradus (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 1) was discovered on bedrock in nearby Room 22 (L4222). This find reflects the general character of the site in its earliest phase of occupation in the third–second centuries BCE when it was apparently frequented by Nabataean traders and used as a campground (Negev 1997:1). Negev’s extensive excavations at the site did not uncover any Hellenistic architecture but did produce pottery and coins of this period in various parts of the site, particularly just above bedrock (Negev 1997:1). Excavations in the Roman army camp at the site revealed middens with ash and Hellenistic pottery (Erickson-Gini 2002:115).
Phase 1	late 1st century BCE–early 2nd century CE	Four rooms belonging to a large structure were uncovered on the northwestern limits of the excavation area (Rooms 24, 27, 28, 44; Plan 1; Fig. 6). Surface remains indicate that the unexcavated part of this structure extends at least 10 m to the north and includes a large open courtyard with rooms located around its perimeter. The four excavated rooms appear to belong to the southern wing of this structure. Their walls were constructed of hewn fieldstones, some of which survived to a height of three or four courses. The eastern wall of Room 28 (W66) was built of large, roughly-cut pieces of stone slabs laid on top of rows of smaller hewn stones. The lack of uniform construction may have been a result of a secondary stage or a repair of the building in the wake of earthquake damage to Oboda in the early second century CE, an event whose impact is known from other sites in the region (Erickson-Gini 2010:47; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139–140). Nearly identical construction using rough flat stones of this type was found at nearby Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa in repairs made to a structure that was damaged by earthquake in the early second century CE (Erickson-Gini 2019:167). A floor made from hard-packed soil over bedrock was found in Room 28 at an elevation of 655.26 m asl. A Nabataean coin of Aretas IV, dated 39/40 CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 2), and the rim of a glass bowl, dated to the first century CE (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 1:5), and numerous pottery sherds from the later first–early second centuries CE, were found in this layer. This room was entered from Room 27 (W75). Room 27 was the only one with arch voussoirs located midway along its eastern and western walls (for a single arch) to support a roof. Although there is some evidence of use in Phase 2, these four rooms appear to have been filled with refuse in Phase 3, e.g., building stones were found piled on the floor of Room 27 (655.48 m asl). Room 24 (655.17 m asl) was filled with building debris, pottery sherds, bones, etc., primarily from the second–early third centuries CE, but also from the fourth century CE, when the building was apparently not in use. The doorway between Rooms 24 and 44 in W64 was blocked.
Phase 2	2nd–early 3rd centuries CE	A Phase 2 building with an adjoining courtyard (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19; Plans 1, 2; Fig. 7) was found west of the Phase 1 structure. Walls 1 and 3 of this building were visible on the surface prior to excavation, probably owing to the fact that they were preserved to nearly their full height. The structure appears to have been entered from openings on the eastern side of Room 13 along W52 (Fig. 8). Room 12 had three entrances: the first leading from Room 13; a second entrance, leading to the west, blocked in Phase 3 (Fig. 9); and a third, leading to the courtyard (Room 19). The stairwell of Room 6 (L1132; Fig. 10) was accessed from the south; the pantry under the stairwell (see below) was reached through a small opening along its western wall, next to the stairs. The entrance to Room 7 was apparently destroyed during the construction of Rooms 3 and 4 in Phase 3 (see below) but it was presumably located along the southern wall of the room. The walls in this building were made from medium-sized blocks. The floors of all the rooms except for Room 13 were made of beaten earth over bedrock. A complete ceramic krater (Fig. 45:3) was found sunk into the floor of Room 12 (L1023; 655.26 m asl). The floor of Room 13 was made from a layer of packed soil over a cobblestone surface (L903). A Roman provincial coin of the second–third centuries CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 6) was discovered in a layer (L901) above rubble, while a coin of Trajan (98−117 CE) was uncovered between the cobblestones below Floor 903 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 5). No traces of arches were found in any of the rooms despite the existence of a stairwell in Room 6 that obviously led to the roof or an upper story. The presence of a stairwell leading to an upper story is extensively documented in Nabataean buildings of the post-annexation period uncovered at Mampsis (Mamshit; Negev 1988a). Presumably, the roof was made from some type of organic material and mud plaster, supported by wooden beams. A small space located near the stairway in Room 6 (L1122; 1.5 × 2.0 m) seems to have served as a pantry, as indicated by the dozens of complete pottery and glass vessels (Figs. 11; 12) dated to the second and early third centuries, found in situ (655.42 m asl). The pantry was entered from the ground level, under what was probably another level of wooden stairs.⁴ Glass vessels dating to the first–third centuries were also found here (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Figs. 2:2, 3; 3:1, 3). The orderly layers of ceramic vessels uncovered here suggest that they had been placed on wooden shelves that had long since disintegrated. At the top of this deposit, two parts of a single camel scapula were found. The scapula was perforated in one corner and bears the remains of both Nabataean and probably Greek letters etched in parallel lines (Fig. 13:a). Presumably, the scapula served as a kind of written inventory and the perforation was for a string that allowed it to be hung on a vessel, on the shelves or under the wooden stairwell. Combined radiocarbon determinations of the two scapula parts indicate a date range of 128–240 CE at 95.4% probability with 64% of that probability distribution falling between 161–237 CE. So, a date in the second half of the second century or early third century CE seems quite likely (Fig. 13:b).⁵ Complete and restorable pottery vessels were found from the packed earth floor surface up to one meter above the pantry floor. Directly outside its entrance and at the foot of Stairwell 1132 (655.60 m asl), fourth-century coins and parts of Gaza wine jars were found, indicating that while the pantry went out of use, the small space continued to be utilized in Phase 3 (see below). An unusual aspect of the building was the intentional fill in Rooms 12 and 13 and above the pantry (Room 6) sometime after the abandonment of the structure. This massive fill of dirt preserved the walls of these rooms to nearly their original height (c. 2 m high). The courtyard (Room 19) found north of the building was delimited by a long wall (W28) that extends northward from Room 12. An opening in this wall allowed access to the eastern exterior of the structure. Some smaller walls (W77 and W112) were found at the northern side of W28. At the extreme northern end, between W28, W78 and W112, a clay oven/ṭabun (F11) was found sunk into the surface of the courtyard (Fig. 14). An arch springer was found along the remains of one wall in this area (W50). The surface of this courtyard (655.14 m asl) was made up of packed soil over a layer of sterile compacted soil covering the bedrock. In comparison to the interior rooms of the structure, the courtyard contained fewer pottery sherds—the latest ceramic finds date to the second–early third century—and residual fragments of glass vessels attributed to Phases 1 and 2 (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 4:1–4). A well-built, nearly four-meter-long drainage channel (F13) extends parallel and close to exterior W10 of Room 13, turning slightly to the northwest near Room 11; its far end appears to have been destroyed in Phase 3. Glass windowpanes were found outside Room 49, an indication that some of the rooms had glass windows (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig.). They appear to have been carefully disassembled from the structure and placed outside where they were abandoned. Footnotes 4 In response to Wenner and Parker’s (2021:26‒27) comments considering the depth of the fill over the pantry (Room 6), it should be noted that this room was discovered under a one-meter-wide balk between the excavation squares set out before the rooms below were discerned: L1100 (657.20 m asl) and L1200 (657.07 m asl). As the balk was dismantled, finds related to the pantry began to appear in L1122 (656.87 m asl). 5 These two parts of the inscribed camel scapula underwent radiocarbon analysis in the Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory on May 31, 2022.
Phase 3	late 3rd–early 5th centuries CE	Five domestic structures were found in the remaining area, extending west and south of the Phase 2 building toward the acropolis (Plan 1; Figs. 15; 16). Unpublished probes carried out by P. Fabian in 1994 along the town wall at the western perimeter of the present area revealed that it was constructed in the middle Byzantine period over the remains of one of the structures in our excavation area (Fig. 17). This later wall abuts a tower directly east of the citadel, which appears to be identical to the one constructed in 293/4 CE on the southern side of the town (Negev 1997:65–72). Coins discovered throughout the area range between the second half of the third and the early fifth century, with the vast majority dated to the fourth century (see Kool, this volume). The construction of Phase 3 was of lower quality than that of the preceding phase, with building material consisting of small- to medium-sized worked fieldstones. The largest building is of irregular plan (Plan 1; Rooms 1‒5, 8‒11, 14‒18, 20‒23, 25‒26, 29‒31, 34‒42, 47). It abuts the still existing Phase 2 building (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19), while incorporating Room 7 and part of Room 6, and in effect, enveloping the earlier structure on nearly three sides (Fig. 18). A thin plaster floor (L900) was discovered above the fill in Room 13, only a few centimeters below the surface (656.17 m asl; Plan 1: Section 1–1). Pottery found on this floor indicates it was used in Phase 3. In contrast, although Room 7 appears to have been used in Phase 3, it apparently collapsed, probably in the earthquake of 363 CE. This collapse of building stones, loose soil and air pockets was found together with late third to mid-fourth-century pottery, an inscribed glass vessel (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 12:1) and coins on the surface of the beaten earth floor. This structure had a series of rooms used as entranceways located on the northern side of the building leading to the main courtyard (Room 5; Fig. 19). It also had several rooms located on the north side of the building (Rooms 17, 20, 21). The presence of imported storage jars in Room 17 (Fig. 76:1, 6–9) suggests that it was used for storage. Each of the Phase 3 structures possessed irregularly-sized rooms located around or next to a courtyard (Fig. 20). A passageway through the middle of the western side of the area appears to have connected these houses from Room 22 via Rooms 26, 23, 29, 33, 37, 38, 45, 46 and 47, then leading toward the tower (Figs. 21–23). One common feature in the construction of the buildings is that the courtyards in three of the houses (Rooms 5, 26 and 29) were constructed at a higher level than the surrounding rooms (Plan 1: Section 2–2). On the southern side of this area, in particular, the rooms were excavated into bedrock to achieve this effect (Fig. 24). This feature was not apparent in a house on the northwestern side of the area (Rooms 30, 31, 37, 38); however, this house contains a stairwell ‘tower’ (excavated by P. Fabian, unpublished), which is similar to the one uncovered in the Phase 2 building. Given the lack of stairwells and no evidence for arches in many of the rooms, the Phase 3 structures appear to have had only a ground floor. A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). In Room 7, an important glass vessel inscribed in Greek was discovered (L1002; see Gorin-Rosen, this volume). Voussoirs were found only in a handful of rooms, such as two in Room 22 (Fig. 26), one each in Rooms 23 and 37, three in Room 30 and four in Room 40. These rooms apparently had roofs made from stone slabs, several of which were found in situ, collapsed in Room 22. In situ deposits of pottery and braziers made from Gaza wine jars were found throughout these structures. Braziers of this type were found under the collapse in Room 22 (Fig. 27) and in rooms located in a structure north of W15 of Room 21 (L2321; Fig. 28). Layers of braziers made from Gaza wine jars were discovered in a corner of Room 14 (655.47 m asl; Fig. 29). Apart from Room 11, which was paved with flagstones (655.55 m asl), and small Room 45, all had beaten-earth floors over bedrock (Fig. 30; 31). The eastern wall of Room 11 was built up against a pre-existing Phase 2 wall in Room 12, which produced a wall of unusual thickness (Fig. 32). Room 11 also produced a lintel stone with a tabula ansata of incised graffiti, with a scene of a person and what appears to be an olive press (see below). The courtyards appear to have been used for cooking and food storage, as heavy layers of ash and debris were found in Rooms 5, 26 and 29. A probe excavated in the floor of courtyard Room 5 (L1202; 655.91 m asl) revealed some smooth bedrock with carved depressions (L1204) that may have been used to hold storage jars upright (L1203; 655.67 m asl; Fig. 33). Installations in Room 38 include a stone bench and a large oven with a stone base that appear to have been used for baking (Fig. 34). The remains of a large clay-lined oven (F8; diam. c. 1 m, c. 0.18 deep), and what may have been an adjacent second oven, were found in Phase 3 Courtyard 19. A number of grinding implements made from basalt and limestone, as well as plaster seals of storage jars, were discovered throughout the rooms in Phase 3 (Figs. 35; 36). Examination of the numismatic and ceramic evidence revealed that the buildings were destroyed sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE, not in the 363 CE earthquake as previously assumed (Fabian 1996), as evinced by a fallen lintel found in situ (Fig. 37).⁶ Excavations carried out by Fabian in Building T inside the Byzantine town walls, and in small probes along the town wall in 1993 and 1994, revealed evidence of earthquake damage in earlier structures that were attributed to the 363 CE earthquake (Balouka 1999:40–41, n. 133). The 363 CE earthquake was a massive event and one of the best recorded in ancient history with a long list of affected towns and cities in Palestine.⁷ However, the evidence provided by the 1999 excavations, carried out on a much larger area outside of the town wall that was subsequently abandoned, shows unequivocally that the 363 CE earthquake only caused minor damage at the site. Significant earthquake damage only occurred a few decades later, in the early fifth century CE, the precise date of which is unknown. The fact that Oboda was destroyed in a massive local earthquake in the first half of the seventh century CE (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999) raises doubts as to the possibility that an earthquake with an epicenter located quite far away from the site could have produced the kind of damage evident in the early fifth century CE contexts discovered in the present excavation. Many complete or nearly complete ceramic vessels were discovered in situ in the collapse deposits and over the floors in several rooms. A cache of complete oil lamps and a coin hoard (n = 43), primarily of the fourth century were revealed in Room 16 (L3302; see Plan 1: section 2–2; see Fig. 70; see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 24, 25, 29–31, 35, 40, 42, 43, 45, 49, 51, 53, 60, 70, 72, 74–79, 93, 94, 115–117). Coin hoards of the fourth century were also discovered in the debris of Rooms 22 and 35. However, coins postdating the 363 earthquake were also present: coins dated generally to the fifth–sixth centuries were present in the hoard in Room 16 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 116, 117), a coin of Gratian (367–383 CE) was uncovered in Room 3 and a coin of Valentinian II (375–392 CE) was discovered in Room 17 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 56, 57). Wall 53 of Room 20 was found in a collapsed state, which was evidently brought about by the early fifth-century CE earthquake that ruined the entire residential quarter (Fig. 38). Although this area was left abandoned following its destruction, most of the building stones and stone roofing slabs from Phase 3 appear to have been stripped for reuse in the adjacent area to the west during the Byzantine period. The removal of building stones was particularly evident on the northern side of the excavation area. Thus, only two or three courses of most walls survived in the Phase 3 structures. Notably, the rooms that were spared the removal of building stones following the early fifth-century CE earthquake in the residential quarter were those of the Phase 2 building that had been intentionally filled before the beginning of Phase 3, possibly in the wake of an epidemic. Only Room 23 had plaster preserved on its walls (Plan 1: Section 3–3; Fig. 39), which was applied to a thick layer of cement, but had broken off and was found in large chunks throughout the collapsed construction material above the floor (L3802; 655.83 m asl; Fig. 40). An ink inscription on plaster in a Nabataean Aramaic script was found next to the arch springer along the western wall of this room, near the floor (Fig. 41; see discussion below). Footnotes 6 In her thesis on evidence of the 363 CE earthquake from Sepphoris, Balouka includes an entire section on the supposed evidence for this event at Oboda (‘Avedat) based on preliminary reports of Fabian’s excavations in the Byzantine Quarter and along the Byzantine town wall (Balouka 1999:41–42). However, the present excavations of the latter area have produced solid numismatic and ceramic evidence that refutes this earlier claim. 7 Balouka (1999: n. 132) noted that Oboda is absent from this list.

Conclusions

Overview

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:124-125)

The excavation of the Middle Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter at Oboda provides invaluable evidence of periods of which little was hitherto known from southern Israel. An important contribution made by this report is a clarification of the occupation sequence at the site. According to the prolific excavator of Oboda, Avraham Negev, Oboda of the second and third centuries CE had not been investigated (Negev 1997:4). Since his extensive excavations (with Avi-Yonah) in 1958–1961, 1975-–1977 and 1989, great advances have been made in Nabataean research and particularly in ceramic typology, chiefly due to the efforts of researchers working in Jordan, such as Stephan G. Schmid, Kharieh ‘Amr and others. Many of Negev’s assumptions about the site, such as the existence of a ‘Nabatean’ pottery workshop, have been refuted (see Goren and Fabian 2008). Negev considered that toward the end of the first century CE, Oboda was attacked by Arab tribes, destroyed and abandoned for nearly a generation (Negev 1988b:31). However, the end of the pre-annexation phase of Oboda was more likely the result of extensive earthquake damage of the early second century CE detected in numerous sites throughout southern Jordan, the Arava and the Negev Highlands (see below). Negev also assumed that trade along the Incense Road ceased before the end of the first century CE, leading the Nabataean inhabitants of the Negev to turn to agriculture as their new economic base in the early second century CE (Negev 1996:86). Negev’s theories, based primarily on his research at Oboda, influenced prominent historical studies about the Nabataeans (see Bowersock 1983:73–74). However, the excavations of Rudolph Cohen at sites along the Petra–Gaza Road revealed that international trade along this route continued well beyond the Roman annexation into the early third century CE (Cohen 1982:246).¹² Other studies indicate that the inhabitants of Oboda and the Negev Highlands adopted agriculture primarily in the Byzantine period (Haiman 1989; Nevo 1991; Erickson-Gini 2010:81–82). In this regard, Negev’s own research contradicts his theories because none of the winepresses discovered at the site date earlier than the fourth century CE (Negev 1997:6–8) and at present there is no evidence of any dated agricultural installations prior to the Byzantine period.

In 1999, structures of three distinct periods were discovered in this area of Oboda following a pattern of destruction and/or abandonment and reconstruction extending further westward in the site in each successive period. Finds of the earliest occupation of the site, in the pre-Phase 1 Hellenistic period, continue to be uncovered on bedrock with no relation to any discernable architectural elements, a feature noted in earlier reports by Negev (1997:1).

Footnotes

12 A final report on seven sites excavated by Cohen along the Petra–Gaza Road is currently forthcoming.

Phase 1

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:125)

A row of rooms formed part of a large structure extending eastward from the residential quarter. This building belongs to what appears to be the earliest phase of construction in Oboda in the Early Roman period (late first century BCE–early second century CE), described as “Middle Nabataean” by Negev. Although he excavated some domestic structures in this area of the site, Negev did not include them in his final report, and further research is required to more fully understand the initial phase of settlement at Oboda. The many walls visible in the area between the residential quarter and the Late Roman army camp attest to extensive construction, presumably in the Early Roman period. Excavations in the army camp revealed that the principia was constructed above a Nabataean building of the first century CE while middens of the Hellenistic period were discovered under the southeastern part of the camp (Erickson-Gini 2002:115‒116). Thus, this is the only published architectural and ceramic evidence from a building in the Early Roman (preannexation) period from Oboda.

Phase 2

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:125-129)

The construction of the building in Phase 2, probably sometime in the early second century CE, fits a pattern of large-scale construction that apparently took place throughout the Nabataean realm in the wake of damage caused by an earthquake in the early second century. Evidence for this earthquake continues to be uncovered at a growing number of sites in the Negev and southern Jordan. The most dramatic and well-dated evidence was discovered by Israel and Nahlieli in the Nabataean fort of ‘En Raḥel in the central Arava (Nahlieli and Israel 1982; Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003). Evidence of substantial structural collapse followed either by abandonment or reconstruction was also found at Meẓad Maḥmal (Erickson-Gini 2011), Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa (Erickson-Gini 2019:167) and ‘En Yoṭvata (Erickson-Gini 2012a), as well as at Orḥan Mor, Meẓad Neqarot and Sha‘ar Ramon (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). Earthquake evidence from this period has also been found at Ḥorbat Dafit (Dolinka 2006:123, 126) and in southern Jordan at Aqaba (Dolinka 2003:30–31, Fig. 14), Petra (Kirkbride 1960:118–19; Parr 1960:129; Joukowsky and Basile 2001:50; Kolb and Keller 2002; Grawehr 2007:399; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139‒144) and Khirbat et-Tannur (Glueck 1965). The apparent damage caused by this earthquake at Mampsis was followed by a wave of substantial construction at the site in the mid-second century CE. Although several small excavations were carried out in the area east of the acropolis at Oboda by Negev in the area where early Nabataean settlement activity can still be detected, no final report of these excavations was ever published. The 1999 excavation of a few rooms (Rooms 24, 27, 28, 44) from a large structure belonging to this early period (late first century BCE through early second century CE) is a step in this direction but further research is required in order to better understand early Nabataean settlement activity at Oboda.

Prior to our excavation, little was known about Oboda in the post-annexation period in the second and early third centuries CE (Negev 1977:4‒5). However, major structures were either built, e.g., the khan north of the so-called potter’s workshop, or were in use as late as the mid-third century, i.e., the en-Nusra burial cave and the western (Obodas) temple on the acropolis (Negev 1997:4‒6, 79‒88; Erickson-Gini 2014:86‒94). Oboda clearly continued to be occupied throughout the post-annexation period as an important town in the Roman province of Arabia and the lucrative long-distance trade of aromatics continued along the Incense Road that passed through the town. Coins discovered in the Phase 2 building include a coin of Trajan (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 5) and a Roman provincial coin (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 6), as well as glass vessels (Gorin-Rosen Figs. 2:2, 3; 3:1, 3) and radiocarbon dating of the camel scapula (Fig. 13), supporting our dating of Phase 2 to the post-annexation period. Moreover, our excavations have produced additional evidence of continued production of Nabataean fine wares and unguentaria into the third century CE, which has also been uncovered at other sites along the Incense Road (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). This calls into question the early dating of key forms and decorative motifs (Dekorphases 3a-c) of Nabataean fine wares from ez-Zantur as proposed by Schmid (2000) that have resulted in discrepancies of nearly 100 years in some cases (Erickson-Gini 2021). The dependency on the ez-Zantur fine ware chronology has, in effect, created a phantom gap in the sequence of Nabataean material culture in the Middle Roman to early Byzantine period between 150 and 363 CE (Erickson-Gini 2021:685). This purported break is claimed despite the fact that as late as 218–222 CE, the Roman Emperor Elagabalus granted Petra the status of Petra Colonia (Bowersock 1983:121; Spijkerman 1978:236–237). Clearly, such a gap is unwarranted historically or materially. Thus, the current typochronology of Nabataean pottery reflects a compulsion among academics to compress the dates of Nabataean material culture into a narrow historical framework that does not take into account its robust continuity in the post-annexation period well into the third century.

