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Avdat/Oboda

Aerial View of Avdat Avdat Acropolis Left

Orthophoto of Avdat

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www.govmap.gov.il.

Right

Oblique Aerial View of Avdat Acropolis

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Etan Tal (איתן טל) - German Wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0


Names

Transliterated Name Source Name
Avdat Hebrew עבדת
Abdah, Abde Arabic عبدة
Oboda Ancient Greek Ὀβόδα
Ovdat
Obodat
Introduction
Introduction

Avdat started out in the 3rd or 4th century BCE as a Nabatean way station on the Incense Road (Avraham Negev in Stern et al, 1993). By the 1st century BCE, the town was named Oboba after Nabatean King Obodas I. It was occupied continuously until it was abandoned perhaps as late as the 9th or 10th centuries CE. Situated at the end of a ~4 km. long ridge, Avdat may have suffered from seismic amplification during past earthquakes as it may be subject to a topographic or ridge effect.

Identification

Oboda was named for a Nabatean king, whose name has been preserved in the Arabic 'Abdah. The Tabula Peutingeriana shows Oboda to have been situated on the main Aila (Elath)-Jerusalem road. It has been identified by all scholars with Eboda of Arabia Petraea mentioned by Ptolemy (V, 17, 4). However, according to this writer, Ptolemy's Eboda was a village east of the Arabah and thus, this identification is unacceptable. Oboda ('Οβοδα) is also mentioned by Uranius, quoted by Stephanus of Byzantium. It appears in a papyrus from Nessana (no. 39), tentatively dated to the sixth century CE. Its identification with 'Abdah is certain, in view of the similarity of the ancient and the Arabic names and the geographical locations. Furthermore, the name Oboda occurs in third-century CE Nabatean-Greek inscriptions found at Oboda. The site lies in the Negev desert on a spur of a mountain ridge running from southeast to northwest (map reference 1278.0228). At its highest point it is 655 m above sea level

History

Oboda was founded at the end of the fourth or the beginning of the third century BCE as a station on a junction on the caravan routes from Petra and Aila to Gaza. Temples were constructed there during the reigns ofObodas III (30-9 BCE) and Aretas IV (9 BCE-40 CE). During that period it became an important center for sheep, goat, and camel breeding and the manufacture of Nabatean pottery. The military camp for the camel corps guarding the caravan routes, which stood northeast of the town, may also date from that time. During the reign of Malichus II (40-70 CE), Oboda suffered destruction at the hands of pre-Islamic Arab tribes. Under Rabbel II (70-106 CE), agricultural projects were developed in the vicinity, as is evidenced by dedicatory inscriptions on libation altars found there.

Oboda was not adversely affected by the annexation of the Nabatean kingdom and the rest of the Negev into the Provincia Arabia in 106 CE. The second and third centuries were a period of great prosperity for the town, and in the third century CE a suburb was constructed on the southern spur of the city's ridge, in part on the ruins of Nabatean residences. An old Nabatean temple was dedicated to the local Zeus (Zeus Oboda) and a shrine to Aphrodite was built on the acropolis, apparently on the spot where a former Nabatean sanctuary had stood. A large catacomb (en-Nusrah) was dug into the southwestern slope. Construction in the Late Roman town went on as late as 296 CE.

In the time of Diocletian, the town was incorporated in the defense system of the eastern Roman Empire. Early in his reign, a fortress was built on the eastern half of the acropolis hill. Part of the local population was mobilized to serve as a militia against threatening Arab tribes. The payments from the imperial military treasury helped in the town's economy. With the advent of Christianity in the Negev, by the middle of the fourth century, two churches and a monastery replaced the pagan temples. Most of the remains of agricultural works in the town's vicinity belong to this period, when its economy rested, at least in part, on the cultivation of a fine variety of grapes and wine production. Oboda was abandoned after the Arab conquest in 636 CE

Exploration

U. J. Seetzen was the first traveler to reach 'Abdah (l807). In 1838, E. Robinson located Oboda at 'Auja el-Hafir (later identified as Nessana). The town was surveyed by E. H. Palmer and T. Drake in 1870. In the summer of 1902, A. Musil conducted a more detailed survey, and in the winter of 1904 'Abdah was thoroughly explored by A. Jaussen, R. Savignac, and L. H. Vincent on behalf of the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique in Jerusalem. In 1912, the site was visited by a team headed by C. L. Woolley and T. E. Lawrence, on behalf of the Palestine Exploration Fund. W. Bachmann, C. Watzinger, and T. Wiegand, serving as officers of the unit for the Preservation of Monuments attached to the German-Turkish army, came to the area in 1916 and drew precise sketches of the churches and some architectural details. In 1921, A. Alt published a corpus of the Oboda inscriptions known at that time.

The exploratory soundings made at 'Abdah by the Colt expedition brought to light the large Late Nabatean building at the southern end of the town and investigated the southwestern tower of the Late Roman-Byzantine fortress, which they identified as Hellenistic. Extensive excavations were undertaken from April 1958 until June 1961 by theN ational Parks Authority. The 1958 excavations were directed by M. Avi-Yonah and those of 1959-1961 by A. Negev. In 1975, 1976, and 1977, excavations at Oboda were conducted on behalf at the Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums, directed by Negev and R. Cohen. In 1989, excavations were again conducted on behalf of the Hebrew University, directed by Negev.

Excavations

1999–2000

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Sections, and Photos
Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Sections, and Photos

Maps

  • Terrain Map of Avdat
    Terrain Map for Avdat/Oboda

    click on image to see this in a new tab in Google Maps
    showing how the site may be subject to a ridge effect

Aerial Views

  • Annotated Satellite Image (google) of
    Annotated Satellite Image (google) of Avdat

    Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
    Avdat from biblewalks.com
  • Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
    Figure 1

    Avdat, looking east

    1. Army Camp from Roman Period
    5. Residential District
    6. Acropolis
    7. Cave City Avdat - W slope
    8. Cave City Avdat - E slope
    9. Orchards and Winepresses ?
    10. Orchards
    11. Orchards
    12. Orchards
    13. "Cave of the Saints"

    (Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

    Zion et al (2022)
    Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
  • Avdat/Oboda in Google Earth
    Avdat/Oboda

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Avdat/Oboda on govmap.gov.il
    Avdat/Oboda

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Magnified

Area Plans

Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)
  • Fig. 1.72 Plan and Photo
    Fig. 1.72

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations, plan and photo

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    of Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.73 Plan of      
    Fig. 1.73

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, occupational phases and rooms

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter with Phases and Rooms from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.77 Detailed Plan of
    Fig. 1.77

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Magnified

  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)
  • Fig. 1.72 Plan and Photo
    Fig. 1.72

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations, plan and photo

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    of Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.73 Plan of      
    Fig. 1.73

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, occupational phases and rooms

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter with Phases and Rooms from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.77 Detailed Plan of
    Fig. 1.77

    Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Magnified

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Army Camp

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1.70 Army Camp from
    Fig. 1.70

    The 1999 excavation of the army camp at Oboda

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Erickson-Gini (2010)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1.70 Army Camp from
    Fig. 1.70

    The 1999 excavation of the army camp at Oboda

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Erickson-Gini (2010)

Sections

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1.71a Cross section of
    Fig. 1.71a

    Cross section of the principia in the army camp at Oboda

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    the principia in the army camp from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.79 Photo and section of
    Fig. 1.79

    Room 23 in situ plaster on wall 55, and b. section drawing of the room

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Room 23 in Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1.71a Cross section of
    Fig. 1.71a

    Cross section of the principia in the army camp at Oboda

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    the principia in the army camp from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.79 Photo and section of
    Fig. 1.79

    Room 23 in situ plaster on wall 55, and b. section drawing of the room

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    Room 23 in Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)

Photos

  • Fig. 2 Warped external wall
    Fig. 2

    Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 3 arch springer along
    Fig. 3

    Area A, the arch springer along the northern interior of W1, looking northwest

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    the northern interior of Wall W1 in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 4 remains of earlier
    Fig. 4

    Area A, remains of earlier wall over which W1 was constructed and the line of stones (W5), looking west