This situation has serious implications regarding the dating of strata and architectural phases of major edifices in Petra and other Nabataean sites. As noted by Wenner and Parker (2021:711), these monuments include no less than the Great Temple (Saunders 2017:215–216), the Petra Garden and Pool Complex (Bedal 2003:72–76; Bedal, Gleason and Schryver 2007:162; 2011:320), the Qasr al-Bint (Renel and Mouton 2013), the Khazneh (Farajat and Nawafleh 2005), the Oboda Chapel (Tholbecq and Durand 2013:212–220), Wadi Sabrah (Tholbecq et al. 2016:285), Khirbat et-Tannur (McKenzie et al. 2013), Khirbat edh-Dharih (Durand 2017: Fig. 10), Hegra (Durand and Gerber 2014:159–160; Charloux et al. 2016: Fig. 6; Durand 2017: Fig. 8) and Dumat (Durand 2017: Fig. 7). To this list we may add the Petra North Ridge tombs excavated by Bikai and Perry (2001). While many researchers in the field claim that the Zantur chronology remains valid, there is little or no discussion about the abrupt cessation of the Nabataean fine ware tradition and the production of unguentaria in the post-annexation period, including the terminal date of Schmid’s Dekorphase 3c, or the reasons for their cessation. In order to maintain the position that the greater share of the Nabataean fine ware vessels date to the time of the Nabataean Kingdom, they are content to leave questions concerning production in the post-annexation (after 106 CE) vague or unaddressed.

The abandonment of the house and pantry in Phase 2 is of particular importance as it provides detailed material evidence at a critical point in time: the cessation of international trade along the Petra–Gaza Road (the Incense Road) in the early to mid-third century CE. The abandonment of the sites along this road sometime after 222 CE had already been noted by Rudolph Cohen, the excavator of several sites between Petra and Oboda (Cohen 1982:246) and this is supported by radiocarbon dates recently obtained from Orḥan Mor and Sha‘ar Ramon (Bar-Oz et al. 2022: Fig. 4, Table 3).¹² Recent research on the pottery and other material from those sites by the present author compliments the findings from Oboda Phase 2, and radiocarbon analysis of the camel scapula found in the pantry, support the dating of its abandonment (see Fig. 13). Similarly, an analysis of the abandoned Early House (Area I) at Petra, has revealed much of the same architecture (including a ground floor pantry called an antechamber) and a ceramic assemblage like the Phase 2 building at Oboda (EricksonGini and Tuttle 2017:142‒142). It is also notable that the second-century CE assemblage from Cistern 319 at Shiqmona included the same type of ESA ware bowl together a with a football-shaped flask and bag-shaped juglets (Elgavish 1977: Figs. I:4; II:9‒10, 13) like those discovered in the abandoned pantry at Oboda (Figs. 46:5; 48:4‒6). This may provide an indication that the production of some ESA types survived late into the second and even the early third centuries CE.

A number of structures were abandoned among sites contemporary with Oboda Phase 2, most notably the fort at Meẓad Neqarot and the fort (Area B) at Orḥan Mor, in which an oil press and other industrial installations were found that may have been used for producing perfumed oils, as well as large quantities of in situ pottery, glass vessels and organic material (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). At Mampsis, the large hoard of silver tetradrachmas discovered by Negev (1988a:146), the latest coins of which were minted in the reign of Elagablus (219–222), may have been a donative or payment to Roman troops that was abandoned and forgotten in its hiding place precisely in the same period. The temporary abandonment of the residential quarter in Oboda in the late second or early third century is also comparable to the abandonment of the unfortified Nabataean town of Qasrawet in North Sinai in the same period (Verreth 2006:665; Oren and Netzer 1977:100–101).

The cessation of trade along the Petra–Gaza Road in the first half of the third century CE can be explained primarily by the crises that took place in that century. These crises included run-away inflation and an economic crisis that apparently resulted in a drop in demand for exotic goods such as perfumed oils produced at Petra, as well as the military crisis in the East with the rise of the Persian Empire and a crisis in leadership in the Roman Empire. However, there appears to be a more acute and sudden crisis, at least on a regional scale, that accounts for the cessation of coinage minted at Petra in the early third century (Kindler 1983:78) and the tremendous change in pottery production at Petra between the third and fourth centuries CE in which the whole tradition of painted fine-ware vessels disappeared¹³ and Nabataean unguentaria produced at Petra for packaging perfumed oils also disappeared.

One possibility may be that these developments, as well as the abandonment of structures seen at Orḥan Mor, Oboda and possibly Mampsis, are a result of an epidemic that struck the region in the early third century CE. Obviously, any town or village located along a major road such as the Petra–Gaza Road would have been vulnerable to the risk of infection carried from afar. In the event of an epidemic, towns and villages may have been briefly abandoned as inhabitants fled in order to escape infection. This was apparently a common occurrence in the late second century CE in the Nile Delta of Egypt and records from that period refer to a decline in population due to flight (anachoresis; Bagnall 2000:291–292). The spread of a pandemic, possibly originating as far away as China in the late second century CE was responsible for the death of both the Roman emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. The several outbreaks over several years of the Antonine epidemic may have been either of smallpox or a mixture of smallpox and the measles, and it was one of the first major pandemics to affect the Mediterranean regions in several centuries (Scheidel 2002:97). Similar waves of epidemic spread over the course of fifteen years in the mid-third century CE, claiming the life of the Roman emperor Claudius. This epidemic was recorded by Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, in his tract, De mortalitate (De mort. 14). According to Pontius Diaconis (Life, 9), Cyprian’s biographer, the epidemic that struck Carthage in this period caused people to flee their homes. The fear of infection may have been the reason that the pantry of the Phase 2 household was found with its intact fine wares and glass vessels, as well as the well-stocked fort at Orḥan Mor, and were not looted following their abandonment. The same fear of infection may have motivated the subsequent inhabitants to fill up the rooms of the Phase 2 structure instead of clearing and reoccupying them.

Further evidence for the possibility of an epidemic is indicated by the discovery of Tomb 2 under the North Ridge Church at Petra (Bikai and Perry 2001). Here multiple coeval burials of individuals of different ages who apparently were not afflicted with chronic diseases or malnutrition appear to suggest that an epidemic was the cause of death (Perry 2002:268–269). The excavators’ suggested date of burial in the first century CE based on the ceramic evidence is untenable in view of the fact that the majority of the vessels in this tomb date to the late second through early third centuries CE, many of which have parallels with the ceramic vessels found in Phase 2 at Oboda and sites along the Petra–Gaza Road such as Orḥan Mor.

Footnotes

13 The painted tradition continues in the early Byzantine period on non-fine-ware vessels (see ‘Amr 2004).

Phase 3

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:129-132)

After an abandonment of several decades, the residential quarter became a focus of new construction in the late third or early fourth century, corresponding to major geopolitical changes in the region, such as the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila/Aqaba. While in Mampsis, part of the early town was fortified with a wall and co-opted as an army camp (Erickson-Gini and Michael 2019:639), at Oboda an army camp and towers were constructed (Erickson-Gini 2002). In this period the residential quarter appears to have been built up next to one of these towers, situated east of the acropolis, not far from the army camp, while a second residential quarter sprang up next to the Late Roman tower further south (Negev 1997:62‒72). A parallel process appears to have taken place at Qasrawet in North Sinai when a new fortified town was established over the sand-covered remains of the earlier town (Verreth 2006:665). At Oboda, the residential quarter may have housed individuals associated with the Roman military. The peculiar architectural feature of rooms built at a lower level than the central courtyard is a feature present in fourth-century CE contexts inside the Roman army camp at Humayma in southern Jordan observed by the writer in 2001. Moreover, there is other material evidence from Phase 3 that supports a connection between military personnel in the camp and in the quarter. This includes the presence of Aqaba Ware ration jars (Figs. 64:3; 66:1, 2; 72:3; 75:8) like those found in the Diocletianic forts at Meẓad ‘En Ḥaẓeva, Meẓad Yoṭvata and Meẓad Tamar, and the discovery of parts of three ceramic plaques impressed with military scenes (Figs. 62:4; 66:10; 78:8). In addition, the large concentration of Gaza wine jars (Majcherek’s Form 2; see below), is comparable to the large assemblage of the same type of jars discovered in the remains of the isolated Roman military site of Meẓad ‘En Ḥaẓeva, located in the hyper-arid central Arava Valley (Erickson-Gini, forthcoming).

As with the salient evidence provided by Phase 2 for the second and third centuries CE, Phase 3 provides important data with regard to the ceramic assemblage of the fourth to early fifth centuries CE, as well as evidence of Nabataean cultural and religious continuity on the eve of the mass conversions to Christianity that evidently took place in the region in that period. The third century CE crisis described above had dramatic implications in terms of the material culture and ties between the Negev and Petra. Despite the cessation of international trade along the Petra–Gaza Road after the mid-third century CE, ceramic vessels produced in Petra continued to proliferate in the Negev until around 363 CE, albeit with a demonstrable departure from the fine-ware tradition of the Early and Middle Roman periods. Thus, Nabataean unguentaria and fine-ware vessels cease to appear in the archaeological record. In the Late Roman and early Byzantine period, the assemblage includes mainly Gaza wine jars, utilitarian plain wares and vestiges of the painted motifs on thick, partly-coarse ware bowls and jugs. The devastating earthquake of 363 CE apparently destroyed or seriously damaged kilns and workshops in Petra and, from that point onward, painted wares of any kind from Petra are no longer found in the Negev. By the early fifth century CE, very little pottery produced in Petra was being brought to the site and new sources, both local and from areas to the north and northwest of the Negev Highlands, began to take their place.

The most ubiquitous vessel found throughout the Phase 3 structures is the Gaza wine jar, which was commonly found in secondary use as braziers. The designation of this type of jar is a misnomer as they were mass-produced throughout the southern coastal plain in the early and late Byzantine periods and not necessarily in Gaza itself (Israel 1993: esp. Fig. 111). By comparison, the locally-produced Elusa jars were barely noticeable in the ceramic assemblage in Phase 3. The presence of so many heavy jars of the Gaza type brought to the site from the western Negev may seem surprising, but these jars were produced as far south and east as the Naḥal Besor region in close proximity to Oboda/Elusa (c. 15 km) and the Negev Highland towns (Gazit 1996:76). A depiction of how such wine jars were transported from the inner regions to the Mediterranean coast appears in the Orbikon panel of a church at Kissufim located a few kilometers southeast of Gaza. This panel shows a camel laden with ‘Gaza’ wine jars led by a man holding a cluster of grapes in his right hand (Cohen 1979:22).¹⁴

The coastal cities of Gaza and Ashqelon served as emporia for the wine produced throughout southern Israel as recorded around 370 CE in Expositio XXIX–XXXI:162–164. The huge demand for wine from the region is underscored by the large number of Gaza wine jars discovered in Alexandria (Kom el-Dikka) that formed the basis for Majcherek’s typology (1995) used in this report. The ubiquitous presence of the Gaza wine jar in Byzantine assemblages throughout southern Israel is further evidence for the robust export of wine from the southern coastal plain and Negev Highlands in that period. The abundance of these jars in secondary use in the Byzantine period is similarly reflected in their reuse as illustrated in a church mosaic from Ḥorbat Be’er Shema‘ (Erickson-Gini 2010: Fig. 1.60a). To date, four industrial size wine presses of the middle and late Byzantine period have been found at Oboda, as well as one of the early Byzantine period that was uncovered close to the quarter. The early Byzantine winepress located in a complex of buildings is not the free-standing late Byzantine type (Erickson-Gini, Hayut and Schwimer 2025:445‒448 Figs. 4‒6). The camel scapula (Fig. 13) bearing writing in Greek describes the hiring out of camels and donkeys to bring grapes from the fields to the press (Negev 1977:28; EricksonGini 2012b: Fig. 5; Erickson-Gini, Hayut and Schwimer 2025:8*, Fig. 7). Like the Phase 3 residential quarter, the early press and the building in which it operated appear to have been abandoned in this part of Oboda after the fourth century CE.

In previous investigations, our team and colleagues considered that the 363 earthquake was responsible for the destruction and abandonment of this part of the site; however, the discovery of forms of African Red Slip bowls that were imported after that date led to the conclusion that a later, local earthquake event, probably in the early fifth century, was responsible. This has been borne out by the numismatic evidence and particularly Coin No. 72 discovered in Room 35 (see Kool, this volume). This local earthquake event prompted major changes at the site: the area east of the acropolis and the Late Roman towers were abandoned, and the remains were stripped of building stone to be reused for construction and reconstruction further west. This includes the reconstruction of Negev’s ‘Roman Quarter’ (Negev 1997:62‒63; Erickson-Gini 2022:158‒159), and the construction of the town wall, the churches, the revetment walls on the south side of the temenos, and the Byzantine citadel attached to the temenos area (Negev 1997:45‒46, Photo 48; 95, Fig. 22; Erickson-Gini 2014:100). Significantly, following the earthquake, the town wall was constructed directly above the ruins of the western extension of the Phase 3 residential quarter, encircling a much-reduced town with only 19 domestic residences (Sion, Ashkenazi and Erickson-Gini 2024:354).

Overall, the material culture represented in Phase 3 in the form of domestic architecture and ceramics, is inferior in most respects to that of the preceding, post-annexation period. The reasons for this may be attributed primarily to the lower standard of living evident in the early Byzantine period as compared to that of the Middle Roman period when international trade brought substantial revenue to the region. Nevertheless, the connection between Oboda and Petra survived well into the Byzantine period. Despite Negev’s assertion that Nabataean Aramaic script was entirely replaced by Greek by the third century (Negev 1997:5), the discovery of the Nabataean inscription in Phase 3 (Fig. 41) shows that the former survived as late as the early Byzantine period.¹⁵ This inscription demonstrates the longevity of Nabataean culture and religion spatially beyond the confines of Petra, and chronologically well beyond the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom by the Roman Empire in 106 CE.

Footnotes

14 Pre-modern accounts of pottery production and distribution, such as the example of the Southern Lebanese town of Rashaya al-Fukhar, which Burckhardt visited in 1810, record that the inhabitants made a living from producing vessels that they marketed within the radius of a four-to-five-day journey (Burckhardt 1822). Studies of a “Black Gaza Ware” produced in the nineteenth century in the region before the development of motorized vehicles and roads reveal that these heavy vessels were regularly transported in special crates and ropes made from date palms that were carried by mules, donkeys and camels (Israel 2006: IX).

15 Nehmé (2010) has proposed the existence of a transitional script between the third and fifth centuries, in which Nabataean Aramaic script developed into classical Arabic script.

Notes by JW

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) described the early 2nd century earthquake as follows:

There is indirect evidence of a more substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE in which residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter were demolished and used as a source of building stone for later structures. Destruction from this earthquake is well attested particularly nearby at Horvat Hazaza, and along the Petra to Gaza road at Mezad Mahmal, Sha'ar Ramon, Mezad Neqarot and Moyat `Awad, and at `En Rahel in the Arava as well as at Mampsis (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003).

Erickson-Gini and Israel (2013) added

Evidence of an early second-century CE earthquake is found at other sites along the Incense Road at Nahal Neqarot, Sha'ar Ramon, and particularly at the head of the Mahmal Pass where an Early Roman Nabataean structure collapsed (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003; Erickson-Gini 2011). There is ample evidence of the immediate reconstruction of buildings at Moyat ‘Awad, Sha'ar Ramon, and Horvat Dafit. However, this does not seem to be the case with the Mahmal and Neqarot sites.

Erickson-Gini and Israel (2013) discussed seismic damage at Moyat ‘Awad due to this earthquake

The Early Roman phase of occupation in the site ended with extensive damage caused by an earthquake that took place shortly before the Roman annexation of the region in 106 CE (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003). The building in Area C and the kiln works were destroyed, and the cave dwellings were apparently abandoned as well. Reconstruction was required in parts of the fort. At this time, deposition from its floors was removed and thrown outside of the fort and a new bath as well as heating were constructed in its interior. Along its eastern exterior and lower slope, rooms were added. Thus, the great majority of the finds from inside the fort and its ancillary rooms date to the latest phase of its occupation in the Late Roman, post-annexation phase, the latest coins of which date to the reign of Elagabalus (219–222 CE).

4th century CE Earthquake

Aerial Views and Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
Figure 1

Avdat, looking east

Army Camp from Roman Period

Residential District

Acropolis

Cave City Avdat - W slope

Cave City Avdat - E slope

Orchards and Winepresses ?

Orchards

Orchards

Orchards

"Cave of the Saints"

(Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

Zion et al (2022)
Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
Figure 1

Avdat, looking east

Army Camp from Roman Period

Residential District

Acropolis

Cave City Avdat - W slope

Cave City Avdat - E slope

Orchards and Winepresses ?

Orchards

Orchards

Orchards

"Cave of the Saints"

(Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

Zion et al (2022)
Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Discussion

References

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

from Erickson-Gini (2010:17-19)

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

from Erickson-Gini (2010:87-88)

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

from Erickson-Gini (2010:88-91)

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).¹

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.² A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

from Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).¹

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

from Erickson-Gini (2010:129)

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

from Erickson-Gini (2010:191,194)

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):

The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.

...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

Renewed Excavations

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984)

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a.

Excavation Results

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984-1985)

Three definitive architectural phases were revealed in the residential quarter. To the first phase belong three rooms of an early structure (rooms 24, 27–28, 44) located on the eastern edge of the area and dated to the first century CE, possibly a Nabatean caravansary or residential structure. Some of the stones used in this structure were very large and the building appears to have covered an area of at least 40 sq m, including a large central courtyard.

A house and courtyard 19 from the second phase (rooms 6–7, 12–13) were uncovered a few meters west of this early building. The walls were preserved to almost their full height and a stone-lined channel was located in the courtyard. A coarse ware krater of a type generally dated to the later first century CE was buried below the earthen floor in an interior room. Coins found below floors of other rooms in the house date to the late second–early third centuries CE. The pottery recovered in the building indicates that it was occupied from the late first or early second centuries CE until its abandonment in the early third century. A small bronze statuette was found in room 13. A small chamber located under a stairwell in this structure appears to have served as a pantry (room 6). It contained at least 60 complete pottery and glass vessels that appear to have been stacked on wooden shelves, including late Nabatean painted ware bowls, Nabatean unguentaria, and Eastern terra sigillata wares, together with vessels dated to the early third century CE. Several Nabatean and Late Roman cooking pots were also uncovered. Large animal bones were found in the upper layer of this deposit, possibly cuts of salted meat that hung above the shelves. The material finds from this phase belong to the latest period of international trade along the Petra–Gaza road and include the latest form of Nabatean unguentaria, used to package perfumed oils produced at Petra before the collapse of international trade routes through Arabia, Egypt, and Syria in the third century CE.

The architecture and material finds from the third occupational phase, dating to the fourth century CE, differ radically from those found in earlier phases. The change appears to be the result of the shift in the economic base of the inhabitants of the site by the end of the third century CE, when they were compelled to turn to agricultural production following the col lapse of international trade through the region. In this phase, three rooms of the earlier house were completely filled in, and thin plaster floors were laid over the fill (rooms 6, 12–13). Only one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. The surface above the collapsed debris, which filled this room to its full height, was used late in that century.

Also during this phase, starting around 300 CE, the area between the earlier structures and the northern tower, which was probably constructed in the late third century CE, was built up and occupied. A narrow alley ran from east to west towards the tower; at least five simple dwellings were constructed on either side of it. These dwellings had irregular plans, their main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms cut into the bedrock. Earthen floors over bedrock were encountered in all the rooms except for one (room 11), which was stone paved. A stone lintel with a tabula ansata was found on the floor of this room. A primitive depiction of a man working an olive-oil press was scratched onto the stone. Several rooms contained arch springers and evidence of ceilings constructed of stone slabs. Glass windowpanes were found near one of the dwellings. Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways and the collapse of one of the rooms, as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). On one of the plaster walls of room 23 were several lines of Nabatean script written in black ink. This inscription, found in a context dated to the late fourth or early fifth century CE, is the latest known Nabatean inscription in the Negev. The translation of the inscription reads: “In good memory and peace from Dushara. To our Lord Senogovia. [?]. Gadio his son. Plasterer. Nani.”

A courtyard area to the northeast of these dwellings contained two large clay tabuns. In the courtyard of one dwelling (room 38), the stone base of a large oven and stone workbench were found. The central courtyards of the dwellings were apparently used for food preparation, as the upper halves of Gaza wine jars dating to the fourth century CE were used as braziers in all the courtyards. Intact pottery vessels and oil lamps were found in situ throughout the houses. Other finds from this phase include grinding stones, bronze spatulae, and glass bracelets. fully integrated into the inter-regional trade of agricultural produce, particularly wine, by the end of the fourth century.

The numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE. Following this second, local earth quake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. The town wall, encountered above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area, was later constructed sometime in the early fifth century CE.

Summary

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1985)

The 1999–2000 excavation of the residential quarter has provided a wealth of information about the site in the Early Roman through early Byzantine periods, during which the site appears to have been occupied continuously. In addition, the excavations revealed information concerning the important transitional phase in its history, when its inhabitants were forced to abandon their principal means of livelihood with the cessation of international trade through the region in the third century CE. The succeeding period in the fourth century CE witnessed the rapid expansion of agricultural production and inter-regional trade of agricultural products, particularly wine, in the wake of the large-scale Late Roman military build-up in the eastern provinces. At Oboda this military build-up may be reflected in the erecting of the southern and possibly northern tower around 293/4 CE, as well as the construction of the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis. (This camp was excavated extensively in 1999–2000 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority.)

An examination of the ceramic finds reveals that the economic transition that took place in the third and early fourth centuries CE did not affect ties between the inhabitants of the site and Petra and southern Jordan. A decline in wares originating in southern Jordan found at Oboda in the later fourth century appears to have occurred in the period following the 363 CE earthquake. By the beginning of the fifth century CE, when the residential quarter was destroyed and abandoned, Oboda had already become fully integrated into the inter-regional economic network of southern Palestine.

Notes by JW

Erickson-Gini (2010:87-88) reports that Avbat/Oboda sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake. In the Late Roman/Early Byzantine Residential Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) reports that Room 7 apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake as it was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Further structural damage was indicated in Room 4 where a row of fallen arch stones were found and doorways between Room 4 and Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked. Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984-1985) also reported a blocked doorway(s) in Room 17 and possibly Room 7 as well. Dating of the collapse in Room 7 may have been assisted via pottery, coins, and other items which were recovered in a protected corner of the room (Erickson-Gini, 2010:91-95).

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Aerial Views and Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
Figure 1

Avdat, looking east

Army Camp from Roman Period

Residential District

Acropolis

Cave City Avdat - W slope

Cave City Avdat - E slope

Orchards and Winepresses ?

Orchards

Orchards

Orchards

"Cave of the Saints"

(Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

Zion et al (2022)
Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
Figure 1

Avdat, looking east

Army Camp from Roman Period

Residential District

Acropolis

Cave City Avdat - W slope

Cave City Avdat - E slope

Orchards and Winepresses ?

Orchards

Orchards

Orchards

"Cave of the Saints"

(Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

Zion et al (2022)
Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
Late Roman/early Byzantine

Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)

quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Discussion

References

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Plans and Photos

Plans

Area Plans

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Photos

Fig. 2 Warped external wall

Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8 Collapsed arches

Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in

Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 10 Arch Stone from

Fig. 10

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 11 Arch Stone from

Fig. 11

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock

Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

shelf fronting cave above dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Excerpts

Introduction

from Erickson-Gini (2022:153)

In 2012, salvage excavations were carried out in three areas in ‘Avedat National Park (Fig. 1), near and within the acropolis (Areas A, B; map ref. 178250/522720) and at the foot of the site’s western slope (Area D; map ref. 178188/522584).¹ The excavations were initiated to facilitate restoration work (Area A) and following damage to the site when electric lines were dug to provide lighting for the acropolis (Area B).

Area A was opened in the western half of a room in a building located at the northwestern end of the main street of the ‘Roman Quarter’ (henceforce, ‘Roman/Byzantine Quarter’). Area B (50 sq m) was located along the northern exterior of a building south of the acropolis, near the South Church. Here, an exterior courtyard with a baking oven and pantry (Room 2) and the remains of another room (Room 1), were uncovered; all collapsed due to an earthquake sometime in the early seventh century CE. The probe in Area D was conducted along the southern exterior of a wall covered with red-painted dipinti, built in front of a cave.

Footnotes

from Erickson-Gini (2022)

The excavations (Permit No. A-6391) were directed by the author, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and were funded by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA), who also provided the workers. The probe in Area D was also conducted by the author on behalf of the IAA and was underwritten by DePaul University. It was part of a documentation project carried out by the author and Scott Bucking (DePaul University), who assisted in the excavation in front of the collapsed cave in Area D. Assistance was provided by Mark Kunin and Avraham Hajian (surveying), Natalia Zak (drafting), Irena Lidski-Reznikov (pottery drawings), Lena Kupershmidt (cleaning of metal finds), Donald T. Ariel (numismatics) and Yael Gorin-Rosen (glass analysis). Photographs are by the author and Scott Bucking (Area D). I wish to thank the park manager, Nili Dvash, and the INPA Southern District Archaeologist, Orit Bortinik, for their aid and support.

History of Research

The Architectural Remains

from Erickson-Gini (2022:153-155)

The ancient town of ‘Avedat (Greek: Oboda; Arabic: Abdeh), located along the Petra–Gaza road (popularly referred to as the ‘Incense Route’), shows evidence of seasonal occupation by the Nabataeans in the third–second centuries BCE, with extensive remains on the upper plateau overlying bedrock. In the late first century BCE, the Nabataeans built a temple dedicated to the deified king Obodas at the western end of the upper plateau, and a town was established on the eastern and southern parts of the site. Hundreds of caves were hewn into the western slope of the site, which was apparently a necropolis in pre-Christian times.

Following an earthquake in the early fifth century CE, settlement in the town shifted westward and many of the caves were converted for use as dwellings and stables. In the late Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE), two churches were built on the acropolis, where the earlier Western Temple had stood. In this period, a wall was built around the town and a citadel was added to the temenos area of the acropolis (Negev 1997:6–9).

... Evidence of destruction by earthquake, leading to the abandonment of the town in the seventh century CE, was exposed by Fabian in 1993 south of the acropolis in Building T (unpublished; Permit No. A-1991; but see Fabian 1996). In 1999, the author uncovered evidence of an early fifth-century CE earthquake destruction in a residential quarter situated east of the acropolis and the Middle Byzantine (450–550 CE) town wall (Erickson-Gini 2010:91–95).

The Caves

from Erickson-Gini (2022:155-156)

The man-made caves of ‘Avedat first attracted study in the twentieth century, beginning with Musil in 1902 (1907:127–151, Figs. 65, 96–119). The caves and some dipinti were documented by Jaussen, Savignac and Vincent (1904; 1905), who were the first to suggest that they had been re-used for habitation. In 1914, Woolley visited the site and proposed that the caves initially served as Nabataean tombs, followed by a phase of re-use as dwellings in the Byzantine period (Woolley and Lawrence 1914–1915:99–100).

The most extensive excavation of a cave dwelling in ‘Avedat was carried out in the 1960s by Negev (1997:157–169), who exposed a large, multi-roomed complex on the lowest terrace of the western slope, referred to as the ‘Saints’ Cave’, due to a dipinti-intensive wall in one of the rooms featuring images of Saint George and Saint Theodore. These dipinti led Figueras to suggest in his 1995 gazetteer of monastic sites that the ‘Saints’ Cave’ may have been inhabited by a monastic community (1995:434). Negev differed, holding that the cave served a general population only, for ordinary habitation. He proposed that some of the other caves at the site originally functioned as tombs, possibly from the Middle Nabataean (Early Roman) period (Negev 1997:137).

Area A

from Erickson-Gini (2022:156-159)

In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). In the southern part of W1 was a space that originally accommodated an arch springer, and in the northern part of the wall was the stone construction of a second springer and a pilaster (Fig. 3). The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. A scant number of poorly preserved bronze coins from this layer (L102, B18) were found; they could not be identified but their size indicates that they may be sixth-century CE nummi (Donald T. Ariel, pers. comm.).

A probe in the southwestern corner of the room revealed that W1 was built over the remains of an earlier wall (Fig. 4). Finds dated to the late Byzantine period were revealed at the bottom of W1. Below the foundations of W1, in L1/03, flush with the lowest courses of the southern wall (W3), were finds from the fourth century CE, indicating that the original building was constructed sometime in the early Byzantine period. The probe also revealed floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse (Fig. 5). A line of stones (W5; length 1.1 m) was roughly parallel to W1 at a depth of 2.25 m; it may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE. These correspond to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100).

Area B

from Erickson-Gini (2022:160-163)

The excavation here revealed an open courtyard and a room situated along the northern exterior of a large structure east of the winepress excavated by Tahal (1995:113–114, Fig. 130) and south of the main entrance of the citadel on the acropolis. The building is part of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter and at least two revetment walls were built against the long part of its northern wall (W5) and its eastern corner (Negev 1997:5, Photograph 7). The revetment walls confirm that like the structure in Area A, repairs and additions to the building were carried out in the early fifth century CE. The exterior courtyard (Room 2) was built against the northern wall, between the northern revetment (W5) and a small room (Room 1) discovered in a collapsed state further west, near the northwestern corner of the structure.

Both Room 1 and the courtyard (Room 2) were built along pre-existing ashlar W4, which extends 12.3 m from the northwestern corner of the building to revetment W5 (Plan 2). Wall 4 was renovated to insert an arch springer and an arch pilaster in Room 1 (Fig. 7; Plan 2: Section 2–2). Room 1, slightly irregular in shape (c. 16 sq m), shares its northern wall (W6) with the courtyard (Room 2). Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). The arch stones uncovered in Room 1 were decorated with incised and red-painted frames (Fig. 10); one stone features incised and red-painted crossed lines (Fig. 11). A 2 × 2 m probe below the collapse in the southwestern corner of Room 1 (L1/03, L1/04) revealed a dirt floor. The foundation of the building and W1 were built directly over bedrock (Fig. 12). Hellenistic and Early Roman period pottery was discovered directly above bedrock in this corner (L1/04). The excavation did not reveal an entrance into the room; access may have been by way of a stairway like that found leading into the courtyard, perhaps under the collapse.

The courtyard (Room 2; c. 4 × 6 m; Plan 2) was accessed via three steps that descended from a higher level, outside the building, close to revetment W5 (Fig. 13). The lower part of a bag-shaped storage jar was found sunken into the floor, directly in front of the stairs. A stepped entrance into the main building, at the back of the courtyard along W4, led into an unexcavated area that also appears to have been an open courtyard (Fig. 14). In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding.

No coins were found in Area B despite careful sifting of the material from the earthen floors in both rooms.

Area D

from Erickson-Gini (2022:165-174)

Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). Facing south and founded on bedrock, the dipinti Wall (8.7 m long, 0.77 m wide; Plan 3; Fig. 17) stands to its full height (2.92 m high) in front of rooms hewn into bedrock on the southern slope below the acropolis. A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). The opening into the cave, in the middle of the wall, is 1.7 m high and 0.75 m wide; its threshold is 0.2 m above bedrock. The lower part of the entryway was found blocked with building stones to a height of 0.38 m (Fig. 19), apparently in the late Byzantine period, to prevent animals and debris from entering the cave. A niche (0.35 m wide, 0.38 m high, 0.15 m deep) in the wall, east of the doorway (Fig. 20), appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94). The later reinforcement of the interior wall incorporated limestone blocks, whereas the original wall had been constructed from a harder type of limestone. The average size of the hard stones used for the exterior face of the wall is 0.42 × 0.25 × 0.14 m. Four ‘slit’ windows are located near the top of the wall and the doorway (Fig. 21). The red-painted figure of a bearded man appears above the right corner of the niche and to the right of one of the slit windows (Figs. 22, 23) is probably a depiction of St. Theodore, a soldier saint for whom a cult was founded in the ‘Avedat South Church (Bucking 2017; Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:29). Red-painted dipinti, primarily in the form of crosses and crosses within circles, appear on the lintel and on either side of the doorway (Figs. 24–26). A red-painted figure, possibly of a man wearing a tunic and holding a sword, is to the left of the entrance (Fig. 27), together with representations of what may be a wagon (Fig. 28), a ship (Fig. 29) and a fringed object (Fig. 30).

The exterior of the dipinti Wall is somewhat perpendicular to W2, at its eastern edge. Wall 2 is the western side of an exterior wall in front of another cave, east of the dipinti Cave. It was built on a high bedrock outcrop, 2.73 m above the surface in front of the dipinti Wall, and exposed for 1.95 m of its length. At the top of W2 is a niche, directly under the bedrock shelf (Fig. 31). Mud-mortar mixed with large pieces of straw was found between the stones at the top of the wall to the right of the niche, well-protected by the bedrock overhang. A red-painted cross within a circle is below the lower right corner of the niche in W2 (Fig. 32), and another red-painted cross within a circle is on the interior face of W2 in the second cave (Fig. 33).

The interior of the dipinti Cave includes two rooms (Plan 3). The southern, main room (8.78 m wide east–west, 6.35 m long north–south, 2.22 m high) is partitioned by a hewn east– west wall (3.25 m long) on its western side, some 2.6 m from the back wall. The eastern side is decorated with red-painted dipinti (Fig. 34). A cupboard niche (0.72 m high, 0.33 deep), decorated with red-painted dipinti, was hewn on the interior of the dipinti Wall, west (right) of the doorway (Fig. 35). It seems to have been large enough to accommodate a wooden shelf. Three carved niches (Fig. 36) surrounded by red-painted dipinti (Figs. 37, 38) were in the eastern wall, and a large triangular carved niche was in the western wall (Fig. 39). The niches and the decoration on the eastern wall may indicate that this room served as a place of worship for a monastic community (Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:32–33).

The irregularly shaped back room (3.71 m high) of the dipinti Cave was accessed through a carved doorway (1.83 m high, 0.6 m wide, 0.64 m deep; Fig. 40). Carved slots on either side of the doorway for a bolt, and part of a carved frame at the doorway’s bottom, reveal that it originally accommodated a wooden door (Figs. 41, 42). The southern wall (2.31 m long, preserved height 2.06 m) of the back room separates it from a large (probably Roman-period) plastered cistern that was accessed from the upper terrace (Fig. 43). This wall was partly hewn and partly built of heavy blocks.

A probe was conducted near the exterior face of the dipinti Cave; the excavated soil was carefully sifted for pottery and other finds. The upper level of the collapse contained modern artifacts—scraps of newspapers in Hebrew, Arabic and English, as well as sherds of Black Gaza Ware, commonly found in the region during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries CE. The upper layer of debris contained finds from recent centuries and the Early Islamic period (eighth–ninth centuries CE) while below it were layers of organic debris including animal manure and finds from earlier periods (seventh century CE; late Byzantine and Early Umayyad periods). The upper layer extended above the level of the threshold of the doorway. A final layer of deposition (0.2 m deep) containing Roman material was revealed below this, extending down to bedrock. A shallow depression (0.46 × 0.20 m) hewn into the bedrock was found east of the doorway.

Summary and Conclusions

from Erickson-Gini (2022:192-193)

The 2012 excavations at ‘Avedat revealed important evidence regarding the effects of earthquakes on the Byzantine-period occupation in Areas A and B and the use of a cave on the southern slope of the site by a monastic community in Area D. The author previously uncovered evidence of a destructive seismic event at the site that occurred in the early fifth century CE in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, directly outside the middle Byzantine town wall east of the acropolis (Erickson-Gini 2010:90–95). Substantiation of this particular event may be inferred by the construction of heavy revetment walls along the southern side of the temenos, i.e., the western part of the acropolis, as well as the construction of smaller revetments against private houses such as that of Area B. However, the excavations appear to provide the first definitive testimony of earthquake damage and subsequent rebuilding in a stratigraphical context. ‘Avedat met its final devastation at the end of the late Byzantine period, postdating the latest epitaph found in the South Church (617 CE), dating to the first half of the seventh century CE.

The most dramatic testimony of earthquake damage was in Area B, in rooms that had been added to the northern exterior of an earlier building, presumably following damage by an earlier earthquake in the early fifth century CE. The rooms appear to have been attached to the earlier building next to a heavy revetment wall located to the east. This building is situated in close proximity to the South Church and the discovery of part of a marble paten in the pantry in Room 2 raises the possibility that the building was occupied by church personnel.

Western Room 1 in Area B appears to have been roofed with heavy stone slabs supported by arches. The heavy collapse remained in situ on the eastern side of the room but further excavation on the western side revealed stone archers bearing incised, red-painted decoration. Room 2 seems to have been kind of a sunken open courtyard, in front of the main entrance into the structure, accessed by means of stairs leading down from the northeastern corner, opposite a baking oven. A number of bag-shaped storage jars found sunken into the earthen floor of the room probably served to store grain for grinding and baking. A similar baking oven, also located in the corner of an open courtyard, was uncovered by the author in Room 38 in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter in ‘Avedat (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). Noteworthy is the mentioning of a baking oven and courtyard in a sale contract between a civilian and a soldier, dated c. 566/7 CE, in the Niẓẓana archive (Colt 1962:259). Unusual is the presence of a pantry in the southeastern corner of the courtyard near the wide entrance into the main building. This small space was used to store cooking and other vessels, including a glass bottle (Fig. 51:2), that were probably placed on wooden shelves. An unusual find in the pantry was part of a marble paten with faded black ink patterns of crosses and circles (Fig. 49). The ceramic and glass vessels in the pantry and the rest of the courtyard, including the latest form of a Gaza wine jar (Fig. 46:9), point to a late Byzantine date in the first half of the seventh century CE. However, there were no organic finds or coins that could have provided a more precise date for the destruction of the rooms.

The dipinti Cave, located on the southern slope below the acropolis in Area D, completes the picture of the late Byzantine occupation at the site. The extant wall in front of the cave apparently dates to the Roman period, based on the fragment of a molded Judean Southern Lamp (Fig. 44:17) and a glass fragment (Fig. 51:1), both produced during the Roman period. Red-painted Christian motifs, such as crosses, were added to the early wall. It seems that this wall too underwent structural damage, probably due to the early fifthcentury CE earthquake. After this event, the interior of the wall was repaired, and a window was blocked. The motifs discovered on the dipinti Wall and in the cave interior, particularly on the eastern wall, deep inside the cave, point to its use by a monastic community. Figueras (1995:434) discussed the existence of monastic communities in ‘Avedat in the South Church and the structure in front of the Cave of the Saints. The winepresses situated in proximity to both the South Church and the Cave of the Saints deserve our attention. The use of the dipinti Cave by such a community may have been encouraged by the presence of the large cistern of an earlier (Roman?) date located on the tier just above and behind the dipinti Cave. Additionally, access to walled gardens, fields and a large winepress located below the cave on the plain to the south of ‘Avedat would have also attracted the community. Layers of organic material (animal manure) outside the cave indicate that the rooms in front of the dipinti Wall served for stabling animals. Stabling animals in close proximity to dwellings was customary in the region among the poorer segments of the population and continued up until modern times (Canaan 1933:35, 70).

Epigraphic evidence from earlier excavations in ‘Avedat show that donkeys and camels were regularly used to bring produce from the fields (Erickson-Gini 2012:53, Fig. 5). The position of the cave and its external rooms well-suited the commanding of the plain below and, among other things, may have been an indication of ownership. According to Canaan, it was customary in this region for low-lying fields to belong to those occupying higher ground (Canaan 1933:53); the higher location within the protected walls of the Byzantine town allowed the inhabitants to easily observe and guard the fields during harvest.

The earthquake that destroyed the site at the end of the late Byzantine period, presumably in the first half of the seventh century CE, appears to have destroyed a room of the cave in front of the dipinti Wall. Extant walls c. 10 m south of the dipinti Wall apparently belong to the same structure that incorporated the dipinti Cave. In the Early Islamic (Abbasid) period, visitors who frequented the cave, probably because of the cistern, left debris on the ruins of the collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the dipinti Wall. Also found in the debris above the collapse were finds from the Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods, among them pieces of Arabic- and English-language newspapers. Unlike many red-painted dipinti in the ‘Avedat caves, those on the dipinti Wall are particularly well-preserved due to the cave’s location on the south-slope facing, thereby ensuring minimum exposure to sunlight.

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

from Erickson-Gini (2010:17-19)

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

from Erickson-Gini (2010:87-88)

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

from Erickson-Gini (2010:88-91)

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).¹

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.² A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

from Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).¹

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

from Erickson-Gini (2010:129)

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

from Erickson-Gini (2010:191,194)

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):

The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.

...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

Renewed Excavations

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984)

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a.

Excavation Results

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984-1985)

Three definitive architectural phases were revealed in the residential quarter. To the first phase belong three rooms of an early structure (rooms 24, 27–28, 44) located on the eastern edge of the area and dated to the first century CE, possibly a Nabatean caravansary or residential structure. Some of the stones used in this structure were very large and the building appears to have covered an area of at least 40 sq m, including a large central courtyard.

A house and courtyard 19 from the second phase (rooms 6–7, 12–13) were uncovered a few meters west of this early building. The walls were preserved to almost their full height and a stone-lined channel was located in the courtyard. A coarse ware krater of a type generally dated to the later first century CE was buried below the earthen floor in an interior room. Coins found below floors of other rooms in the house date to the late second–early third centuries CE. The pottery recovered in the building indicates that it was occupied from the late first or early second centuries CE until its abandonment in the early third century. A small bronze statuette was found in room 13. A small chamber located under a stairwell in this structure appears to have served as a pantry (room 6). It contained at least 60 complete pottery and glass vessels that appear to have been stacked on wooden shelves, including late Nabatean painted ware bowls, Nabatean unguentaria, and Eastern terra sigillata wares, together with vessels dated to the early third century CE. Several Nabatean and Late Roman cooking pots were also uncovered. Large animal bones were found in the upper layer of this deposit, possibly cuts of salted meat that hung above the shelves. The material finds from this phase belong to the latest period of international trade along the Petra–Gaza road and include the latest form of Nabatean unguentaria, used to package perfumed oils produced at Petra before the collapse of international trade routes through Arabia, Egypt, and Syria in the third century CE.

The architecture and material finds from the third occupational phase, dating to the fourth century CE, differ radically from those found in earlier phases. The change appears to be the result of the shift in the economic base of the inhabitants of the site by the end of the third century CE, when they were compelled to turn to agricultural production following the col lapse of international trade through the region. In this phase, three rooms of the earlier house were completely filled in, and thin plaster floors were laid over the fill (rooms 6, 12–13). Only one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. The surface above the collapsed debris, which filled this room to its full height, was used late in that century.

Also during this phase, starting around 300 CE, the area between the earlier structures and the northern tower, which was probably constructed in the late third century CE, was built up and occupied. A narrow alley ran from east to west towards the tower; at least five simple dwellings were constructed on either side of it. These dwellings had irregular plans, their main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms cut into the bedrock. Earthen floors over bedrock were encountered in all the rooms except for one (room 11), which was stone paved. A stone lintel with a tabula ansata was found on the floor of this room. A primitive depiction of a man working an olive-oil press was scratched onto the stone. Several rooms contained arch springers and evidence of ceilings constructed of stone slabs. Glass windowpanes were found near one of the dwellings. Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways and the collapse of one of the rooms, as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). On one of the plaster walls of room 23 were several lines of Nabatean script written in black ink. This inscription, found in a context dated to the late fourth or early fifth century CE, is the latest known Nabatean inscription in the Negev. The translation of the inscription reads: “In good memory and peace from Dushara. To our Lord Senogovia. [?]. Gadio his son. Plasterer. Nani.”

A courtyard area to the northeast of these dwellings contained two large clay tabuns. In the courtyard of one dwelling (room 38), the stone base of a large oven and stone workbench were found. The central courtyards of the dwellings were apparently used for food preparation, as the upper halves of Gaza wine jars dating to the fourth century CE were used as braziers in all the courtyards. Intact pottery vessels and oil lamps were found in situ throughout the houses. Other finds from this phase include grinding stones, bronze spatulae, and glass bracelets. fully integrated into the inter-regional trade of agricultural produce, particularly wine, by the end of the fourth century.

The numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE. Following this second, local earth quake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. The town wall, encountered above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area, was later constructed sometime in the early fifth century CE.

Summary

from Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1985)

The 1999–2000 excavation of the residential quarter has provided a wealth of information about the site in the Early Roman through early Byzantine periods, during which the site appears to have been occupied continuously. In addition, the excavations revealed information concerning the important transitional phase in its history, when its inhabitants were forced to abandon their principal means of livelihood with the cessation of international trade through the region in the third century CE. The succeeding period in the fourth century CE witnessed the rapid expansion of agricultural production and inter-regional trade of agricultural products, particularly wine, in the wake of the large-scale Late Roman military build-up in the eastern provinces. At Oboda this military build-up may be reflected in the erecting of the southern and possibly northern tower around 293/4 CE, as well as the construction of the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis. (This camp was excavated extensively in 1999–2000 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority.)