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    wall over which Wall W1 was constructed in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 5 southern wall (W3)
    Fig. 5

    Area A, the southern wall (W3) and the foundation of original western W1 on the right, looking south

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and the foundation of original western Wall W1 on the right in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 6 repairs in the
    Fig. 6

    Area A, repairs in the northern wall (W2), looking north.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    northern wall (W2) in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 8 Collapsed arches
    Fig. 8

    Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in
    Fig. 9

    Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 10 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 10

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 11 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 11

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 15 Remains of pantry
    Fig. 15

    Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    in L2/01 of Room 2 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock
    Fig. 16

    Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    shelf fronting cave above Dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 18 probe in front of
    Fig. 18

    Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Dipinti Wall in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 19 blocked entrance of
    Fig. 19

    Area D, blocked entrance of Dipinti Cave, looking north

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Dipinti Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 1.78a Fallen arch
    Fig. 1.78a

    Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    attributed to 363 CE earthquake in Room 4 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.78b Crushed Pottery
    Fig. 1.78b

    Vessels crushed under the collapse of Room 7, phase 3, early fifth c. CE

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    attributed to 5th c. CE earthquake in Room 7 Phase 3 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.80a Fallen lintel on
    Fig. 1.80a

    Fallen lintel on the floor of Room 22

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Fig. 1.80b In situ brazier
    Fig. 1.80b

    In situ brazier made from a “Gaza” wine jar on same floor [Room 22]

    Erickson-Gini (2010)
    made from a “Gaza” wine jar on the floor of Room 22 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine Quarter from Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Photo 6 So-called Potter's
    Photo 6

    The khan, potter's workshop

    Negev (1997:5)
    Workshop and Khan from Negev (1997:5)
  • Photo of so-called Potter's
    So-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda

    (JW: or so I thought at the time - I could be wrong)

    Photo by Jefferson Williams
    Workshop (?) by Jefferson Williams

Chronology
Chronology of earthquakes at Avdat

Archeological excavations have uncovered several earthquakes which struck Avdat/Oboda. Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) noted approximate dates and Intensities:

  1. Substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE
  2. Some damage due to an earthquake in 363 CE.
  3. A massive earthquake in the early 5th century CE
  4. A massive earthquake in the early 7th century CE [JW: recent work (2022) may suggest this should revised to the 7th century rather than the early 7th century]
Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) conducted two archaeoseismic surveys at Avdat and were able to distinguish between 7th century CE seismic effects and effects from a "previous" earthquake where the "previous" earthquake would likely be the massive earthquake in the early 5th century CE.

Early 2nd century CE Earthquake

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) described the early 2nd century earthquake as follows:

There is indirect evidence of a more substantial destruction in the early 2nd century CE in which residential structures from the earliest phase of the Nabataean settlement east of the late Roman residential quarter were demolished and used as a source of building stone for later structures. Destruction from this earthquake is well attested particularly nearby at Horvat Hazaza, and along the Petra to Gaza road at Mezad Mahmal, Sha'ar Ramon, Mezad Neqarot and Moyat `Awad, and at `En Rahel in the Arava as well as at Mampsis (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003).
Erickson-Gini and Israel (2013) added
Evidence of an early second-century CE earthquake is found at other sites along the Incense Road at Nahal Neqarot, Sha'ar Ramon, and particularly at the head of the Mahmal Pass where an Early Roman Nabataean structure collapsed (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003; Erickson-Gini 2011). There is ample evidence of the immediate reconstruction of buildings at Moyat ‘Awad, Sha'ar Ramon, and Horvat Dafit. However, this does not seem to be the case with the Mahmal and Neqarot sites.
Erickson-Gini and Israel (2013) discussed seismic damage at Moyat ‘Awad due to this earthquake
The Early Roman phase of occupation in the site ended with extensive damage caused by an earthquake that took place shortly before the Roman annexation of the region in 106 CE (Korjenkov and Erickson-Gini 2003). The building in Area C and the kiln works were destroyed, and the cave dwellings were apparently abandoned as well. Reconstruction was required in parts of the fort. At this time, deposition from its floors was removed and thrown outside of the fort and a new bath as well as heating were constructed in its interior. Along its eastern exterior and lower slope, rooms were added. Thus, the great majority of the finds from inside the fort and its ancillary rooms date to the latest phase of its occupation in the Late Roman, post-annexation phase, the latest coins of which date to the reign of Elagabalus (219–222 CE).