An examination of the ceramic finds reveals that the economic transition that took place in the third and early fourth centuries CE did not affect ties between the inhabitants of the site and Petra and southern Jordan. A decline in wares originating in southern Jordan found at Oboda in the later fourth century appears to have occurred in the period following the 363 CE earthquake. By the beginning of the fifth century CE, when the residential quarter was destroyed and abandoned, Oboda had already become fully integrated into the inter-regional economic network of southern Palestine.

Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

Abstract

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:1)

This report presents the results of the excavation of a Roman and Early Byzantine residential quarter at Oboda (‘Avedat), offering new evidence for the occupation history of the site and challenging long-standing assumptions regarding Nabataean settlement, trade and material culture in the Negev. The excavations revealed three principal phases: Phase 1, dating from the late first century BCE–early second century CE; Phase 2, constructed after the Roman annexation of 106 CE, linked to regional rebuilding activity following a major earthquake in the early second century CE; and Phase 3, comprising five buildings with courtyards surrounded by rooms, dating to the late third–early fifth centuries CE. The finds—mainly pottery, glass and coins— attest to the continuity of trade along the Petra–Gaza (Incense) Road into the third century CE, providing evidence for the prolonged production of Nabataean Fine Ware into the early to mid-third century CE.

Introduction

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:1-4)

Excavations carried out from November 1999 to February 2000 at Oboda (‘Aevdat) revealed a residential quarter dated primarily to the Middle Roman and Early Byzantine periods (second–early fifth centuries CE) that were preceded by two earlier phases. The site is located on a plateau 650.00 m above sea level in the central Negev Highlands along the Petra–Gaza road used by the Nabataeans in the second half of the first millennium BCE (map ref. 178310/522778; Fig. 1).

This quarter was located immediately outside the town wall and the acropolis, in an area covering approximately 4 dunams (Figs. 2–5). At least 40 rooms and courtyards were excavated (Plan 1) in which three phases of construction and occupation were discerned:² Phase 1 comprises four rooms of a large structure dating to the late first century BCE–early second century CE, excavated on the northwest perimeter of the area; Phase 2 includes a building and adjoining courtyard dating to the second–early third centuries CE excavated in the middle of the northern side of the area; and Phase 3 comprises five separate domestic structures dating to the late third–early fifth centuries CE, excavated in the remainder of the area as far south as the middle Byzantine town wall. The structures in this area appear to have adjoined a tower that was probably constructed in the late third century CE like the tower on the southern side of the town excavated by Negev (1997:65–72).

In addition to the pottery found in each of the three phases, several Hellenistic-period sherds and two complete vessels were found just above bedrock in places where that substratum was undisturbed.

Footnotes

2 The excavation of the residential quarter at Oboda was an integral part of one of the author’s (T.E.G) doctoral dissertation presented in 2004 to The Hebrew University in Jerusalem under the skilled supervision of the late Prof. Yoram Tsafrir. I am grateful to the late Prof. Tsafrir and the late Prof. S. Thomas Parker, North Carolina State University, and I wish to thank Dr. Benjamin J. Dolinka, Israel Antiquities Authority, Dr. Christopher A. Tuttle, the former Associate Director of the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, Jordan, Prof. Jodi Magness, North Carolina State University at Chapel Hill, and Prof. David F. Graf, the University of Florida at Miami, for their friendship, advice and assistance. Thanks are due to Prof. Guy Bar-Oz from the University of Haifa for his help in identifying, examining and photographing the inscribed camel scapula from the pantry in Room 6 (Fig. 13:a) as well as initiating the radiocarbon analysis of the two parts (Fig. 13:b).

Phasing of Roman and Early Byzantine residential quarter - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)

Phase	Date	Description
Pre-Phase 1	2nd century BCE	The Hellenistic-period occupation (second century BCE) was found on bedrock below an early Byzantine (Phase 3) street or passage (L4201, L4324; Plan 1) between houses that were undisturbed by later construction. None of that material was found in association with contemporary architectural elements, although a coin of Aradus (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 1) was discovered on bedrock in nearby Room 22 (L4222). This find reflects the general character of the site in its earliest phase of occupation in the third–second centuries BCE when it was apparently frequented by Nabataean traders and used as a campground (Negev 1997:1). Negev’s extensive excavations at the site did not uncover any Hellenistic architecture but did produce pottery and coins of this period in various parts of the site, particularly just above bedrock (Negev 1997:1). Excavations in the Roman army camp at the site revealed middens with ash and Hellenistic pottery (Erickson-Gini 2002:115).
Phase 1	late 1st century BCE–early 2nd century CE	Four rooms belonging to a large structure were uncovered on the northwestern limits of the excavation area (Rooms 24, 27, 28, 44; Plan 1; Fig. 6). Surface remains indicate that the unexcavated part of this structure extends at least 10 m to the north and includes a large open courtyard with rooms located around its perimeter. The four excavated rooms appear to belong to the southern wing of this structure. Their walls were constructed of hewn fieldstones, some of which survived to a height of three or four courses. The eastern wall of Room 28 (W66) was built of large, roughly-cut pieces of stone slabs laid on top of rows of smaller hewn stones. The lack of uniform construction may have been a result of a secondary stage or a repair of the building in the wake of earthquake damage to Oboda in the early second century CE, an event whose impact is known from other sites in the region (Erickson-Gini 2010:47; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139–140). Nearly identical construction using rough flat stones of this type was found at nearby Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa in repairs made to a structure that was damaged by earthquake in the early second century CE (Erickson-Gini 2019:167). A floor made from hard-packed soil over bedrock was found in Room 28 at an elevation of 655.26 m asl. A Nabataean coin of Aretas IV, dated 39/40 CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 2), and the rim of a glass bowl, dated to the first century CE (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 1:5), and numerous pottery sherds from the later first–early second centuries CE, were found in this layer. This room was entered from Room 27 (W75). Room 27 was the only one with arch voussoirs located midway along its eastern and western walls (for a single arch) to support a roof. Although there is some evidence of use in Phase 2, these four rooms appear to have been filled with refuse in Phase 3, e.g., building stones were found piled on the floor of Room 27 (655.48 m asl). Room 24 (655.17 m asl) was filled with building debris, pottery sherds, bones, etc., primarily from the second–early third centuries CE, but also from the fourth century CE, when the building was apparently not in use. The doorway between Rooms 24 and 44 in W64 was blocked.
Phase 2	2nd–early 3rd centuries CE	A Phase 2 building with an adjoining courtyard (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19; Plans 1, 2; Fig. 7) was found west of the Phase 1 structure. Walls 1 and 3 of this building were visible on the surface prior to excavation, probably owing to the fact that they were preserved to nearly their full height. The structure appears to have been entered from openings on the eastern side of Room 13 along W52 (Fig. 8). Room 12 had three entrances: the first leading from Room 13; a second entrance, leading to the west, blocked in Phase 3 (Fig. 9); and a third, leading to the courtyard (Room 19). The stairwell of Room 6 (L1132; Fig. 10) was accessed from the south; the pantry under the stairwell (see below) was reached through a small opening along its western wall, next to the stairs. The entrance to Room 7 was apparently destroyed during the construction of Rooms 3 and 4 in Phase 3 (see below) but it was presumably located along the southern wall of the room. The walls in this building were made from medium-sized blocks. The floors of all the rooms except for Room 13 were made of beaten earth over bedrock. A complete ceramic krater (Fig. 45:3) was found sunk into the floor of Room 12 (L1023; 655.26 m asl). The floor of Room 13 was made from a layer of packed soil over a cobblestone surface (L903). A Roman provincial coin of the second–third centuries CE (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 6) was discovered in a layer (L901) above rubble, while a coin of Trajan (98−117 CE) was uncovered between the cobblestones below Floor 903 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 5). No traces of arches were found in any of the rooms despite the existence of a stairwell in Room 6 that obviously led to the roof or an upper story. The presence of a stairwell leading to an upper story is extensively documented in Nabataean buildings of the post-annexation period uncovered at Mampsis (Mamshit; Negev 1988a). Presumably, the roof was made from some type of organic material and mud plaster, supported by wooden beams. A small space located near the stairway in Room 6 (L1122; 1.5 × 2.0 m) seems to have served as a pantry, as indicated by the dozens of complete pottery and glass vessels (Figs. 11; 12) dated to the second and early third centuries, found in situ (655.42 m asl). The pantry was entered from the ground level, under what was probably another level of wooden stairs.⁴ Glass vessels dating to the first–third centuries were also found here (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Figs. 2:2, 3; 3:1, 3). The orderly layers of ceramic vessels uncovered here suggest that they had been placed on wooden shelves that had long since disintegrated. At the top of this deposit, two parts of a single camel scapula were found. The scapula was perforated in one corner and bears the remains of both Nabataean and probably Greek letters etched in parallel lines (Fig. 13:a). Presumably, the scapula served as a kind of written inventory and the perforation was for a string that allowed it to be hung on a vessel, on the shelves or under the wooden stairwell. Combined radiocarbon determinations of the two scapula parts indicate a date range of 128–240 CE at 95.4% probability with 64% of that probability distribution falling between 161–237 CE. So, a date in the second half of the second century or early third century CE seems quite likely (Fig. 13:b).⁵ Complete and restorable pottery vessels were found from the packed earth floor surface up to one meter above the pantry floor. Directly outside its entrance and at the foot of Stairwell 1132 (655.60 m asl), fourth-century coins and parts of Gaza wine jars were found, indicating that while the pantry went out of use, the small space continued to be utilized in Phase 3 (see below). An unusual aspect of the building was the intentional fill in Rooms 12 and 13 and above the pantry (Room 6) sometime after the abandonment of the structure. This massive fill of dirt preserved the walls of these rooms to nearly their original height (c. 2 m high). The courtyard (Room 19) found north of the building was delimited by a long wall (W28) that extends northward from Room 12. An opening in this wall allowed access to the eastern exterior of the structure. Some smaller walls (W77 and W112) were found at the northern side of W28. At the extreme northern end, between W28, W78 and W112, a clay oven/ṭabun (F11) was found sunk into the surface of the courtyard (Fig. 14). An arch springer was found along the remains of one wall in this area (W50). The surface of this courtyard (655.14 m asl) was made up of packed soil over a layer of sterile compacted soil covering the bedrock. In comparison to the interior rooms of the structure, the courtyard contained fewer pottery sherds—the latest ceramic finds date to the second–early third century—and residual fragments of glass vessels attributed to Phases 1 and 2 (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 4:1–4). A well-built, nearly four-meter-long drainage channel (F13) extends parallel and close to exterior W10 of Room 13, turning slightly to the northwest near Room 11; its far end appears to have been destroyed in Phase 3. Glass windowpanes were found outside Room 49, an indication that some of the rooms had glass windows (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig.). They appear to have been carefully disassembled from the structure and placed outside where they were abandoned. Footnotes 4 In response to Wenner and Parker’s (2021:26‒27) comments considering the depth of the fill over the pantry (Room 6), it should be noted that this room was discovered under a one-meter-wide balk between the excavation squares set out before the rooms below were discerned: L1100 (657.20 m asl) and L1200 (657.07 m asl). As the balk was dismantled, finds related to the pantry began to appear in L1122 (656.87 m asl). 5 These two parts of the inscribed camel scapula underwent radiocarbon analysis in the Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory on May 31, 2022.
Phase 3	late 3rd–early 5th centuries CE	Five domestic structures were found in the remaining area, extending west and south of the Phase 2 building toward the acropolis (Plan 1; Figs. 15; 16). Unpublished probes carried out by P. Fabian in 1994 along the town wall at the western perimeter of the present area revealed that it was constructed in the middle Byzantine period over the remains of one of the structures in our excavation area (Fig. 17). This later wall abuts a tower directly east of the citadel, which appears to be identical to the one constructed in 293/4 CE on the southern side of the town (Negev 1997:65–72). Coins discovered throughout the area range between the second half of the third and the early fifth century, with the vast majority dated to the fourth century (see Kool, this volume). The construction of Phase 3 was of lower quality than that of the preceding phase, with building material consisting of small- to medium-sized worked fieldstones. The largest building is of irregular plan (Plan 1; Rooms 1‒5, 8‒11, 14‒18, 20‒23, 25‒26, 29‒31, 34‒42, 47). It abuts the still existing Phase 2 building (Rooms 6, 7, 12, 13, 19), while incorporating Room 7 and part of Room 6, and in effect, enveloping the earlier structure on nearly three sides (Fig. 18). A thin plaster floor (L900) was discovered above the fill in Room 13, only a few centimeters below the surface (656.17 m asl; Plan 1: Section 1–1). Pottery found on this floor indicates it was used in Phase 3. In contrast, although Room 7 appears to have been used in Phase 3, it apparently collapsed, probably in the earthquake of 363 CE. This collapse of building stones, loose soil and air pockets was found together with late third to mid-fourth-century pottery, an inscribed glass vessel (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 12:1) and coins on the surface of the beaten earth floor. This structure had a series of rooms used as entranceways located on the northern side of the building leading to the main courtyard (Room 5; Fig. 19). It also had several rooms located on the north side of the building (Rooms 17, 20, 21). The presence of imported storage jars in Room 17 (Fig. 76:1, 6–9) suggests that it was used for storage. Each of the Phase 3 structures possessed irregularly-sized rooms located around or next to a courtyard (Fig. 20). A passageway through the middle of the western side of the area appears to have connected these houses from Room 22 via Rooms 26, 23, 29, 33, 37, 38, 45, 46 and 47, then leading toward the tower (Figs. 21–23). One common feature in the construction of the buildings is that the courtyards in three of the houses (Rooms 5, 26 and 29) were constructed at a higher level than the surrounding rooms (Plan 1: Section 2–2). On the southern side of this area, in particular, the rooms were excavated into bedrock to achieve this effect (Fig. 24). This feature was not apparent in a house on the northwestern side of the area (Rooms 30, 31, 37, 38); however, this house contains a stairwell ‘tower’ (excavated by P. Fabian, unpublished), which is similar to the one uncovered in the Phase 2 building. Given the lack of stairwells and no evidence for arches in many of the rooms, the Phase 3 structures appear to have had only a ground floor. A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). In Room 7, an important glass vessel inscribed in Greek was discovered (L1002; see Gorin-Rosen, this volume). Voussoirs were found only in a handful of rooms, such as two in Room 22 (Fig. 26), one each in Rooms 23 and 37, three in Room 30 and four in Room 40. These rooms apparently had roofs made from stone slabs, several of which were found in situ, collapsed in Room 22. In situ deposits of pottery and braziers made from Gaza wine jars were found throughout these structures. Braziers of this type were found under the collapse in Room 22 (Fig. 27) and in rooms located in a structure north of W15 of Room 21 (L2321; Fig. 28). Layers of braziers made from Gaza wine jars were discovered in a corner of Room 14 (655.47 m asl; Fig. 29). Apart from Room 11, which was paved with flagstones (655.55 m asl), and small Room 45, all had beaten-earth floors over bedrock (Fig. 30; 31). The eastern wall of Room 11 was built up against a pre-existing Phase 2 wall in Room 12, which produced a wall of unusual thickness (Fig. 32). Room 11 also produced a lintel stone with a tabula ansata of incised graffiti, with a scene of a person and what appears to be an olive press (see below). The courtyards appear to have been used for cooking and food storage, as heavy layers of ash and debris were found in Rooms 5, 26 and 29. A probe excavated in the floor of courtyard Room 5 (L1202; 655.91 m asl) revealed some smooth bedrock with carved depressions (L1204) that may have been used to hold storage jars upright (L1203; 655.67 m asl; Fig. 33). Installations in Room 38 include a stone bench and a large oven with a stone base that appear to have been used for baking (Fig. 34). The remains of a large clay-lined oven (F8; diam. c. 1 m, c. 0.18 deep), and what may have been an adjacent second oven, were found in Phase 3 Courtyard 19. A number of grinding implements made from basalt and limestone, as well as plaster seals of storage jars, were discovered throughout the rooms in Phase 3 (Figs. 35; 36). Examination of the numismatic and ceramic evidence revealed that the buildings were destroyed sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE, not in the 363 CE earthquake as previously assumed (Fabian 1996), as evinced by a fallen lintel found in situ (Fig. 37).⁶ Excavations carried out by Fabian in Building T inside the Byzantine town walls, and in small probes along the town wall in 1993 and 1994, revealed evidence of earthquake damage in earlier structures that were attributed to the 363 CE earthquake (Balouka 1999:40–41, n. 133). The 363 CE earthquake was a massive event and one of the best recorded in ancient history with a long list of affected towns and cities in Palestine.⁷ However, the evidence provided by the 1999 excavations, carried out on a much larger area outside of the town wall that was subsequently abandoned, shows unequivocally that the 363 CE earthquake only caused minor damage at the site. Significant earthquake damage only occurred a few decades later, in the early fifth century CE, the precise date of which is unknown. The fact that Oboda was destroyed in a massive local earthquake in the first half of the seventh century CE (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999) raises doubts as to the possibility that an earthquake with an epicenter located quite far away from the site could have produced the kind of damage evident in the early fifth century CE contexts discovered in the present excavation. Many complete or nearly complete ceramic vessels were discovered in situ in the collapse deposits and over the floors in several rooms. A cache of complete oil lamps and a coin hoard (n = 43), primarily of the fourth century were revealed in Room 16 (L3302; see Plan 1: section 2–2; see Fig. 70; see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 24, 25, 29–31, 35, 40, 42, 43, 45, 49, 51, 53, 60, 70, 72, 74–79, 93, 94, 115–117). Coin hoards of the fourth century were also discovered in the debris of Rooms 22 and 35. However, coins postdating the 363 earthquake were also present: coins dated generally to the fifth–sixth centuries were present in the hoard in Room 16 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 116, 117), a coin of Gratian (367–383 CE) was uncovered in Room 3 and a coin of Valentinian II (375–392 CE) was discovered in Room 17 (see Kool, this volume: Cat. Nos. 56, 57). Wall 53 of Room 20 was found in a collapsed state, which was evidently brought about by the early fifth-century CE earthquake that ruined the entire residential quarter (Fig. 38). Although this area was left abandoned following its destruction, most of the building stones and stone roofing slabs from Phase 3 appear to have been stripped for reuse in the adjacent area to the west during the Byzantine period. The removal of building stones was particularly evident on the northern side of the excavation area. Thus, only two or three courses of most walls survived in the Phase 3 structures. Notably, the rooms that were spared the removal of building stones following the early fifth-century CE earthquake in the residential quarter were those of the Phase 2 building that had been intentionally filled before the beginning of Phase 3, possibly in the wake of an epidemic. Only Room 23 had plaster preserved on its walls (Plan 1: Section 3–3; Fig. 39), which was applied to a thick layer of cement, but had broken off and was found in large chunks throughout the collapsed construction material above the floor (L3802; 655.83 m asl; Fig. 40). An ink inscription on plaster in a Nabataean Aramaic script was found next to the arch springer along the western wall of this room, near the floor (Fig. 41; see discussion below). Footnotes 6 In her thesis on evidence of the 363 CE earthquake from Sepphoris, Balouka includes an entire section on the supposed evidence for this event at Oboda (‘Avedat) based on preliminary reports of Fabian’s excavations in the Byzantine Quarter and along the Byzantine town wall (Balouka 1999:41–42). However, the present excavations of the latter area have produced solid numismatic and ceramic evidence that refutes this earlier claim. 7 Balouka (1999: n. 132) noted that Oboda is absent from this list.

Conclusions

Overview

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:124-125)

The excavation of the Middle Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter at Oboda provides invaluable evidence of periods of which little was hitherto known from southern Israel. An important contribution made by this report is a clarification of the occupation sequence at the site. According to the prolific excavator of Oboda, Avraham Negev, Oboda of the second and third centuries CE had not been investigated (Negev 1997:4). Since his extensive excavations (with Avi-Yonah) in 1958–1961, 1975-–1977 and 1989, great advances have been made in Nabataean research and particularly in ceramic typology, chiefly due to the efforts of researchers working in Jordan, such as Stephan G. Schmid, Kharieh ‘Amr and others. Many of Negev’s assumptions about the site, such as the existence of a ‘Nabatean’ pottery workshop, have been refuted (see Goren and Fabian 2008). Negev considered that toward the end of the first century CE, Oboda was attacked by Arab tribes, destroyed and abandoned for nearly a generation (Negev 1988b:31). However, the end of the pre-annexation phase of Oboda was more likely the result of extensive earthquake damage of the early second century CE detected in numerous sites throughout southern Jordan, the Arava and the Negev Highlands (see below). Negev also assumed that trade along the Incense Road ceased before the end of the first century CE, leading the Nabataean inhabitants of the Negev to turn to agriculture as their new economic base in the early second century CE (Negev 1996:86). Negev’s theories, based primarily on his research at Oboda, influenced prominent historical studies about the Nabataeans (see Bowersock 1983:73–74). However, the excavations of Rudolph Cohen at sites along the Petra–Gaza Road revealed that international trade along this route continued well beyond the Roman annexation into the early third century CE (Cohen 1982:246).¹² Other studies indicate that the inhabitants of Oboda and the Negev Highlands adopted agriculture primarily in the Byzantine period (Haiman 1989; Nevo 1991; Erickson-Gini 2010:81–82). In this regard, Negev’s own research contradicts his theories because none of the winepresses discovered at the site date earlier than the fourth century CE (Negev 1997:6–8) and at present there is no evidence of any dated agricultural installations prior to the Byzantine period.

In 1999, structures of three distinct periods were discovered in this area of Oboda following a pattern of destruction and/or abandonment and reconstruction extending further westward in the site in each successive period. Finds of the earliest occupation of the site, in the pre-Phase 1 Hellenistic period, continue to be uncovered on bedrock with no relation to any discernable architectural elements, a feature noted in earlier reports by Negev (1997:1).