4th century CE Earthquake

Aerial Views and Plans

Aerial Views and Plans

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
    Figure 1

    Avdat, looking east

    1. Army Camp from Roman Period
    5. Residential District
    6. Acropolis
    7. Cave City Avdat - W slope
    8. Cave City Avdat - E slope
    9. Orchards and Winepresses ?
    10. Orchards
    11. Orchards
    12. Orchards
    13. "Cave of the Saints"

    (Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

    Zion et al (2022)
    Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
    Figure 1

    Avdat, looking east

    1. Army Camp from Roman Period
    5. Residential District
    6. Acropolis
    7. Cave City Avdat - W slope
    8. Cave City Avdat - E slope
    9. Orchards and Winepresses ?
    10. Orchards
    11. Orchards
    12. Orchards
    13. "Cave of the Saints"

    (Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

    Zion et al (2022)
    Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Discussion

Erickson-Gini (2010:87-88) reports that Avbat/Oboda sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake. In the Late Roman/Early Byzantine Residential Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95) reports that Room 7 apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake as it was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Further structural damage was indicated in Room 4 where a row of fallen arch stones were found and doorways between Room 4 and Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked. Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008:1984-1985) also reported a blocked doorway(s) in Room 17 and possibly Room 7 as well. Dating of the collapse in Room 7 may have been assisted via pottery, coins, and other items which were recovered in a protected corner of the room (Erickson-Gini, 2010:91-95).

References
Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).1

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.2 A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).
Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).1

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):
  1. The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

  2. Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

  3. The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

  4. The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

  5. By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.
...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

Renewed Excavations

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a.

Excavation Results

Three definitive architectural phases were revealed in the residential quarter. To the first phase belong three rooms of an early structure (rooms 24, 27–28, 44) located on the eastern edge of the area and dated to the first century CE, possibly a Nabatean caravansary or residential structure. Some of the stones used in this structure were very large and the building appears to have covered an area of at least 40 sq m, including a large central courtyard.

A house and courtyard 19 from the second phase (rooms 6–7, 12–13) were uncovered a few meters west of this early building. The walls were preserved to almost their full height and a stone-lined channel was located in the courtyard. A coarse ware krater of a type generally dated to the later first century CE was buried below the earthen floor in an interior room. Coins found below floors of other rooms in the house date to the late second–early third centuries CE. The pottery recovered in the building indicates that it was occupied from the late first or early second centuries CE until its abandonment in the early third century. A small bronze statuette was found in room 13. A small chamber located under a stairwell in this structure appears to have served as a pantry (room 6). It contained at least 60 complete pottery and glass vessels that appear to have been stacked on wooden shelves, including late Nabatean painted ware bowls, Nabatean unguentaria, and Eastern terra sigillata wares, together with vessels dated to the early third century CE. Several Nabatean and Late Roman cooking pots were also uncovered. Large animal bones were found in the upper layer of this deposit, possibly cuts of salted meat that hung above the shelves. The material finds from this phase belong to the latest period of international trade along the Petra–Gaza road and include the latest form of Nabatean unguentaria, used to package perfumed oils produced at Petra before the collapse of international trade routes through Arabia, Egypt, and Syria in the third century CE.

The architecture and material finds from the third occupational phase, dating to the fourth century CE, differ radically from those found in earlier phases. The change appears to be the result of the shift in the economic base of the inhabitants of the site by the end of the third century CE, when they were compelled to turn to agricultural production following the col lapse of international trade through the region. In this phase, three rooms of the earlier house were completely filled in, and thin plaster floors were laid over the fill (rooms 6, 12–13). Only one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. The surface above the collapsed debris, which filled this room to its full height, was used late in that century.