Footnotes

12 A final report on seven sites excavated by Cohen along the Petra–Gaza Road is currently forthcoming.

Phase 1

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:125)

A row of rooms formed part of a large structure extending eastward from the residential quarter. This building belongs to what appears to be the earliest phase of construction in Oboda in the Early Roman period (late first century BCE–early second century CE), described as “Middle Nabataean” by Negev. Although he excavated some domestic structures in this area of the site, Negev did not include them in his final report, and further research is required to more fully understand the initial phase of settlement at Oboda. The many walls visible in the area between the residential quarter and the Late Roman army camp attest to extensive construction, presumably in the Early Roman period. Excavations in the army camp revealed that the principia was constructed above a Nabataean building of the first century CE while middens of the Hellenistic period were discovered under the southeastern part of the camp (Erickson-Gini 2002:115‒116). Thus, this is the only published architectural and ceramic evidence from a building in the Early Roman (preannexation) period from Oboda.

Phase 2

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:125-129)

The construction of the building in Phase 2, probably sometime in the early second century CE, fits a pattern of large-scale construction that apparently took place throughout the Nabataean realm in the wake of damage caused by an earthquake in the early second century. Evidence for this earthquake continues to be uncovered at a growing number of sites in the Negev and southern Jordan. The most dramatic and well-dated evidence was discovered by Israel and Nahlieli in the Nabataean fort of ‘En Raḥel in the central Arava (Nahlieli and Israel 1982; Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003). Evidence of substantial structural collapse followed either by abandonment or reconstruction was also found at Meẓad Maḥmal (Erickson-Gini 2011), Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa (Erickson-Gini 2019:167) and ‘En Yoṭvata (Erickson-Gini 2012a), as well as at Orḥan Mor, Meẓad Neqarot and Sha‘ar Ramon (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). Earthquake evidence from this period has also been found at Ḥorbat Dafit (Dolinka 2006:123, 126) and in southern Jordan at Aqaba (Dolinka 2003:30–31, Fig. 14), Petra (Kirkbride 1960:118–19; Parr 1960:129; Joukowsky and Basile 2001:50; Kolb and Keller 2002; Grawehr 2007:399; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139‒144) and Khirbat et-Tannur (Glueck 1965). The apparent damage caused by this earthquake at Mampsis was followed by a wave of substantial construction at the site in the mid-second century CE. Although several small excavations were carried out in the area east of the acropolis at Oboda by Negev in the area where early Nabataean settlement activity can still be detected, no final report of these excavations was ever published. The 1999 excavation of a few rooms (Rooms 24, 27, 28, 44) from a large structure belonging to this early period (late first century BCE through early second century CE) is a step in this direction but further research is required in order to better understand early Nabataean settlement activity at Oboda.

Prior to our excavation, little was known about Oboda in the post-annexation period in the second and early third centuries CE (Negev 1977:4‒5). However, major structures were either built, e.g., the khan north of the so-called potter’s workshop, or were in use as late as the mid-third century, i.e., the en-Nusra burial cave and the western (Obodas) temple on the acropolis (Negev 1997:4‒6, 79‒88; Erickson-Gini 2014:86‒94). Oboda clearly continued to be occupied throughout the post-annexation period as an important town in the Roman province of Arabia and the lucrative long-distance trade of aromatics continued along the Incense Road that passed through the town. Coins discovered in the Phase 2 building include a coin of Trajan (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 5) and a Roman provincial coin (see Kool, this volume: Cat. No. 6), as well as glass vessels (Gorin-Rosen Figs. 2:2, 3; 3:1, 3) and radiocarbon dating of the camel scapula (Fig. 13), supporting our dating of Phase 2 to the post-annexation period. Moreover, our excavations have produced additional evidence of continued production of Nabataean fine wares and unguentaria into the third century CE, which has also been uncovered at other sites along the Incense Road (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). This calls into question the early dating of key forms and decorative motifs (Dekorphases 3a-c) of Nabataean fine wares from ez-Zantur as proposed by Schmid (2000) that have resulted in discrepancies of nearly 100 years in some cases (Erickson-Gini 2021). The dependency on the ez-Zantur fine ware chronology has, in effect, created a phantom gap in the sequence of Nabataean material culture in the Middle Roman to early Byzantine period between 150 and 363 CE (Erickson-Gini 2021:685). This purported break is claimed despite the fact that as late as 218–222 CE, the Roman Emperor Elagabalus granted Petra the status of Petra Colonia (Bowersock 1983:121; Spijkerman 1978:236–237). Clearly, such a gap is unwarranted historically or materially. Thus, the current typochronology of Nabataean pottery reflects a compulsion among academics to compress the dates of Nabataean material culture into a narrow historical framework that does not take into account its robust continuity in the post-annexation period well into the third century.

This situation has serious implications regarding the dating of strata and architectural phases of major edifices in Petra and other Nabataean sites. As noted by Wenner and Parker (2021:711), these monuments include no less than the Great Temple (Saunders 2017:215–216), the Petra Garden and Pool Complex (Bedal 2003:72–76; Bedal, Gleason and Schryver 2007:162; 2011:320), the Qasr al-Bint (Renel and Mouton 2013), the Khazneh (Farajat and Nawafleh 2005), the Oboda Chapel (Tholbecq and Durand 2013:212–220), Wadi Sabrah (Tholbecq et al. 2016:285), Khirbat et-Tannur (McKenzie et al. 2013), Khirbat edh-Dharih (Durand 2017: Fig. 10), Hegra (Durand and Gerber 2014:159–160; Charloux et al. 2016: Fig. 6; Durand 2017: Fig. 8) and Dumat (Durand 2017: Fig. 7). To this list we may add the Petra North Ridge tombs excavated by Bikai and Perry (2001). While many researchers in the field claim that the Zantur chronology remains valid, there is little or no discussion about the abrupt cessation of the Nabataean fine ware tradition and the production of unguentaria in the post-annexation period, including the terminal date of Schmid’s Dekorphase 3c, or the reasons for their cessation. In order to maintain the position that the greater share of the Nabataean fine ware vessels date to the time of the Nabataean Kingdom, they are content to leave questions concerning production in the post-annexation (after 106 CE) vague or unaddressed.

The abandonment of the house and pantry in Phase 2 is of particular importance as it provides detailed material evidence at a critical point in time: the cessation of international trade along the Petra–Gaza Road (the Incense Road) in the early to mid-third century CE. The abandonment of the sites along this road sometime after 222 CE had already been noted by Rudolph Cohen, the excavator of several sites between Petra and Oboda (Cohen 1982:246) and this is supported by radiocarbon dates recently obtained from Orḥan Mor and Sha‘ar Ramon (Bar-Oz et al. 2022: Fig. 4, Table 3).¹² Recent research on the pottery and other material from those sites by the present author compliments the findings from Oboda Phase 2, and radiocarbon analysis of the camel scapula found in the pantry, support the dating of its abandonment (see Fig. 13). Similarly, an analysis of the abandoned Early House (Area I) at Petra, has revealed much of the same architecture (including a ground floor pantry called an antechamber) and a ceramic assemblage like the Phase 2 building at Oboda (EricksonGini and Tuttle 2017:142‒142). It is also notable that the second-century CE assemblage from Cistern 319 at Shiqmona included the same type of ESA ware bowl together a with a football-shaped flask and bag-shaped juglets (Elgavish 1977: Figs. I:4; II:9‒10, 13) like those discovered in the abandoned pantry at Oboda (Figs. 46:5; 48:4‒6). This may provide an indication that the production of some ESA types survived late into the second and even the early third centuries CE.

A number of structures were abandoned among sites contemporary with Oboda Phase 2, most notably the fort at Meẓad Neqarot and the fort (Area B) at Orḥan Mor, in which an oil press and other industrial installations were found that may have been used for producing perfumed oils, as well as large quantities of in situ pottery, glass vessels and organic material (Erickson-Gini and Hirschfeld, forthcoming). At Mampsis, the large hoard of silver tetradrachmas discovered by Negev (1988a:146), the latest coins of which were minted in the reign of Elagablus (219–222), may have been a donative or payment to Roman troops that was abandoned and forgotten in its hiding place precisely in the same period. The temporary abandonment of the residential quarter in Oboda in the late second or early third century is also comparable to the abandonment of the unfortified Nabataean town of Qasrawet in North Sinai in the same period (Verreth 2006:665; Oren and Netzer 1977:100–101).

The cessation of trade along the Petra–Gaza Road in the first half of the third century CE can be explained primarily by the crises that took place in that century. These crises included run-away inflation and an economic crisis that apparently resulted in a drop in demand for exotic goods such as perfumed oils produced at Petra, as well as the military crisis in the East with the rise of the Persian Empire and a crisis in leadership in the Roman Empire. However, there appears to be a more acute and sudden crisis, at least on a regional scale, that accounts for the cessation of coinage minted at Petra in the early third century (Kindler 1983:78) and the tremendous change in pottery production at Petra between the third and fourth centuries CE in which the whole tradition of painted fine-ware vessels disappeared¹³ and Nabataean unguentaria produced at Petra for packaging perfumed oils also disappeared.

One possibility may be that these developments, as well as the abandonment of structures seen at Orḥan Mor, Oboda and possibly Mampsis, are a result of an epidemic that struck the region in the early third century CE. Obviously, any town or village located along a major road such as the Petra–Gaza Road would have been vulnerable to the risk of infection carried from afar. In the event of an epidemic, towns and villages may have been briefly abandoned as inhabitants fled in order to escape infection. This was apparently a common occurrence in the late second century CE in the Nile Delta of Egypt and records from that period refer to a decline in population due to flight (anachoresis; Bagnall 2000:291–292). The spread of a pandemic, possibly originating as far away as China in the late second century CE was responsible for the death of both the Roman emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. The several outbreaks over several years of the Antonine epidemic may have been either of smallpox or a mixture of smallpox and the measles, and it was one of the first major pandemics to affect the Mediterranean regions in several centuries (Scheidel 2002:97). Similar waves of epidemic spread over the course of fifteen years in the mid-third century CE, claiming the life of the Roman emperor Claudius. This epidemic was recorded by Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, in his tract, De mortalitate (De mort. 14). According to Pontius Diaconis (Life, 9), Cyprian’s biographer, the epidemic that struck Carthage in this period caused people to flee their homes. The fear of infection may have been the reason that the pantry of the Phase 2 household was found with its intact fine wares and glass vessels, as well as the well-stocked fort at Orḥan Mor, and were not looted following their abandonment. The same fear of infection may have motivated the subsequent inhabitants to fill up the rooms of the Phase 2 structure instead of clearing and reoccupying them.

Further evidence for the possibility of an epidemic is indicated by the discovery of Tomb 2 under the North Ridge Church at Petra (Bikai and Perry 2001). Here multiple coeval burials of individuals of different ages who apparently were not afflicted with chronic diseases or malnutrition appear to suggest that an epidemic was the cause of death (Perry 2002:268–269). The excavators’ suggested date of burial in the first century CE based on the ceramic evidence is untenable in view of the fact that the majority of the vessels in this tomb date to the late second through early third centuries CE, many of which have parallels with the ceramic vessels found in Phase 2 at Oboda and sites along the Petra–Gaza Road such as Orḥan Mor.

Footnotes

13 The painted tradition continues in the early Byzantine period on non-fine-ware vessels (see ‘Amr 2004).

Phase 3

from Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:129-132)

After an abandonment of several decades, the residential quarter became a focus of new construction in the late third or early fourth century, corresponding to major geopolitical changes in the region, such as the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila/Aqaba. While in Mampsis, part of the early town was fortified with a wall and co-opted as an army camp (Erickson-Gini and Michael 2019:639), at Oboda an army camp and towers were constructed (Erickson-Gini 2002). In this period the residential quarter appears to have been built up next to one of these towers, situated east of the acropolis, not far from the army camp, while a second residential quarter sprang up next to the Late Roman tower further south (Negev 1997:62‒72). A parallel process appears to have taken place at Qasrawet in North Sinai when a new fortified town was established over the sand-covered remains of the earlier town (Verreth 2006:665). At Oboda, the residential quarter may have housed individuals associated with the Roman military. The peculiar architectural feature of rooms built at a lower level than the central courtyard is a feature present in fourth-century CE contexts inside the Roman army camp at Humayma in southern Jordan observed by the writer in 2001. Moreover, there is other material evidence from Phase 3 that supports a connection between military personnel in the camp and in the quarter. This includes the presence of Aqaba Ware ration jars (Figs. 64:3; 66:1, 2; 72:3; 75:8) like those found in the Diocletianic forts at Meẓad ‘En Ḥaẓeva, Meẓad Yoṭvata and Meẓad Tamar, and the discovery of parts of three ceramic plaques impressed with military scenes (Figs. 62:4; 66:10; 78:8). In addition, the large concentration of Gaza wine jars (Majcherek’s Form 2; see below), is comparable to the large assemblage of the same type of jars discovered in the remains of the isolated Roman military site of Meẓad ‘En Ḥaẓeva, located in the hyper-arid central Arava Valley (Erickson-Gini, forthcoming).

As with the salient evidence provided by Phase 2 for the second and third centuries CE, Phase 3 provides important data with regard to the ceramic assemblage of the fourth to early fifth centuries CE, as well as evidence of Nabataean cultural and religious continuity on the eve of the mass conversions to Christianity that evidently took place in the region in that period. The third century CE crisis described above had dramatic implications in terms of the material culture and ties between the Negev and Petra. Despite the cessation of international trade along the Petra–Gaza Road after the mid-third century CE, ceramic vessels produced in Petra continued to proliferate in the Negev until around 363 CE, albeit with a demonstrable departure from the fine-ware tradition of the Early and Middle Roman periods. Thus, Nabataean unguentaria and fine-ware vessels cease to appear in the archaeological record. In the Late Roman and early Byzantine period, the assemblage includes mainly Gaza wine jars, utilitarian plain wares and vestiges of the painted motifs on thick, partly-coarse ware bowls and jugs. The devastating earthquake of 363 CE apparently destroyed or seriously damaged kilns and workshops in Petra and, from that point onward, painted wares of any kind from Petra are no longer found in the Negev. By the early fifth century CE, very little pottery produced in Petra was being brought to the site and new sources, both local and from areas to the north and northwest of the Negev Highlands, began to take their place.

The most ubiquitous vessel found throughout the Phase 3 structures is the Gaza wine jar, which was commonly found in secondary use as braziers. The designation of this type of jar is a misnomer as they were mass-produced throughout the southern coastal plain in the early and late Byzantine periods and not necessarily in Gaza itself (Israel 1993: esp. Fig. 111). By comparison, the locally-produced Elusa jars were barely noticeable in the ceramic assemblage in Phase 3. The presence of so many heavy jars of the Gaza type brought to the site from the western Negev may seem surprising, but these jars were produced as far south and east as the Naḥal Besor region in close proximity to Oboda/Elusa (c. 15 km) and the Negev Highland towns (Gazit 1996:76). A depiction of how such wine jars were transported from the inner regions to the Mediterranean coast appears in the Orbikon panel of a church at Kissufim located a few kilometers southeast of Gaza. This panel shows a camel laden with ‘Gaza’ wine jars led by a man holding a cluster of grapes in his right hand (Cohen 1979:22).¹⁴

The coastal cities of Gaza and Ashqelon served as emporia for the wine produced throughout southern Israel as recorded around 370 CE in Expositio XXIX–XXXI:162–164. The huge demand for wine from the region is underscored by the large number of Gaza wine jars discovered in Alexandria (Kom el-Dikka) that formed the basis for Majcherek’s typology (1995) used in this report. The ubiquitous presence of the Gaza wine jar in Byzantine assemblages throughout southern Israel is further evidence for the robust export of wine from the southern coastal plain and Negev Highlands in that period. The abundance of these jars in secondary use in the Byzantine period is similarly reflected in their reuse as illustrated in a church mosaic from Ḥorbat Be’er Shema‘ (Erickson-Gini 2010: Fig. 1.60a). To date, four industrial size wine presses of the middle and late Byzantine period have been found at Oboda, as well as one of the early Byzantine period that was uncovered close to the quarter. The early Byzantine winepress located in a complex of buildings is not the free-standing late Byzantine type (Erickson-Gini, Hayut and Schwimer 2025:445‒448 Figs. 4‒6). The camel scapula (Fig. 13) bearing writing in Greek describes the hiring out of camels and donkeys to bring grapes from the fields to the press (Negev 1977:28; EricksonGini 2012b: Fig. 5; Erickson-Gini, Hayut and Schwimer 2025:8*, Fig. 7). Like the Phase 3 residential quarter, the early press and the building in which it operated appear to have been abandoned in this part of Oboda after the fourth century CE.

In previous investigations, our team and colleagues considered that the 363 earthquake was responsible for the destruction and abandonment of this part of the site; however, the discovery of forms of African Red Slip bowls that were imported after that date led to the conclusion that a later, local earthquake event, probably in the early fifth century, was responsible. This has been borne out by the numismatic evidence and particularly Coin No. 72 discovered in Room 35 (see Kool, this volume). This local earthquake event prompted major changes at the site: the area east of the acropolis and the Late Roman towers were abandoned, and the remains were stripped of building stone to be reused for construction and reconstruction further west. This includes the reconstruction of Negev’s ‘Roman Quarter’ (Negev 1997:62‒63; Erickson-Gini 2022:158‒159), and the construction of the town wall, the churches, the revetment walls on the south side of the temenos, and the Byzantine citadel attached to the temenos area (Negev 1997:45‒46, Photo 48; 95, Fig. 22; Erickson-Gini 2014:100). Significantly, following the earthquake, the town wall was constructed directly above the ruins of the western extension of the Phase 3 residential quarter, encircling a much-reduced town with only 19 domestic residences (Sion, Ashkenazi and Erickson-Gini 2024:354).

Overall, the material culture represented in Phase 3 in the form of domestic architecture and ceramics, is inferior in most respects to that of the preceding, post-annexation period. The reasons for this may be attributed primarily to the lower standard of living evident in the early Byzantine period as compared to that of the Middle Roman period when international trade brought substantial revenue to the region. Nevertheless, the connection between Oboda and Petra survived well into the Byzantine period. Despite Negev’s assertion that Nabataean Aramaic script was entirely replaced by Greek by the third century (Negev 1997:5), the discovery of the Nabataean inscription in Phase 3 (Fig. 41) shows that the former survived as late as the early Byzantine period.¹⁵ This inscription demonstrates the longevity of Nabataean culture and religion spatially beyond the confines of Petra, and chronologically well beyond the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom by the Roman Empire in 106 CE.

Footnotes

14 Pre-modern accounts of pottery production and distribution, such as the example of the Southern Lebanese town of Rashaya al-Fukhar, which Burckhardt visited in 1810, record that the inhabitants made a living from producing vessels that they marketed within the radius of a four-to-five-day journey (Burckhardt 1822). Studies of a “Black Gaza Ware” produced in the nineteenth century in the region before the development of motorized vehicles and roads reveal that these heavy vessels were regularly transported in special crates and ropes made from date palms that were carried by mules, donkeys and camels (Israel 2006: IX).

15 Nehmé (2010) has proposed the existence of a transitional script between the third and fifth centuries, in which Nabataean Aramaic script developed into classical Arabic script.

Notes by JW

Erickson-Gini (2014) described an early 5th century earthquake at Avdat/Oboda:

A massive earthquake took place in the early 5th century CE, substantial evidence of which was uncovered in the late Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010a: 91-93). All of the structures east of the town wall were abandoned and used as a source of building stone for the late Byzantine town. Following this earthquake, massive revetment walls were constructed along the southern wall of the acropolis in order to shore up the heavily damaged walls. In contrast, the late Byzantine citadel adjoining the temenos area of the acropolis has no revetment walls, certainly due to its construction following the earthquake. The two churches inside the temenos area were built using numerous early Roman ashlars and architectural elements originally from the Obodas Temple damaged in the earthquake.

Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) noted that numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings [of the late Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter] were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE adding that following this second, local earthquake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. In Area A of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2022) found floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse which may be remains from an early 5th century CE collapse. They also found an earlier version of Wall 1 which may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE and which, according to Erickson-Gini (2022), corresponds to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100). Erickson-Gini (2022) also noted that in the Dipinti cave on the southern slope of the Acropolis in Area D, a niche in the wall appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the Dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94).

Zion et al (2022:30) reports that the quarters for the soldiers of the Roman army camp, located east of and adjacent to the Acropolis, were destroyed in an early 5th century CE earthquake.

An early 5th century earthquake suggests the 419 CE Monaxius and Plinta Quake which may be corroborated by archaeoseismic evidence in Yotvata.

Negev (1989) provided a wider range of dates for this earthquake which entertains the possibility that this archaeoseismic evidence was caused by the hypothesized Negev Quake which, if real, is dated to around 500 CE.

A decisive factor in determining this phase is the dating of a series of earthquakes, one or more of which shattered numerous buildings in some of the towns of the central Negev. Although literary evidence is scarce, there is ample archaeological evidence that testifies to these disasters. At Oboda the entire length of the old southern Nabatean retaining wall was thrust outwards, and for this reason it had to be supported by a heavy, slanting supporting wall. Similarly much damage was caused to a massive tower of the Nabatean period, identified in July 1989 as the temple of Obodas (?), which in the Late Roman - early Byzantine period was incorporated in the citadel occupying the eastern half of the acropolis hill. Most of the damage was caused to the western and southern walls of the temple, and for this reason these too had to be supported by still heavier stone taluses, blocking the original entrance to the temple on the southern wall. It is against this talus that the South Church was built. Similar damage was also caused to some of the nearby buildings in the so-called Roman Quarter south of the temple. We may thus place the date of the earthquake between the end of the third century A.D., when the latest building in this quarter was constructed, and A.D. 541, when the Martyrium of St. Theodore was already being used as a burial ground.

7th century CE Earthquake

Figures

Fig. 2 - Aerial view of the

Figure 2

Aerial view of the southern slope at Avdat after the 2018 season, with inset showing final excavation of the southern compound after 2019 season

(photograph by E. Alajem; inset by S. Bucking)

Bucking et al (2022)

southern slope at Avdat from Bucking (2022)
Fig. 4 - South-western section

Figure 4

South-western section chronology in context

(photographs by T. Erickson-Gini)

Bucking et al (2022)

chronology from Bucking (2022)
Fig. 5 - from Bucking (2022)
Figure 5
1. Western section sampling
2. northern section sampling
3. reference photo for samplings, showing passageway to the cave after clearing of the northern section
(photographs by D. Fuks)

Bucking et al (2022)

Discussion

References

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Plans and Photos

Plans

Area Plans

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3 plan of dipinti

Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,

Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1 Area A from

Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2 Area B, plan

Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and sections from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Photos

Fig. 2 Warped external wall

Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8 Collapsed arches

Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in

Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 10 Arch Stone from

Fig. 10

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 11 Arch Stone from

Fig. 11

Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock

Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

Erickson-Gini (2022)

shelf fronting cave above dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Excerpts

Introduction

from Erickson-Gini (2022:153)

In 2012, salvage excavations were carried out in three areas in ‘Avedat National Park (Fig. 1), near and within the acropolis (Areas A, B; map ref. 178250/522720) and at the foot of the site’s western slope (Area D; map ref. 178188/522584).¹ The excavations were initiated to facilitate restoration work (Area A) and following damage to the site when electric lines were dug to provide lighting for the acropolis (Area B).

Area A was opened in the western half of a room in a building located at the northwestern end of the main street of the ‘Roman Quarter’ (henceforce, ‘Roman/Byzantine Quarter’). Area B (50 sq m) was located along the northern exterior of a building south of the acropolis, near the South Church. Here, an exterior courtyard with a baking oven and pantry (Room 2) and the remains of another room (Room 1), were uncovered; all collapsed due to an earthquake sometime in the early seventh century CE. The probe in Area D was conducted along the southern exterior of a wall covered with red-painted dipinti, built in front of a cave.

Footnotes

from Erickson-Gini (2022)

The excavations (Permit No. A-6391) were directed by the author, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and were funded by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA), who also provided the workers. The probe in Area D was also conducted by the author on behalf of the IAA and was underwritten by DePaul University. It was part of a documentation project carried out by the author and Scott Bucking (DePaul University), who assisted in the excavation in front of the collapsed cave in Area D. Assistance was provided by Mark Kunin and Avraham Hajian (surveying), Natalia Zak (drafting), Irena Lidski-Reznikov (pottery drawings), Lena Kupershmidt (cleaning of metal finds), Donald T. Ariel (numismatics) and Yael Gorin-Rosen (glass analysis). Photographs are by the author and Scott Bucking (Area D). I wish to thank the park manager, Nili Dvash, and the INPA Southern District Archaeologist, Orit Bortinik, for their aid and support.

History of Research

The Architectural Remains

from Erickson-Gini (2022:153-155)

The ancient town of ‘Avedat (Greek: Oboda; Arabic: Abdeh), located along the Petra–Gaza road (popularly referred to as the ‘Incense Route’), shows evidence of seasonal occupation by the Nabataeans in the third–second centuries BCE, with extensive remains on the upper plateau overlying bedrock. In the late first century BCE, the Nabataeans built a temple dedicated to the deified king Obodas at the western end of the upper plateau, and a town was established on the eastern and southern parts of the site. Hundreds of caves were hewn into the western slope of the site, which was apparently a necropolis in pre-Christian times.

Following an earthquake in the early fifth century CE, settlement in the town shifted westward and many of the caves were converted for use as dwellings and stables. In the late Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE), two churches were built on the acropolis, where the earlier Western Temple had stood. In this period, a wall was built around the town and a citadel was added to the temenos area of the acropolis (Negev 1997:6–9).

... Evidence of destruction by earthquake, leading to the abandonment of the town in the seventh century CE, was exposed by Fabian in 1993 south of the acropolis in Building T (unpublished; Permit No. A-1991; but see Fabian 1996). In 1999, the author uncovered evidence of an early fifth-century CE earthquake destruction in a residential quarter situated east of the acropolis and the Middle Byzantine (450–550 CE) town wall (Erickson-Gini 2010:91–95).

The Caves

from Erickson-Gini (2022:155-156)

The man-made caves of ‘Avedat first attracted study in the twentieth century, beginning with Musil in 1902 (1907:127–151, Figs. 65, 96–119). The caves and some dipinti were documented by Jaussen, Savignac and Vincent (1904; 1905), who were the first to suggest that they had been re-used for habitation. In 1914, Woolley visited the site and proposed that the caves initially served as Nabataean tombs, followed by a phase of re-use as dwellings in the Byzantine period (Woolley and Lawrence 1914–1915:99–100).

The most extensive excavation of a cave dwelling in ‘Avedat was carried out in the 1960s by Negev (1997:157–169), who exposed a large, multi-roomed complex on the lowest terrace of the western slope, referred to as the ‘Saints’ Cave’, due to a dipinti-intensive wall in one of the rooms featuring images of Saint George and Saint Theodore. These dipinti led Figueras to suggest in his 1995 gazetteer of monastic sites that the ‘Saints’ Cave’ may have been inhabited by a monastic community (1995:434). Negev differed, holding that the cave served a general population only, for ordinary habitation. He proposed that some of the other caves at the site originally functioned as tombs, possibly from the Middle Nabataean (Early Roman) period (Negev 1997:137).

Area A

from Erickson-Gini (2022:156-159)

In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). In the southern part of W1 was a space that originally accommodated an arch springer, and in the northern part of the wall was the stone construction of a second springer and a pilaster (Fig. 3). The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. A scant number of poorly preserved bronze coins from this layer (L102, B18) were found; they could not be identified but their size indicates that they may be sixth-century CE nummi (Donald T. Ariel, pers. comm.).

A probe in the southwestern corner of the room revealed that W1 was built over the remains of an earlier wall (Fig. 4). Finds dated to the late Byzantine period were revealed at the bottom of W1. Below the foundations of W1, in L1/03, flush with the lowest courses of the southern wall (W3), were finds from the fourth century CE, indicating that the original building was constructed sometime in the early Byzantine period. The probe also revealed floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse (Fig. 5). A line of stones (W5; length 1.1 m) was roughly parallel to W1 at a depth of 2.25 m; it may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE. These correspond to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100).

Area B

from Erickson-Gini (2022:160-163)

The excavation here revealed an open courtyard and a room situated along the northern exterior of a large structure east of the winepress excavated by Tahal (1995:113–114, Fig. 130) and south of the main entrance of the citadel on the acropolis. The building is part of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter and at least two revetment walls were built against the long part of its northern wall (W5) and its eastern corner (Negev 1997:5, Photograph 7). The revetment walls confirm that like the structure in Area A, repairs and additions to the building were carried out in the early fifth century CE. The exterior courtyard (Room 2) was built against the northern wall, between the northern revetment (W5) and a small room (Room 1) discovered in a collapsed state further west, near the northwestern corner of the structure.

Both Room 1 and the courtyard (Room 2) were built along pre-existing ashlar W4, which extends 12.3 m from the northwestern corner of the building to revetment W5 (Plan 2). Wall 4 was renovated to insert an arch springer and an arch pilaster in Room 1 (Fig. 7; Plan 2: Section 2–2). Room 1, slightly irregular in shape (c. 16 sq m), shares its northern wall (W6) with the courtyard (Room 2). Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). The arch stones uncovered in Room 1 were decorated with incised and red-painted frames (Fig. 10); one stone features incised and red-painted crossed lines (Fig. 11). A 2 × 2 m probe below the collapse in the southwestern corner of Room 1 (L1/03, L1/04) revealed a dirt floor. The foundation of the building and W1 were built directly over bedrock (Fig. 12). Hellenistic and Early Roman period pottery was discovered directly above bedrock in this corner (L1/04). The excavation did not reveal an entrance into the room; access may have been by way of a stairway like that found leading into the courtyard, perhaps under the collapse.

The courtyard (Room 2; c. 4 × 6 m; Plan 2) was accessed via three steps that descended from a higher level, outside the building, close to revetment W5 (Fig. 13). The lower part of a bag-shaped storage jar was found sunken into the floor, directly in front of the stairs. A stepped entrance into the main building, at the back of the courtyard along W4, led into an unexcavated area that also appears to have been an open courtyard (Fig. 14). In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding.

No coins were found in Area B despite careful sifting of the material from the earthen floors in both rooms.

Area D

from Erickson-Gini (2022:165-174)

Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). Facing south and founded on bedrock, the dipinti Wall (8.7 m long, 0.77 m wide; Plan 3; Fig. 17) stands to its full height (2.92 m high) in front of rooms hewn into bedrock on the southern slope below the acropolis. A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). The opening into the cave, in the middle of the wall, is 1.7 m high and 0.75 m wide; its threshold is 0.2 m above bedrock. The lower part of the entryway was found blocked with building stones to a height of 0.38 m (Fig. 19), apparently in the late Byzantine period, to prevent animals and debris from entering the cave. A niche (0.35 m wide, 0.38 m high, 0.15 m deep) in the wall, east of the doorway (Fig. 20), appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94). The later reinforcement of the interior wall incorporated limestone blocks, whereas the original wall had been constructed from a harder type of limestone. The average size of the hard stones used for the exterior face of the wall is 0.42 × 0.25 × 0.14 m. Four ‘slit’ windows are located near the top of the wall and the doorway (Fig. 21). The red-painted figure of a bearded man appears above the right corner of the niche and to the right of one of the slit windows (Figs. 22, 23) is probably a depiction of St. Theodore, a soldier saint for whom a cult was founded in the ‘Avedat South Church (Bucking 2017; Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:29). Red-painted dipinti, primarily in the form of crosses and crosses within circles, appear on the lintel and on either side of the doorway (Figs. 24–26). A red-painted figure, possibly of a man wearing a tunic and holding a sword, is to the left of the entrance (Fig. 27), together with representations of what may be a wagon (Fig. 28), a ship (Fig. 29) and a fringed object (Fig. 30).

The exterior of the dipinti Wall is somewhat perpendicular to W2, at its eastern edge. Wall 2 is the western side of an exterior wall in front of another cave, east of the dipinti Cave. It was built on a high bedrock outcrop, 2.73 m above the surface in front of the dipinti Wall, and exposed for 1.95 m of its length. At the top of W2 is a niche, directly under the bedrock shelf (Fig. 31). Mud-mortar mixed with large pieces of straw was found between the stones at the top of the wall to the right of the niche, well-protected by the bedrock overhang. A red-painted cross within a circle is below the lower right corner of the niche in W2 (Fig. 32), and another red-painted cross within a circle is on the interior face of W2 in the second cave (Fig. 33).

The interior of the dipinti Cave includes two rooms (Plan 3). The southern, main room (8.78 m wide east–west, 6.35 m long north–south, 2.22 m high) is partitioned by a hewn east– west wall (3.25 m long) on its western side, some 2.6 m from the back wall. The eastern side is decorated with red-painted dipinti (Fig. 34). A cupboard niche (0.72 m high, 0.33 deep), decorated with red-painted dipinti, was hewn on the interior of the dipinti Wall, west (right) of the doorway (Fig. 35). It seems to have been large enough to accommodate a wooden shelf. Three carved niches (Fig. 36) surrounded by red-painted dipinti (Figs. 37, 38) were in the eastern wall, and a large triangular carved niche was in the western wall (Fig. 39). The niches and the decoration on the eastern wall may indicate that this room served as a place of worship for a monastic community (Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:32–33).

The irregularly shaped back room (3.71 m high) of the dipinti Cave was accessed through a carved doorway (1.83 m high, 0.6 m wide, 0.64 m deep; Fig. 40). Carved slots on either side of the doorway for a bolt, and part of a carved frame at the doorway’s bottom, reveal that it originally accommodated a wooden door (Figs. 41, 42). The southern wall (2.31 m long, preserved height 2.06 m) of the back room separates it from a large (probably Roman-period) plastered cistern that was accessed from the upper terrace (Fig. 43). This wall was partly hewn and partly built of heavy blocks.

A probe was conducted near the exterior face of the dipinti Cave; the excavated soil was carefully sifted for pottery and other finds. The upper level of the collapse contained modern artifacts—scraps of newspapers in Hebrew, Arabic and English, as well as sherds of Black Gaza Ware, commonly found in the region during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries CE. The upper layer of debris contained finds from recent centuries and the Early Islamic period (eighth–ninth centuries CE) while below it were layers of organic debris including animal manure and finds from earlier periods (seventh century CE; late Byzantine and Early Umayyad periods). The upper layer extended above the level of the threshold of the doorway. A final layer of deposition (0.2 m deep) containing Roman material was revealed below this, extending down to bedrock. A shallow depression (0.46 × 0.20 m) hewn into the bedrock was found east of the doorway.

Summary and Conclusions

from Erickson-Gini (2022:192-193)

The 2012 excavations at ‘Avedat revealed important evidence regarding the effects of earthquakes on the Byzantine-period occupation in Areas A and B and the use of a cave on the southern slope of the site by a monastic community in Area D. The author previously uncovered evidence of a destructive seismic event at the site that occurred in the early fifth century CE in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, directly outside the middle Byzantine town wall east of the acropolis (Erickson-Gini 2010:90–95). Substantiation of this particular event may be inferred by the construction of heavy revetment walls along the southern side of the temenos, i.e., the western part of the acropolis, as well as the construction of smaller revetments against private houses such as that of Area B. However, the excavations appear to provide the first definitive testimony of earthquake damage and subsequent rebuilding in a stratigraphical context. ‘Avedat met its final devastation at the end of the late Byzantine period, postdating the latest epitaph found in the South Church (617 CE), dating to the first half of the seventh century CE.

The most dramatic testimony of earthquake damage was in Area B, in rooms that had been added to the northern exterior of an earlier building, presumably following damage by an earlier earthquake in the early fifth century CE. The rooms appear to have been attached to the earlier building next to a heavy revetment wall located to the east. This building is situated in close proximity to the South Church and the discovery of part of a marble paten in the pantry in Room 2 raises the possibility that the building was occupied by church personnel.

Western Room 1 in Area B appears to have been roofed with heavy stone slabs supported by arches. The heavy collapse remained in situ on the eastern side of the room but further excavation on the western side revealed stone archers bearing incised, red-painted decoration. Room 2 seems to have been kind of a sunken open courtyard, in front of the main entrance into the structure, accessed by means of stairs leading down from the northeastern corner, opposite a baking oven. A number of bag-shaped storage jars found sunken into the earthen floor of the room probably served to store grain for grinding and baking. A similar baking oven, also located in the corner of an open courtyard, was uncovered by the author in Room 38 in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter in ‘Avedat (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). Noteworthy is the mentioning of a baking oven and courtyard in a sale contract between a civilian and a soldier, dated c. 566/7 CE, in the Niẓẓana archive (Colt 1962:259). Unusual is the presence of a pantry in the southeastern corner of the courtyard near the wide entrance into the main building. This small space was used to store cooking and other vessels, including a glass bottle (Fig. 51:2), that were probably placed on wooden shelves. An unusual find in the pantry was part of a marble paten with faded black ink patterns of crosses and circles (Fig. 49). The ceramic and glass vessels in the pantry and the rest of the courtyard, including the latest form of a Gaza wine jar (Fig. 46:9), point to a late Byzantine date in the first half of the seventh century CE. However, there were no organic finds or coins that could have provided a more precise date for the destruction of the rooms.

The dipinti Cave, located on the southern slope below the acropolis in Area D, completes the picture of the late Byzantine occupation at the site. The extant wall in front of the cave apparently dates to the Roman period, based on the fragment of a molded Judean Southern Lamp (Fig. 44:17) and a glass fragment (Fig. 51:1), both produced during the Roman period. Red-painted Christian motifs, such as crosses, were added to the early wall. It seems that this wall too underwent structural damage, probably due to the early fifthcentury CE earthquake. After this event, the interior of the wall was repaired, and a window was blocked. The motifs discovered on the dipinti Wall and in the cave interior, particularly on the eastern wall, deep inside the cave, point to its use by a monastic community. Figueras (1995:434) discussed the existence of monastic communities in ‘Avedat in the South Church and the structure in front of the Cave of the Saints. The winepresses situated in proximity to both the South Church and the Cave of the Saints deserve our attention. The use of the dipinti Cave by such a community may have been encouraged by the presence of the large cistern of an earlier (Roman?) date located on the tier just above and behind the dipinti Cave. Additionally, access to walled gardens, fields and a large winepress located below the cave on the plain to the south of ‘Avedat would have also attracted the community. Layers of organic material (animal manure) outside the cave indicate that the rooms in front of the dipinti Wall served for stabling animals. Stabling animals in close proximity to dwellings was customary in the region among the poorer segments of the population and continued up until modern times (Canaan 1933:35, 70).

Epigraphic evidence from earlier excavations in ‘Avedat show that donkeys and camels were regularly used to bring produce from the fields (Erickson-Gini 2012:53, Fig. 5). The position of the cave and its external rooms well-suited the commanding of the plain below and, among other things, may have been an indication of ownership. According to Canaan, it was customary in this region for low-lying fields to belong to those occupying higher ground (Canaan 1933:53); the higher location within the protected walls of the Byzantine town allowed the inhabitants to easily observe and guard the fields during harvest.

The earthquake that destroyed the site at the end of the late Byzantine period, presumably in the first half of the seventh century CE, appears to have destroyed a room of the cave in front of the dipinti Wall. Extant walls c. 10 m south of the dipinti Wall apparently belong to the same structure that incorporated the dipinti Cave. In the Early Islamic (Abbasid) period, visitors who frequented the cave, probably because of the cistern, left debris on the ruins of the collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the dipinti Wall. Also found in the debris above the collapse were finds from the Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods, among them pieces of Arabic- and English-language newspapers. Unlike many red-painted dipinti in the ‘Avedat caves, those on the dipinti Wall are particularly well-preserved due to the cave’s location on the south-slope facing, thereby ensuring minimum exposure to sunlight.

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

from Erickson-Gini (2010:17-19)

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

from Erickson-Gini (2010:87-88)

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

from Erickson-Gini (2010:88-91)

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).¹

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.² A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

from Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).¹

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

from Erickson-Gini (2010:129)

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

from Erickson-Gini (2010:191,194)

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):

The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.

...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Notes by JW

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) discussed the early 7th century earthquake.

The destruction of the town by a massive earthquake sometime in the early 7th century CE was one piece of a puzzle not mentioned by Negev. The earthquake certainly occurred after the latest inscription found at the site in the Martyrion of St. Theodore (South Church) in 617 CE (Negev 1981: 37). Direct evidence of the destruction and abandonment of the site was uncovered by Fabian, with massive destruction evident throughout the site, and particularly along the western face of the site with its extensive caves and buildings (Korjenkov et al., 1996). Mezad Yeruham, several kms further south, was apparently destroyed at the same time (Y. Baumgarten, personal communication), while the earthquake left a trail of damage at numerous sites. This is indicated by the early seventh-century construction of revetment walls around churches and private houses at Sobota (Shivta), Sa'adon, Rehovot in-the-Negev, and Nessana. Compared to other Nabataean sites in the Negev Highlands that indicate a continued occupation through the late Byzantine period well into the early Islamic period in the 9th c., Oboda was devoid of settlement in the early Islamic period. In place of a central town, such as Sobota (Shivta), Rehovot in-the-Negev, or Nessana, a significant number of early Islamic farming villages — many with open-air mosque — were found in close proximity to Oboda.

Later excavations, however, uncovered evidence for substantial human activity in the caves on the slope during the Early Islamic period, c. AD 650–900 (Bucking et al., 2022:1). Investigations focused on the 2ha residential sector, which comprises hundreds of rock-hewn dwellings built in terraces along the northern, southern and western slopes immediately below this necropolis (Shereshevski 1991: 38–42; see Figure 2). Site chronology was established using radiocarbon dating along with ceramics. These results were described as follows:

Radiocarbon results were surprising: while a sample of straw extracted from mortar in the dipinti-intensive cave vestibule wall yielded dates within the expected Byzantine range, nine samples from the organic, dung-enriched south-western section were of Umayyad–Abbasid date, ranging from 1190–1320±30 BP/AD 650–890 (Figure 4) (Bucking & Erickson-Gini 2020). Three newly obtained dates from the northern and western sections yielded Abbasid dates (Figure 5): two from a substantial organic layer in the northern section, and one in the western section, where Abbasid Mefjer/Buff Ware (Cytryn-Silverman 2010) further corroborated this result (Figure 6). The emerging extended chronology enriches ongoing debate surrounding the fate of Negev Highland settlement in the Early Islamic period, especially that regarding continuities and discontinuities of site use between the Byzantine, Umayyad and Abbasid periods (e.g. Magness 2003; Avni 2008; Butler et al. 2020).

Erickson-Gini (2022) found evidence for what they surmised was the 7th century CE earthquake in a cave on the southern slope of the acropolis (Area D) and in some buildings in the Roman-Byzantine Quarter (Areas A and B). In the cave, a bedrock shelf collapsed leaving massive earthquake debris and in the Roman-Byzantine Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2022) encountered evidence of collapsed, folded and/or displaced walls, collapsed ceilings, broken and fallen pottery, and fallen arches including one arch springer that appears slightly rotated. Erickson-Gini (2022) dated the destruction based on ceramics and although they were able to establish a fairly secure Late Byzantine terminus post quem, the terminus ante quem was not well established - presumably due to a lack of overlying occupational layers.