Also during this phase, starting around 300 CE, the area between the earlier structures and the northern tower, which was probably constructed in the late third century CE, was built up and occupied. A narrow alley ran from east to west towards the tower; at least five simple dwellings were constructed on either side of it. These dwellings had irregular plans, their main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms cut into the bedrock. Earthen floors over bedrock were encountered in all the rooms except for one (room 11), which was stone paved. A stone lintel with a tabula ansata was found on the floor of this room. A primitive depiction of a man working an olive-oil press was scratched onto the stone. Several rooms contained arch springers and evidence of ceilings constructed of stone slabs. Glass windowpanes were found near one of the dwellings. Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways and the collapse of one of the rooms, as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). On one of the plaster walls of room 23 were several lines of Nabatean script written in black ink. This inscription, found in a context dated to the late fourth or early fifth century CE, is the latest known Nabatean inscription in the Negev. The translation of the inscription reads: “In good memory and peace from Dushara. To our Lord Senogovia. [?]. Gadio his son. Plasterer. Nani.”

A courtyard area to the northeast of these dwellings contained two large clay tabuns. In the courtyard of one dwelling (room 38), the stone base of a large oven and stone workbench were found. The central courtyards of the dwellings were apparently used for food preparation, as the upper halves of Gaza wine jars dating to the fourth century CE were used as braziers in all the courtyards. Intact pottery vessels and oil lamps were found in situ throughout the houses. Other finds from this phase include grinding stones, bronze spatulae, and glass bracelets. fully integrated into the inter-regional trade of agricultural produce, particularly wine, by the end of the fourth century.

The numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE. Following this second, local earth quake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. The town wall, encountered above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area, was later constructed sometime in the early fifth century CE.

Summary

The 1999–2000 excavation of the residential quarter has provided a wealth of information about the site in the Early Roman through early Byzantine periods, during which the site appears to have been occupied continuously. In addition, the excavations revealed information concerning the important transitional phase in its history, when its inhabitants were forced to abandon their principal means of livelihood with the cessation of international trade through the region in the third century CE. The succeeding period in the fourth century CE witnessed the rapid expansion of agricultural production and inter-regional trade of agricultural products, particularly wine, in the wake of the large-scale Late Roman military build-up in the eastern provinces. At Oboda this military build-up may be reflected in the erecting of the southern and possibly northern tower around 293/4 CE, as well as the construction of the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis. (This camp was excavated extensively in 1999–2000 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority.)

An examination of the ceramic finds reveals that the economic transition that took place in the third and early fourth centuries CE did not affect ties between the inhabitants of the site and Petra and southern Jordan. A decline in wares originating in southern Jordan found at Oboda in the later fourth century appears to have occurred in the period following the 363 CE earthquake. By the beginning of the fifth century CE, when the residential quarter was destroyed and abandoned, Oboda had already become fully integrated into the inter-regional economic network of southern Palestine.

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Aerial Views and Plans

Aerial Views and Plans

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
    Figure 1

    Avdat, looking east

    1. Army Camp from Roman Period
    5. Residential District
    6. Acropolis
    7. Cave City Avdat - W slope
    8. Cave City Avdat - E slope
    9. Orchards and Winepresses ?
    10. Orchards
    11. Orchards
    12. Orchards
    13. "Cave of the Saints"

    (Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

    Zion et al (2022)
    Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Aerial Overview of
    Figure 1

    Avdat, looking east

    1. Army Camp from Roman Period
    5. Residential District
    6. Acropolis
    7. Cave City Avdat - W slope
    8. Cave City Avdat - E slope
    9. Orchards and Winepresses ?
    10. Orchards
    11. Orchards
    12. Orchards
    13. "Cave of the Saints"

    (Photogrammetry: Yaakov Shmidov).

    Zion et al (2022)
    Avdat from Zion et al (2022)
  • Late Roman/early Byzantine
    Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

    Stern et al (2008)
    quarter occupational phases and room from Stern et al (2008)

Discussion

Erickson-Gini (2014) described an early 5th century earthquake at Avdat/Oboda:
A massive earthquake took place in the early 5th century CE, substantial evidence of which was uncovered in the late Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010a: 91-93). All of the structures east of the town wall were abandoned and used as a source of building stone for the late Byzantine town. Following this earthquake, massive revetment walls were constructed along the southern wall of the acropolis in order to shore up the heavily damaged walls. In contrast, the late Byzantine citadel adjoining the temenos area of the acropolis has no revetment walls, certainly due to its construction following the earthquake. The two churches inside the temenos area were built using numerous early Roman ashlars and architectural elements originally from the Obodas Temple damaged in the earthquake.
Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008) noted that numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings [of the late Roman and early Byzantine residential quarter] were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE adding that following this second, local earthquake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. In Area A of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2022) found floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse which may be remains from an early 5th century CE collapse. They also found an earlier version of Wall 1 which may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE and which, according to Erickson-Gini (2022), corresponds to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100). Erickson-Gini (2022) also noted that in the Dipinti cave on the southern slope of the Acropolis in Area D, a niche in the wall appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the Dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94).

Zion et al (2022:30) reports that the quarters for the soldiers of the Roman army camp, located east of and adjacent to the Acropolis, were destroyed in an early 5th century CE earthquake.

An early 5th century earthquake suggests the 419 CE Monaxius and Plinta Quake which may be corroborated by archaeoseismic evidence in Yotvata.

Negev (1989) provided a wider range of dates for this earthquake which entertains the possibility that this archaeoseismic evidence was caused by the hypothesized Negev Quake which, if real, is dated to around 500 CE.
A decisive factor in determining this phase is the dating of a series of earthquakes, one or more of which shattered numerous buildings in some of the towns of the central Negev. Although literary evidence is scarce, there is ample archaeological evidence that testifies to these disasters. At Oboda the entire length of the old southern Nabatean retaining wall was thrust outwards, and for this reason it had to be supported by a heavy, slanting supporting wall. Similarly much damage was caused to a massive tower of the Nabatean period, identified in July 1989 as the temple of Obodas (?), which in the Late Roman - early Byzantine period was incorporated in the citadel occupying the eastern half of the acropolis hill. Most of the damage was caused to the western and southern walls of the temple, and for this reason these too had to be supported by still heavier stone taluses, blocking the original entrance to the temple on the southern wall. It is against this talus that the South Church was built. Similar damage was also caused to some of the nearby buildings in the so-called Roman Quarter south of the temple. We may thus place the date of the earthquake between the end of the third century A.D., when the latest building in this quarter was constructed, and A.D. 541, when the Martyrium of St. Theodore was already being used as a burial ground.
References
Erickson-Gini (2022)

Plans and Photos

Plans and Photos

Plans

Area Plans

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Magnified

Photos

  • Fig. 2 Warped external wall
    Fig. 2

    Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 8 Collapsed arches
    Fig. 8

    Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in
    Fig. 9

    Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 10 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 10

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 11 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 11

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock
    Fig. 16

    Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    shelf fronting cave above dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Excerpts
Introduction

In 2012, salvage excavations were carried out in three areas in ‘Avedat National Park (Fig. 1), near and within the acropolis (Areas A, B; map ref. 178250/522720) and at the foot of the site’s western slope (Area D; map ref. 178188/522584).1 The excavations were initiated to facilitate restoration work (Area A) and following damage to the site when electric lines were dug to provide lighting for the acropolis (Area B).

Area A was opened in the western half of a room in a building located at the northwestern end of the main street of the ‘Roman Quarter’ (henceforce, ‘Roman/Byzantine Quarter’). Area B (50 sq m) was located along the northern exterior of a building south of the acropolis, near the South Church. Here, an exterior courtyard with a baking oven and pantry (Room 2) and the remains of another room (Room 1), were uncovered; all collapsed due to an earthquake sometime in the early seventh century CE. The probe in Area D was conducted along the southern exterior of a wall covered with red-painted dipinti, built in front of a cave.
Footnotes

The excavations (Permit No. A-6391) were directed by the author, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and were funded by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA), who also provided the workers. The probe in Area D was also conducted by the author on behalf of the IAA and was underwritten by DePaul University. It was part of a documentation project carried out by the author and Scott Bucking (DePaul University), who assisted in the excavation in front of the collapsed cave in Area D. Assistance was provided by Mark Kunin and Avraham Hajian (surveying), Natalia Zak (drafting), Irena Lidski-Reznikov (pottery drawings), Lena Kupershmidt (cleaning of metal finds), Donald T. Ariel (numismatics) and Yael Gorin-Rosen (glass analysis). Photographs are by the author and Scott Bucking (Area D). I wish to thank the park manager, Nili Dvash, and the INPA Southern District Archaeologist, Orit Bortinik, for their aid and support.