Early 2nd century CE Earthquake

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Comments
Collapsed Walls (based on rebuilding evidence)	residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter Oboda: general plan of the site and military camp. Stern et al (1993)		Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) noted "indirect evidence" of "substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE in which residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter were demolished and used as a source of building stone for later structures.
Collapsed Walls (based on rebuilding evidence) Blocked Doorway	Roman/Byzantine residential quarter immediately outside the town wall and acropolis Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Fig. 6 Phase 1 structure (Rooms 24, 44, 27, 28), looking west. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	"The eastern wall of Room 28 (W66) was built of large, roughly-cut pieces of stone slabs laid on top of rows of smaller hewn stones. The lack of uniform construction may have been a result of a secondary stage or a repair of the building in the wake of earthquake damage to Oboda in the early second century CE, an event whose impact is known from other sites in the region (Erickson-Gini 2010:47; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139–140). Nearly identical construction using rough flat stones of this type was found at nearby Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa in repairs made to a structure that was damaged by earthquake in the early second century CE (Erickson-Gini 2019:167). ... The doorway between Rooms 24 and 44 in W64 was blocked. " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)

4th century CE Earthquake

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Comments
Collapsed Vaults	Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults - Zion et al (2022)
Collapsed Walls	Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults - Zion et al (2022)
Collapsed Walls	Room 7 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)		one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "although Room 7 appears to have been used in Phase 3, it apparently collapsed, probably in the earthquake of 363 CE. This collapse of building stones, loose soil and air pockets was found together with late third to mid-fourth-century pottery, an inscribed glass vessel (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 12:1) and coins on the surface of the beaten earth floor." - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)
Displaced walls surmised from blocked doorways (the blockage shoring up weakened walls)	Rooms 4, 7?, 17 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)	Fig. 25 Blocked doorway leading into Room 7 from Room 4, looking north Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways [rooms 4, 7, 17] and the collapse of one of the rooms [Room 7], as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) Doorways leading from this room [Room 4] into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)
Collapsed Arch	Room 4 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)	Fig. 1.78a Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE Erickson-Gini (2010)	In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper) - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)
Collapsed Roof	Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)		"A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). ... Voussoirs were found only in a handful of rooms, such as two in Room 22 (Fig. 26), one each in Rooms 23 and 37, three in Room 30 and four in Room 40. These rooms apparently had roofs made from stone slabs, several of which were found in situ, collapsed in Room 22. " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Effect	Event "Previous" or 7th century	Location	Image(s)	Comments
TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER	"Previous"	Room 10 of Court in South Quarter Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	5 Figure 5 Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°. In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES	"Previous"	Room 8 of Court in South Quarter Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	6 Figure 6 Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°. These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES	"Previous"	N yard of bath-house	7a Figure 7a Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot. (a) View to northern yard corner Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 7b Figure 7b Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br> (b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997). For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
SUPPORT-WALLS	"Previous"	Southern Church Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	8 Figure 8 Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
CAVE DESTRUCTIONS	"Previous"	Caves Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock. The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case). A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X. The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake. The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Collapsed Walls Fallen Lintel (Displaced Walls)	"Previous"	Roman/Byzantine residential quarter immediately outside the town wall and acropolis Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Fig. 38 Fig. 38 Collapse of W53 (early fifth century CE), looking southwest. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 37 Fig. 37 Fallen lintel in situ in Room 22. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	"Examination of the numismatic and ceramic evidence revealed that the buildings were destroyed sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE, not in the 363 CE earthquake as previously assumed (Fabian 1996), as evinced by a fallen lintel found in situ (Fig. 37). Excavations carried out by Fabian in Building T inside the Byzantine town walls, and in small probes along the town wall in 1993 and 1994, revealed evidence of earthquake damage in earlier structures that were attributed to the 363 CE earthquake (Balouka 1999:40–41, n. 133). The 363 CE earthquake was a massive event and one of the best recorded in ancient history with a long list of affected towns and cities in Palestine. However, the evidence provided by the 1999 excavations, carried out on a much larger area outside of the town wall that was subsequently abandoned, shows unequivocally that the 363 CE earthquake only caused minor damage at the site. Significant earthquake damage only occurred a few decades later, in the early fifth century CE, the precise date of which is unknown. ... Wall 53 of Room 20 was found in a collapsed state, which was evidently brought about by the early fifth-century CE earthquake that ruined the entire residential quarter (Fig. 38). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22) "In previous investigations, our team and colleagues considered that the 363 earthquake was responsible for the destruction and abandonment of this part of the site [Roman/Byzantine Quarter]; however, the discovery of forms of African Red Slip bowls that were imported after that date led to the conclusion that a later, local earthquake event, probably in the early fifth century, was responsible. This has been borne out by the numismatic evidence and particularly Coin No. 72 discovered in Room 35 (see Kool, this volume). This local earthquake event prompted major changes at the site: the area east of the acropolis and the Late Roman towers were abandoned, and the remains were stripped of building stone to be reused for construction and reconstruction further west. This includes the reconstruction of Negev’s ‘Roman Quarter’ (Negev 1997:62‒63; Erickson-Gini 2022:158‒159), and the construction of the town wall, the churches, the revetment walls on the south side of the temenos, and the Byzantine citadel attached to the temenos area (Negev 1997:45‒46, Photo 48; 95, Fig. 22; Erickson-Gini 2014:100). Significantly, following the earthquake, the town wall was constructed directly above the ruins of the western extension of the Phase 3 residential quarter, encircling a much-reduced town with only 19 domestic residences (Sion, Ashkenazi and Erickson-Gini 2024:354)." - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:129-132)

7th century CE Earthquake

Effect	Event "Previous" or 7th century	Location	Image(s)	Comments
JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS	7th century	WSW external wall of the Northern Church Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	4 Figure 4 Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process. Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part. All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS	mostly 7th century ?	various locations	9 Figure 9 Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 10 Figure 10 Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
COLLAPSE FEATURES	7th century ?	Agricultural Fences	11a Figure 11a Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 11b Figure 11b Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 12 Figure 12 Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls. It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS	7th century ?	Avdat Tower and wall in the southern quarter Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14a Figure 14a Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14b Figure 14b Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 15 Figure 15 Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14. For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°. The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Warped or folded wall collapsed stone ceiling slabs collapsed arch	7th century	Area A Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 1 Area A Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast. Erickson-Gini (2022)	In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). ... The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
collapsed stone ceiling slabs collapsed arches rotated blocks in arch	7th century	Area B Room 1 Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 2 Area B, plan and sections Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 8 Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west. Erickson-Gini (2022) Fig. 9 Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room [1] (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). - Erickson-Gini (2022)
collapsed walls broken and fallen pottery collapsed arch	7th century	Area B Room 2 Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 2 Area B, plan and sections Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 15 Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast. Erickson-Gini (2022)	In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
collapsed walls (massive earthquake debris) collapsed bedrock shelves	7th century	Dipinti Cave in Area D Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 3 Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 16 Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north. Erickson-Gini (2022) Fig. 18 Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). ... A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). - Erickson-Gini (2022)

Seismic Effects from the "Previous" Earthquake and the 7th century CE Earthquake of Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

Discussion

In surveys conducted in 1994 and 1996, Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) examined hundreds of deformation features and selected 41 measurements of wall inclinations, 26 of wall collapse, 17 of block rotations, and 96 cases of through-going fractures, where [they] were certain of the non-static origin of dislocations. They divided the features of seismic destructioninto 2 groups based on diagnostic use.

Seismic-related features, which can be used for the determination of the seismic origin of the destruction, and degree of seismic shaking - seismic intensity

joints crossing through a few adjacent blocks
rotation of arch or roof slabs around horizontal axis
hanging stones in the arches
later built supporting walls for the tilted walls and columns
non-coincidence of lower rows of masonry with upper building construction

Seismic indicators which can be used for the determination of epicentral direction

inclination of walls
shifting of complete walls or wall fragments
collapse of arches and wall fragments
rotation of building fragments in arches and walls around the vertical axis

Seismic Effects Table

Effect	Event "Previous" or 7th century	Location	Image(s)	Comments
JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS	7th century	Northern Church	4 Figure 4 Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process. Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part. All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion.
TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER	"Previous"	Room 10 of Court in South Quarter	3 Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 5 Figure 5 Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°. In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3).
SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES	"Previous"	Room 8 of Court in South Quarter	3 Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 6 Figure 6 Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°. These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES	"Previous"	N yard of bath-house	7a Figure 7a Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot. (a) View to northern yard corner Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 7b Figure 7b Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br> (b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997). For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph.
SUPPORT-WALLS	"Previous"	Southern Church	8 Figure 8 Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
CAVE DESTRUCTIONS	"Previous"	Caves		As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock. The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case). A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X. The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake. The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century.
INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS	mostly 7th century ?	various locations	9 Figure 9 Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 10 Figure 10 Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly.
COLLAPSE FEATURES	7th century ?	Agricultural Fences	11a Figure 11a Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 11b Figure 11b Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 12 Figure 12 Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls. It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse.
ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS	7th century ?	various locations	13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14a Figure 14a Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14b Figure 14b Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 15 Figure 15 Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14. For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°. The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator.

Archeoseismic Analysis

from Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

Study of the destruction in the Avdat ruins reveals a systematic type of dislocation:

Walls of buildings trending SE 120° revealed strong preferential collapse or inclination toward south, whereas walls trending NE 20°-50° tilted and fell without a noticeable systematic pattern (see Figure 10

Figure 10

Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

). A similar structure of collapse was observed for the ruins of agricultural fences (see Figure 12

Figure 12

Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

). These observations indicate that the seismic shock arrived from the south in the case of a compressional wave, or from the north, if the wave causing the collapse was extensional. Thus, by this exercise the eastward and westward propagating seismic waves can be excluded.
Most rotated blocks in the Avdat ruins are turned counterclockwise and they were found exclusively on NE-trending walls (see Figure 15

Figure 15

Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

). The only case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°. The fact of the appearance of rotated blocks, as described above, indicates push movements (compression wave approaching the buildings). Thus, the only possibility left is a compressional seismic wave coming from the south. Rotation itself involves shear stresses acting along the walls, thus the seismic wave must have arrived at some angle to the walls.

Following the well-known strong earthquakes a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined toward the epicenter, however, in some cases the inclination was in the opposite direction. As in the case with the wall inclinations, the walls facing the seismic wave collapsed systematically toward the seismically induced compression strain, whereas the walls aligned parallel to the seismic wave lost support and collapsed in a random manner. Therefore, one has to look for a correlation between the trend of a construction element and the direction of collapse. The collapse debris form the shape of a cone, because the central part of a collapsing wall segment undergoes maximum oscillation during the seismic event (Figure 16

Figure 16

Symmetric shape of a collapse cone due to earthquake-induced wall oscillations. Oscillation of the wall ends is attenuated by the support of the perpendicular walls, and maximal oscillation occurs at the center (a). This results in a cone-shaped collapse feature, with a collapse line oriented normal to the wall (b).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

).

The preferred direction of collapse or inclination of building elements may be either toward an epicenter or away from it. If the damaged site is located in the quadrangle of compression strain (Figure 17

Figure 17

Strain quadrangle diagram and direction of destruction. Dashed lines depict the direction of wave front propagation, and the circle represents a projection of an epicenter. Direction of inclination of damage features is towards the epicenter in the quadrangles of compression strain, and it is away from the epicenter in the quadrangles of extension strain.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

), the deformation will be caused by a push movement exerted on the ground, resulting in inclination and collapse toward the epicenter. In contrast, in the sites located in a tensional quadrangle, the deformations are induced by a pull movement causing inclination and collapse away from the epicenter. In either case, the line of collapse or relative motion can be determined. This line connects the original position of an object and its position after an earthquake, or corresponds to the dip azimuth of an inclined element. The intersecting points of the collapse lines measured in many places will converge at the area of the epicenter (Figure 18

Figure 18

Identification of earthquake epicenter applying a collapse pattern. Lines of collapse, measured in the damaged area, applied to determine an epicenter:

(1) epicenter

(2) directions of collapse

(3) lines of collapse.

As the collapse occurs toward or outward the epicenter, the intersections of the collapse lines are scattered around the epicenter, that allows to depict it.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

).

Shear stresses applied to an elongated element cause its rotation. The direction of rotation depends on two factors:

orientation of principle stresses in a location and
the orientation of the elongated element

Field study of the epicentral zones of the world-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise. A seismic wave approaching a building parallel or normal to its walls will result in collapse, shift or inclination with no rotation (Figure 20(a)

Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

). The rotation should take place in the cases where the principle stresses are oblique to a construction element, and the resolved shear stresses are high (Figure 20(b)

Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

). Thus, rotated elements situated on perpendicularly oriented walls should have an opposite direction of rotation, if the seismic shock came along the bisector of the two walls (Figure 20(c)

Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

).

Two mechanisms of rotation, caused by tectonic movements, are known in geology (Figure 21

Figure 21

Simple shear producing an opposite sense of rotation

(a) book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks

(b) asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks. Adapted from Jordan (1991).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

):

book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks, and
asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks (Jordan, 1991)

As can be seen in Figure 21

Figure 21

Simple shear producing an opposite sense of rotation

(a) book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks

(b) asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks. Adapted from Jordan (1991).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

, the same direction of rotation can be obtained by the different stress setups. These rotated blocks are termed "antithetical" or "synthetic" because with respect to the same simple shear couple two directions of rotation are possible. A synthetic structure is formed as a result of compression acting parallel to an element along axis, whereas the antithetical structure is developed when extension is parallel to an elongated element. Thus, in tectonics the interpretation of the rotation structures should be proceeded by a determination of the strain that occurred parallel to a rotated element. Such an ambiguity does not exist in seismic interpretations. Any lateral extension applied to a construction should lead to its collapse or inclination, whereas rotation could occur only under horizontal compression. This provides an additional criterion for the determination of strain accompanying an earthquake: the appearance of rotated blocks is an indication of a push movement. A scheme showing the direction of rotation, with respect to the direction of seismic wave propagation, is shown in Figure 20

Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

.

This discussion leads to an additional conclusion explaining the lack of oriented inclination and collapse features in an epicentral area (and additionally, to the assumption that the point seismic source is not valid in the epicentral zone): the shock wave moving from a hypocenter under a high angle to the surface, results in a lateral extension applied to constructions. This explains why in recent earthquakes (Acapulco, 1962; Scopje, 1963; Tashkent, 1966 and others) the areas above a hypo-center do not reveal systematic inclination and collapse patterns (Muto et al., 1963; Binder, 1965; Medvedev, 1966; The Scopje Earthquake of 26 July 1963, 1968; Mirzoev et al., 1969; Liquidation of Consequences of Tashkent Earthquake, 1972), whereas some distance away inclination and collapse have pronounced directional patterns (Figure 22

Figure 22

Scheme of different patters of seismic destruction on different angles from hypocenter.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

).

All said above is true for the features of destruction found in building constructions built on an isotropic massive foundation without a strong preferential orientation of the fabric in the basement rocks. In the studied case, Avdat was built directly on massive limestones. Thus, an input caused by rock anisotropy could be neglected. To avoid gravitational reasons for the city's destruction, the authors did not conduct the measurements on the slope of Avdat hill.

Avdat ruins have two perpendicular directions of walls (—NE 50° and —SE 140°), so the overall model can be represented as a single building (or room). To cause south-directed wall collapse by a compressional seismic wave, the shock should have come from south side. If the shock arrived exactly perpendicular to the NE-trending walls (i.e., from SW, Figure 23(a)

Figure 23a

Modelling of seismic wave's coming to Avdat town from SW (perpendicularly to walls with trend azimuth 130°-140°).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

), the shear stresses along walls should be minimal and the rotations should appear only occasionally.

In contrast, maximal shear stresses would result if the seismic wave approached the buildings along a bisector line between the walls (Figure 23(b)

Figure 23b

Modelling of seismic shock's coming to Avdat from SSE (under the angle 45° to walls of both directions).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

), i.e., from south. In this case rotations on both wall directions should be clearly pronounced, whereas both NE and SE-trending walls should reveal oriented collapse and inclinations to the south (SE and SW sides correspondingly).

In the case of Avdat the only NE-trending walls revealed oriented collapse and inclinations, and SE-trending walls demonstrate systematic counterclockwise rotations. Such a situation is possible if the compressional wave came from SSW (Figure 23(c)

Figure 23c

Modelling of seismic wave's coming to Avdat town from SSW.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

).

Thus, the epicenter was located somewhere SSW from the Avdat settlement, and the scale of destruction indicates that the epicenter was situated 15 km south of Avdat, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone. The force (seismic intensity) of a shock resulting in the destruction of buildings was determined using the scale of earthquake intensity MSK-64. Buildings in Avdat town according to this scale are classed as B type - buildings from natural hewed stones. Quantitative characteristics of destruction: most buildings were destroyed (more then 75%). According to the degree of destruction Avdat town is classified as fourth degree:

through cracks and breaks in the walls
collapse of building parts
breaking of connections between separate parts of buildings
collapse of internal walls and walls of framework filling

All these features of destruction show on IX-X intensity of seismic shock on territory of Avdat town.
...
The destruction was caused by a compressional seismic wave and the epicenter was located SSW of Avdat somewhere in central Negev. The degree of town destruction during the historical earthquake according to Seismic Intensity Scale MSK-64 was IX-X.

Early 2nd century CE Earthquake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Comments	Intensity
Collapsed Walls (based on rebuilding evidence)	residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter Oboda: general plan of the site and military camp. Stern et al (1993)		Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) noted "indirect evidence" of "substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE in which residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter were demolished and used as a source of building stone for later structures.	VIII +
Collapsed Walls (based on rebuilding evidence) Blocked Doorway (folded wall ?)	Roman/Byzantine residential quarter immediately outside the town wall and acropolis Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Fig. 6 Phase 1 structure (Rooms 24, 44, 27, 28), looking west. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	"The eastern wall of Room 28 (W66) was built of large, roughly-cut pieces of stone slabs laid on top of rows of smaller hewn stones. The lack of uniform construction may have been a result of a secondary stage or a repair of the building in the wake of earthquake damage to Oboda in the early second century CE, an event whose impact is known from other sites in the region (Erickson-Gini 2010:47; Erickson-Gini and Tuttle 2017:139–140). Nearly identical construction using rough flat stones of this type was found at nearby Ḥorbat Ḥaẓaẓa in repairs made to a structure that was damaged by earthquake in the early second century CE (Erickson-Gini 2019:167). ... The doorway between Rooms 24 and 44 in W64 was blocked. " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	VIII+ ?

This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Avdat/Oboda may be subject to a ridge effect.

4th century CE Earthquake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Comments	Intensity
Collapsed Vaults	Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults - Zion et al (2022)	VIII+
Collapsed Walls	Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults - Zion et al (2022)	VIII+
Collapsed Walls	Room 7 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)		one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "although Room 7 appears to have been used in Phase 3, it apparently collapsed, probably in the earthquake of 363 CE. This collapse of building stones, loose soil and air pockets was found together with late third to mid-fourth-century pottery, an inscribed glass vessel (see Gorin-Rosen, this volume: Fig. 12:1) and coins on the surface of the beaten earth floor." - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)	VIII+
Displaced walls surmised from blocked doorways (the blockage shoring up weakened walls)	Rooms 4, 7?, 17 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)	Fig. 25 Blocked doorway leading into Room 7 from Room 4, looking north Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways [rooms 4, 7, 17] and the collapse of one of the rooms [Room 7], as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) Doorways leading from this room [Room 4] into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)	VII+
Collapsed Arch	Room 4 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)	Fig. 1.78a Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE Erickson-Gini (2010)	In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper) - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) "A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)	VI+
Collapsed Roof (due to displaced walls)	Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms Stern et al (2008) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 1.77 Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations Erickson-Gini (2010)		"A fallen arch found buried in situ under the latest floor level in Room 4 (L604; 655.16 m asl) is of particular significance, as it apparently extended from a voussoir on the southern wall of the room (W48) and appears to have collapsed in the very same seismic event that destroyed Room 7 in 363 CE. The doorways connecting Rooms 4 and 7 were blocked after that event (Fig. 25). ... Voussoirs were found only in a handful of rooms, such as two in Room 22 (Fig. 26), one each in Rooms 23 and 37, three in Room 30 and four in Room 40. These rooms apparently had roofs made from stone slabs, several of which were found in situ, collapsed in Room 22. " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22)	VII+

This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Cave collapses were observed in the caves furthest upslope which suggests a ridge effect or what Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999) call a "sky-scraper effect".

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Event "Previous" or 7th century	Location	Image(s)	Comments	Intensity
Displaced Walls - TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER	"Previous"	Room 10 of Court in South Quarter Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	5 Figure 5 Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°. In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VII+
Displaced walls - SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES	"Previous"	Room 8 of Court in South Quarter Figure 3 Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints. Subvertical joints passing two stones. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	6 Figure 6 Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°. These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VII+
Displaced walls - NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES	"Previous"	N yard of bath-house	7a Figure 7a Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot. (a) View to northern yard corner Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 7b Figure 7b Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br> (b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997). For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VII+
Tilted Walls - SUPPORT-WALLS	"Previous"	Southern Church Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	8 Figure 8 Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VI+
Collapsed Walls and Collapsed Vaults - CAVE DESTRUCTIONS	"Previous"	Caves Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022) Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)		As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock. The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case). A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X. The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake. The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VIII+
Collapsed Walls Fallen Lintel (Displaced Walls)	"Previous"	Roman/Byzantine residential quarter immediately outside the town wall and acropolis Fig. 2 Site map and excavation location (marked by a red rectangle). Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Plan 1 The residential quarter, plan and sections. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	Fig. 38 Fig. 38 Collapse of W53 (early fifth century CE), looking southwest. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026) Fig. 37 Fig. 37 Fallen lintel in situ in Room 22. Click on image to open in a new tab Erickson-Gini et al. (2026)	"Examination of the numismatic and ceramic evidence revealed that the buildings were destroyed sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE, not in the 363 CE earthquake as previously assumed (Fabian 1996), as evinced by a fallen lintel found in situ (Fig. 37). Excavations carried out by Fabian in Building T inside the Byzantine town walls, and in small probes along the town wall in 1993 and 1994, revealed evidence of earthquake damage in earlier structures that were attributed to the 363 CE earthquake (Balouka 1999:40–41, n. 133). The 363 CE earthquake was a massive event and one of the best recorded in ancient history with a long list of affected towns and cities in Palestine. However, the evidence provided by the 1999 excavations, carried out on a much larger area outside of the town wall that was subsequently abandoned, shows unequivocally that the 363 CE earthquake only caused minor damage at the site. Significant earthquake damage only occurred a few decades later, in the early fifth century CE, the precise date of which is unknown. ... Wall 53 of Room 20 was found in a collapsed state, which was evidently brought about by the early fifth-century CE earthquake that ruined the entire residential quarter (Fig. 38). " - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:7-22) "In previous investigations, our team and colleagues considered that the 363 earthquake was responsible for the destruction and abandonment of this part of the site [Roman/Byzantine Quarter]; however, the discovery of forms of African Red Slip bowls that were imported after that date led to the conclusion that a later, local earthquake event, probably in the early fifth century, was responsible. This has been borne out by the numismatic evidence and particularly Coin No. 72 discovered in Room 35 (see Kool, this volume). This local earthquake event prompted major changes at the site: the area east of the acropolis and the Late Roman towers were abandoned, and the remains were stripped of building stone to be reused for construction and reconstruction further west. This includes the reconstruction of Negev’s ‘Roman Quarter’ (Negev 1997:62‒63; Erickson-Gini 2022:158‒159), and the construction of the town wall, the churches, the revetment walls on the south side of the temenos, and the Byzantine citadel attached to the temenos area (Negev 1997:45‒46, Photo 48; 95, Fig. 22; Erickson-Gini 2014:100). Significantly, following the earthquake, the town wall was constructed directly above the ruins of the western extension of the Phase 3 residential quarter, encircling a much-reduced town with only 19 domestic residences (Sion, Ashkenazi and Erickson-Gini 2024:354)." - Erickson-Gini et al. (2026:129-132)	VIII+ VII+

This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Avdat/Oboda may be subject to a ridge effect.

7th century CE earthquake

Intensity Estimate from the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Event "Previous" or 7th century	Location	Image(s)	Comments	Intensity
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS	7th century	WSW external wall of the Northern Church Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	4 Figure 4 Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process. Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part. All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VI +
Tilted and Collapsed Walls - INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS	mostly 7th century ?	various locations	9 Figure 9 Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 10 Figure 10 Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VIII+
Collapsed walls - COLLAPSE FEATURES	7th century ?	Agricultural Fences	11a Figure 11a Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 11b Figure 11b Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 12 Figure 12 Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls. It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VIII+
Displaced Masonry Blocks - ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS	7th century ?	Avdat Tower and wall in the southern quarter Plan of of Avdat Used with permission from BibleWalks.com Figure 3 Avdat Settlement Plan Zion et al (2022)	13 Figure 13 Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat (a) model of the drag (b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14a Figure 14a Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 14b Figure 14b Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) 15 Figure 15 Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14. For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°. The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)	VIII+
Warped or folded wall collapsed stone ceiling slabs (displaced walls) collapsed arch	7th century	Area A Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 1 Area A Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast. Erickson-Gini (2022)	In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). ... The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. - Erickson-Gini (2022)	VII+ VII+ VI+
collapsed stone ceiling slabs (displaced walls) collapsed arches rotated blocks in arch (displaced masonry blocks)	7th century	Area B Room 1 Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 2 Area B, plan and sections Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 8 Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west. Erickson-Gini (2022) Fig. 9 Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room [1] (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). - Erickson-Gini (2022)	VII+ VI+ VIII+
collapsed walls broken and fallen pottery collapsed arch	7th century	Area B Room 2 Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 2 Area B, plan and sections Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 15 Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast. Erickson-Gini (2022)	In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding. - Erickson-Gini (2022)	VIII+ VII+ VI+
collapsed walls (massive earthquake debris) collapsed bedrock shelves	7th century	Dipinti Cave in Area D Fig. 1 The excavation areas Erickson-Gini (2022) Plan 3 Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Fig. 16 Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north. Erickson-Gini (2022) Fig. 18 Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2. Erickson-Gini (2022)	Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). ... A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). - Erickson-Gini (2022)	VIII+ ?

This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Avdat/Oboda may be subject to a ridge effect.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)'s seismic characterization of the 7th century earthquake

As mentioned previously, Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) were able to sort a number of seismic effects by earthquake event - distinguishing whether the observed damage was due to the 7th century earthquake or one of the "previous" earthquakes (i.e the southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE and/or the 5th century CE earthquake). As such, one can have confidence in the Intensity estimate Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) produced for the 7th century earthquake. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)'s conclusion for the 7th century CE earthquake is that

The destruction was caused by a compressional seismic wave, the epicenter was located SSW of Avdat somewhere in central Negev, and the degree of town destruction [] according to Seismic Intensity Scale MSK-64 was IX-X.

Discontinuous Deformation Analysis by Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

Figures

Fig. 13 - Northern wall of the Roman Tower

Figure 13

A. The northern wall of the roman tower at Avdat. The five corner blocks are marked and their displacement direction is displayed with an arrow.

B. The DDA block system for the tower at Avdat. Five fixed points (squares) are assigned to the confining block, and five measurement points (circles) are assigned and numbered on corner blocks. 1,2 and 3 are three of the displaced blocks.

Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
Fig. 12 - Bulged Rocks on western wall

Figure 12

A The Roman tower in Avdat, a view of the western wall. The displaced blocks are numbered for reference.

B. The displaced blocks.

Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
Fig. 16A - Best - fit simulations
Figure 16

Best - fit simulations of the Avdat earthquake

A (left)
- A_h = l g
- A_v = 0
- f =3 Hz.
- D_h_av_max = 8 cm.
B (right)
- A_h = l.5 g
- A_v = 0
- f =5 Hz.
- D_h_av_max = 14 cm.
Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

Discussion

Kamai and Hatzor (2005) performed Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA) on a model (Fig. 13) for displaced blocks on the western wall of the Roman Tower (Fig. 12) of Avdat. The tower, dated to 294 AD, was founded directly on bedrock, and has risen to a height of 12 m, from which only 6 m are left standing today. (Kamai and Hatzor, 2005 citing Negev, 1997). The best-fit simulation (Fig. 16A) was run with the following seismic parameters:

A_h = l g
A_v = 0
f =3 Hz.
D_h_av_max = 8 cm.

Kamai and Hatzor (2005:133-134) did not present single best fit parameters due to various limitations so this parameterization, though consistent with other estimates of Intensity, should only be considered approximate. A PGA of 1 g converts to an Intensity of 9.3 using Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). Although Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) did not explicitly attribute the bulges in the Roman Tower to the 7th century CE earthquake, the high PGA that comes from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)'s simulations suggests that this is the case as the 7th century earthquake was apparently a powerful and destructive earthquake which both destroyed Avdat and led to its abandonment.

Kamai and Hatzor (2007) noted that seismic amplification can be at at play at higher parts of a structure (i.e. the "Sky-scraper effect" mentioned by Korzhenkov) leading to potential amplification of bedrock PGA by as much as 2.5. This could in turn lead to a bracket of PGA values for The Roman Tower from 0.4 and 1.0 g. These PGA values convert to Intensities of 7.8 - 9.3 using Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). A final result can thus be that DDA modeling of the Roman Tower suggests bedrock Intensities between 8 and 10 during this earthquake. Note that this ignores seismic amplification due to a ridge effect over the entire site. The ridge effect could add an additional amplification factor.

Variable	Input	Units	Notes
PGA		g	Peak Horizontal Ground Acceleration
Variable	Output - Site Effect not considered	Units	Notes
I		unitless	Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)

Model and Lab derived properties

Model was run in qk.mode using a sinusoidal input function. The authors noted that in the case of Avdat the obtained ground-motion parameters may be higher than reasonably expected (e.g. l g at Avdat). Therefore, they do not argue at this stage for exact historical ground motion restoration. Soil-structure and rock-structure interactions were not part of the analysis and considering that Avdat may be subject to a ridge effect, 1 g could be reasonable and could explain the unusual wall bulge at the Roman Tower at Avdat which appears to have been generated by a significant seismic force. Although the authors date this seismic effect to the 3rd or 4th century CE, Erickson-Gini (2014)'s characterization of the 363 CE earthquake as causing the least damage to the site of the 4 recognized earthquakes suggests that this is not the case.

**Lab Measurements of original stones from Avdat**
Property	Value	Units
Density	2555	kg./m³
Porosity	5	%
Dynamic Young's Modulus	54.2	Gpa
Dynamic Shear Modulus	20.4	Gpa
Dynamic Poisson's Ratio	0.33	unitless
Interface friction angle	35	degrees

Distinguishing 7th century effects from "Previous" earthquake effects

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) did not produce an Intensity or directional estimate for any of the earthquakes that preceded the 7th century CE event. However, by making use of their detailed descriptions of seismic effects and the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart, I produced Intensity estimates for both the 7th century CE earthquake and the "previous" one. "Previous" earthquake seismic effects were presumed to come from seismic effects associated with rebuilding as limited rebuilding should be associated with the 7th century earthquake. Although Bucking et al (2022) produced evidence of Umayyad and Abbasid occupation on the slopes below the acropolis, the upper acropolis area may have been destroyed and largely abandoned as archaeologists (e.g. Peter Fabian) have posited in the past. Although I cannot rigorously distinguish whether my "previous" earthquake Intensity estimate is for the southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE or the early 5th century CE earthquake, if Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) is correct that the southern Cyril Quake only caused some structural damage and the 5th century earthquake was massive, my Intensity estimate for the "previous" earthquake is likely effectively for the 5th century quake.

Topographic or Ridge Effect

Terrain Map

Avdat/Oboda

Google Maps

Citing a personal communication with Tali Erickson-Gini in 1996, Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999), noted increased seismic damage in upslope caves adjacent to the Avdat acropolis after the 363 CE earthquake. This suggests that a ridge effect may present at Avdat. A terrain map (above) shows that Avdat is situated at the end of a ~4 km. long ridge Avdat. Orientation of the ridge further indicates that seismic energy arriving from the NE or the SW (orthogonal to the ridge) would be most likely to produce seismic amplification at the site. A slope effect may also be at play as Avdat is surrounded by steep slopes on 3 sides.

References

Articles and Books

Bucking, S., et al. (2022). "The Avdat in Late Antiquity Project: uncovering the Early Islamic phases of a Byzantine town in the Negev Highlands." Antiquity 96(387): 754-761.

Bucking, S., et al. (2022). "The Avdat in Late Antiquity Project: uncovering the Early Islamic phases of a Byzantine town in the Negev Highlands." Antiquity: 1-8.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2000). Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the date of the camp at Avdat in light of recent excavations. XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Amman, Jordan.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2004). Crisis and Renewal: Settlement in the Negev in the 3rd and 4th Centuries CE, with an Emphasis on the Finds from the New Excavations in Mampsis, Oboda and Mesad ‘En Ḥazeva (Ph.D. diss.), Jerusalem

Erickson-Gini T. (2010) Nabataean Settlement and Self-Organized Economy in the Central Negev: Crisis and Renewal (BAR Int. S. 2054). Oxford.

Erickson-Gini, T. and I. Yigal (2013). "Excavating the Nabataean Incense Road." Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 1(1): 24-53.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014). "Oboda and the Nabateans." STRATA - Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 32.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2022) Evidence of a Late Byzantine Period Earthquake and a Monastic Stable at ‘Avedat (Oboda) ‘Atiqot 107

Erickson-Gini, T. (2026) A Roman and Early Byzantine Residential Quarter at Oboda (‘Avedat) (‘Avedat) ‘Atiqot 121, pp. 1-143

Fabian P. (1996). Evidence of Earthquake Destruction in the Archaeological Record. The Case of Ancient Avdat. Big Cities World (Conference on Natural Disaster Mitigation in Conjunction with the Tenth International Seminar on Earthquake Prognostics, Abstracts, January 5–10, 1996, Cairo, Egypt). Cairo. P. 25.

Fabian, P. (1998). Evidence of earthquakes destruction in the archaeological record–the case of ancient Avdat. Pp. 21E-26E in The Annual Meeting of the Israel Geological Society, Mitzpeh Ramon.

Goren, Y. and P. Fabian (2008). "The Oboda Potter's Workshop Reconsidered." Journal of Roman Archaeology 21.

Kamai, R. and Y. Hatzor (2005). Dynamic back analysis of structural failures in archeological sites to obtain paleo-seismic parameters using DDA. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on the Analysis of Discontinuous Deformation (ICADD-7).

Korzhenkov, A. and E. Mazor (1998). "Seismogenic Origin of the Ancient Avdat Ruins, Negev Desert, Israel." Natural Hazards 18: 193-226.

Korzhenkov, A. and E. Mazor (1999). "Structural reconstruction of seismic events: Ruins of ancient buildings as fossil seismographs." Science and New Technologies 1: 62-74.

Negev, A. (1974). The Nabatean Potter's Workshop at Oboda, Habelt.

Negev, A. (1986) The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda: Final Report , Qedem, v. 22, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Negev, A. (1986) The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda: Final Report , Qedem, v. 22, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - at JSTOR

Negev, A. (1991). The Temple of Obodas: Excavations at Oboda in July 1989 . Israel Exploration Journal, 41(1/3), 62–80. - at JSTOR

Negev, A. (1997) The Architecture of Oboda: Final report , Qedem, v. 36, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Negev, A. (1997) The Architecture of Oboda: Final report , Qedem, v. 36, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - at JSTOR

Rodkin, M. V. and A. M. Korzhenkov (2018). Estimation of maximum mass velocity from macroseismic data: A new method and application to archeoseismological data. Geodesy and Geodynamics.

Zion, O., Ashkenasi, Eli, Erickson-Gini, Tali , (2022). Byzantine Oboda / Avdat and the Surrounding Agricultural Regime. Archaeological Excavations and Research Studies in Southern Israel Collected Papers. A. Golani, Varga, Daniel, Tchekhanovets, Yana, Birkenfeld, Michal. 5.

Excavation Reports

Negev, A. (1997). "THe Architecture Of Oboda: Final Report." Qedem 36: III-214..

Websites

Avdat at BibleWalks.com

Avdat at Monastic Archaeology

Avdat at Madain Project

Bibliography from Stern et al (1993 v.3)

Main publications

A. Negev, The Nabatean Potter's Workshop at Oboda, Bonn 1974

id., Tempel, Kirchen und Cisternen, Stuttgart 1983, 53-96, 153-167, 181-192

id., The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Qedem 22), Jerusalem 1986.

Other studies

: E. H. Palmer, PEQ 3 (1871), 1-80

A. Jaussen et al., RB 13 (1904), 403-424

14 (1905), 78- 89, 235-244

M. J. Lagrange, CRAIBL (1904), 279-298

Musil, Arabia Petraea 2, Edom, 106-151; J. Cledat, Annales du Service des Antiquites de /'Egypte 10 ( 191 0), 234-237

12 (1912), 145-168

Woo HeyLawrence, PEFA 3, 93-107, 143-145

T. Wiegand, Sinai, Berlin 1921

M. Avi-Yonah, CNII0/3-4 (1959), 23-35

id., RB 67 (1960), 378-381

M. Avi-Yonah and A. Negev, ILN (Nov. 26, 1960), 944-947; A. Negev,!EJ9 (1959), 274-275

11 (1961), 127-138

13 (1963), 113-124

15 (1965), 185-194

17 (1967), 46-55

24 (1974), 153-159

36 (1986), 56-60

41 (1991), 62-80

id., Archaeology 14 (1961), 122-130

id., BTS 40 (1961), 4-13

id., Ariell6 (1966), 12-19

id., Cities oft he Desert, Tel Aviv 1966

id., PEQ 99 (1966), 89-98

101 (1969), 5-14

108 (1976), 125-133

114 (1982), 119-128

id., Die Nabataer: Ein vergessenes Volk am Totem Meer, Munich 1970, 48-51

id., RB 79 (1972), 381-398

80 (1973), 364-383

81 (1974), 397-420

83 (1976), 203-236

id., Aufsteig und Niedergang der romischen Welt 2/8, Berlin and New York 1977, 520-586

id., LA 28 (1978), 87-126

39 (1989), 129-142

id., MdB 19 (1981), 11-15, 28-31

id., The Greek lnscriptionsfrom the Negev, Jerusalem 1981, 11-45

id., Antike Welt 13 (1982), 2-33

id., Nabatean Archaeology Today, New York 1986

id., Qedem 22 (Review), JNES 50 (1991), 66-69

id., BAR 14/6 (1988), 30-31

J. Naveh, IEJ 17 (1967), 187-189

R. Rosenthal, ibid. 24 (1974), 95-96

D. Chen, LA 35 (1985), 291-296

J. Gunneweg et al., Jahrbuch des romisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 35 (1988), 315-345

S. Noja, Studio Semitica Neenan lranica (R. Macuch Fest.), Wiesbaden 1989, 187-194; J. A. Bellamy. Journal of Semitic Studies 35 (1990), 73-79.

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

Main publications

A. Negev, The Architecture of Oboda: Final Report (Qedem 36), Jerusalem 1997

ibid. (Reviews) BAR 24/6 (1998), 56. — NEA 61 (1998), 182. — BAIAS 17 (1999), 93–94. — AJA 104 (2000), 154. — BASOR 318 (2000), 84–85

T. Erickson-Gini, Crisis and Renewal: Settlement in the Negev in the 3rd and 4th Centuries CE, with an Emphasis on the Finds from the New Excavations in Mampsis, Oboda and Mesad ‘En Hazeva (Ph.D. diss.), Jerusalem (in prep.)

P. Fabian, The Development of the Roman Army at the Limits of the Empire: The Annexation of the Nabatean Kingdom and Its Implications—Avdat as a Test Case (Ph.D. diss.), Beer Sheva (in prep.)

Studies

M. Salzmann, Das Heilige Land 123/2–3 (1991), 11–14

H. Castritius, ZDPV 108 (1992), 82–91; A. Negev, ABD, 5, New York 1992, 6–7

id., BA 56 (1993), 141–142

id., Eretz 8/2 (1993), 35–44

id., ESI 12 (1993), 108–109

id., Aram 8 (1996), 67–87

id., Judaea and the Graeco-Roman World in the Time of Herod in the Light of Archaeological Evidence, Göttingen 1996, 219–251

id., OEANE, 1, New York 1997, 236–238

id., The Nabateans in the Negev (Reuben and Edith Hecht Museum Catalog 22

ed. R. RosenthalHeginbottom), Haifa 2003, 17*–20*

id., Petra Rediscovered: Lost City of the Nabataeans (ed. G. Markoe), London 2003, 101–105

S. Noja, Semitica: serta philologica (C. Tsereteli Fest.

eds. R. Contini et al.), Torino 1993, 183–188

O. Potchter & Y. Tepper, Studies in the Geography of Israel 14 (1993), ix–x

R. Snir, AbrNahrain 31 (1993), 110–125

P. Figueras, Aram 6 (1994), 284–285

M. Kropp, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 27 (1994), 165–174

G. Tahal, ESI 14 (1994), 130–133

Petra-Ez Zantur, Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen, 1: 1988–1992 (Terra Archäologica 2), by A. Bignasca et al., Mainz am Rhein 1996, 68–69

D. Testen, JNES 55 (1996), 281–293

L. Di Segni, Dated Greek Inscriptions from Palestine from the Roman and Byzantine Periods (Ph.D. diss.), 1–2, Jerusalem 1997

R. Sivan, The Conservation of Archaeological Sites in the Mediterranean Region (ed. M. de la Torre), Los Angeles 1997

R. Wenning, Religion und Gesellschaft 1 (1997), 179–201

H. Goldfus, Tombs and Burials in Churches and Monasteries of Byzantine Palestine (324–628 A.D.), 1–2 (Ph.D. diss., Princeton 1997), Ann Arbor, MI 1998, 70–80

A. M. Korjekov & E. Mazor, Natural Hazards 18 (1998), 193–226

H. Geva, Archaeological Sites in Israel, 4, Jerusalem 1999, 41–45

W. Zanger, BAR 25/4 (1999), 68–69

G. Lacerenza, Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino Oriente Antico 17 (2000), 105–114

S. G. Schmid, Die Feinkeramik der Nabatär: Typologie, Chronologie und kulturhistorische Hintergründe (Petra-Ez Zantur, Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen 2/1

Terra Archäologica 4), Mainz am Rhein 2000

O. Shamir & A. Baginski, ‘Atiqot 42 (2001), 243–260

T. Erickson-Gini, Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Amman, Jordan, 2–11.9.2000 (BAR/IS 1084

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R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Michmanim 16 (2002), 33*–38*

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Caves of Avdat

Description	Image	Reference
Caves on north slope	Figure 4 Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 4 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves on south slope	Figure 5 Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 5 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 1	Figure 6 Cave plans North 1 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 6 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 1	Figure 7 Cave plans North 1 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 7 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 2	Figure 8 Cave plans North 2 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 8 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2	Figure 9 Cave plans South 2 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 9 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 1	Figure 10 Cave plans South 1 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 10 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2	Figure 11 Cave plans South 2 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 11 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2	Figure 12 Cave plans South 2 Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson Zion et al (2022)	Fig. 12 - Zion et al (2022)
Aerial view of the southern slope	Figure 2 Aerial view of the southern slope at Avdat after the 2018 season, with inset showing final excavation of the southern compound after 2019 season (photograph by E. Alajem; inset by S. Bucking) Bucking et al (2022)	Fig. 2 - Bucking et al (2022)

Notes on the so-called Potter's Workshop

so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Obod

Photo 6

The khan, potter's workshop

Negev (1997:5)

Russell (1985) cited archeoseismic evidence for the Incense Road Quake at Avdat citing Negev (1961:123,125) and Negev (1974:24) where Russell (1985) states

At Avdat, an imperial coin struck at Alexandria and tentatively identified as Trajanic was apparently found in association with the collapse of the potter's workshop (Negev, 1974:24).

Ambraseys (2009) supplied the following comments:

Negev argues instead that these destructions were caused by invading Safaitic and Thamudic hordes in the mid first century (Negev 1976), basing his thesis on the period of pottery debris found in a workshop at Oboda. This solution might seem preferable, since it is best not to assume an earthquake unless there is written evidence for it. However, apart from the complexity of the multiple dates of the pottery discovered by Negev (and the fact that later potters often imitated earlier styles), the appearance of a second-century coin among the pottery (Russell 1981, 8) seems to refute his thesis. Of course, this coin does not prove that Oboda was destroyed by an earthquake; it merely shows that Negev has made a mistake. What may suggest an earthquake is the sheer severity and extent of the destruction. Russell believes that neither a Roman annexation of the territory nor sacking by Safaitic or Thamudic hordes could, in any case, have done so much damage.

Negev (1976:229) states

Several years ago I suggested, on account of the results of the excavations at Oboda, a new chronological division for the archaeological history of the Nabateans in the central Negev, based on three phases, focusing at that time my attention on what I named the Middle Nabatean Period. The archaeological data indicated that this period, which began at the end of the reign of Obodas II, terminated abruptly during the generation following the death of Aretas IV, after the middle of the first century CE. I attributed the destruction of Oboda and several road stations along the Petra-Gaza road to attacks of Arab tribes who penetrated from Arabia, and left their imprints in the thousands of Safaitic and Thamudic graffiti in the central Negev, to the east of the Arabah, and also in northern Arabia itself.

The evidence on which I based this chronological scheme was purely archaeological — pottery and coins under a destruction layer, and on the basis of the finds in the Nabatean potter's workshop at Oboda ¹⁴⁵ which all pointed to a break in the settlement of the central Negev sometime after the middle of the first century CE.

Goren and Fabian (2008) re-examined the so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda and concluded that it was probably a 2nd to early 3rd century CE mill-bakery in the Roman Quarter of town. They noted, among other things, that the original excavations by Negev of the "Potter's workshop" were in unstratified deposits, had coins dating from Hellenistic to the 3rd-4th centuries CE, and geochemical and minerological analysis indicated that the pottery found there appeared to be imported rather than made locally. This suggests that Negev's original hypothesis that the so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda showed a break in occupation in the 1st century CE due to invasion (as Negev suggested) or an earthquake (as Russell (1985) proposed) is not supported by the evidence.

Negev's Notes on Retaining Walls and a post 3rd century CE Earthquake

Negev (1961) identified several phases of occupation at Avdat one of which, dated by inscriptions, began in the third century CE. Negev (1961: 126) noted that during this Late Roman/Byzantine occupation phase, the retaining walls were "probably shattered by a strong earthquake" and were repaired by "adding a second, rounded wall, screening the original one". A precise date for the archeoseismic damage was not supplied.

Wikipedia pages

Avdat

from wikipedia

Incense trade route

from wikipedia

Obodas I

from wikipedia