History of Research

The Architectural Remains

The ancient town of ‘Avedat (Greek: Oboda; Arabic: Abdeh), located along the Petra–Gaza road (popularly referred to as the ‘Incense Route’), shows evidence of seasonal occupation by the Nabataeans in the third–second centuries BCE, with extensive remains on the upper plateau overlying bedrock. In the late first century BCE, the Nabataeans built a temple dedicated to the deified king Obodas at the western end of the upper plateau, and a town was established on the eastern and southern parts of the site. Hundreds of caves were hewn into the western slope of the site, which was apparently a necropolis in pre-Christian times.

Following an earthquake in the early fifth century CE, settlement in the town shifted westward and many of the caves were converted for use as dwellings and stables. In the late Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE), two churches were built on the acropolis, where the earlier Western Temple had stood. In this period, a wall was built around the town and a citadel was added to the temenos area of the acropolis (Negev 1997:6–9).

... Evidence of destruction by earthquake, leading to the abandonment of the town in the seventh century CE, was exposed by Fabian in 1993 south of the acropolis in Building T (unpublished; Permit No. A-1991; but see Fabian 1996). In 1999, the author uncovered evidence of an early fifth-century CE earthquake destruction in a residential quarter situated east of the acropolis and the Middle Byzantine (450–550 CE) town wall (Erickson-Gini 2010:91–95).

The Caves

The man-made caves of ‘Avedat first attracted study in the twentieth century, beginning with Musil in 1902 (1907:127–151, Figs. 65, 96–119). The caves and some dipinti were documented by Jaussen, Savignac and Vincent (1904; 1905), who were the first to suggest that they had been re-used for habitation. In 1914, Woolley visited the site and proposed that the caves initially served as Nabataean tombs, followed by a phase of re-use as dwellings in the Byzantine period (Woolley and Lawrence 1914–1915:99–100).

The most extensive excavation of a cave dwelling in ‘Avedat was carried out in the 1960s by Negev (1997:157–169), who exposed a large, multi-roomed complex on the lowest terrace of the western slope, referred to as the ‘Saints’ Cave’, due to a dipinti-intensive wall in one of the rooms featuring images of Saint George and Saint Theodore. These dipinti led Figueras to suggest in his 1995 gazetteer of monastic sites that the ‘Saints’ Cave’ may have been inhabited by a monastic community (1995:434). Negev differed, holding that the cave served a general population only, for ordinary habitation. He proposed that some of the other caves at the site originally functioned as tombs, possibly from the Middle Nabataean (Early Roman) period (Negev 1997:137).

Area A

In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). In the southern part of W1 was a space that originally accommodated an arch springer, and in the northern part of the wall was the stone construction of a second springer and a pilaster (Fig. 3). The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. A scant number of poorly preserved bronze coins from this layer (L102, B18) were found; they could not be identified but their size indicates that they may be sixth-century CE nummi (Donald T. Ariel, pers. comm.).

A probe in the southwestern corner of the room revealed that W1 was built over the remains of an earlier wall (Fig. 4). Finds dated to the late Byzantine period were revealed at the bottom of W1. Below the foundations of W1, in L1/03, flush with the lowest courses of the southern wall (W3), were finds from the fourth century CE, indicating that the original building was constructed sometime in the early Byzantine period. The probe also revealed floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse (Fig. 5). A line of stones (W5; length 1.1 m) was roughly parallel to W1 at a depth of 2.25 m; it may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE. These correspond to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100).

Area B

The excavation here revealed an open courtyard and a room situated along the northern exterior of a large structure east of the winepress excavated by Tahal (1995:113–114, Fig. 130) and south of the main entrance of the citadel on the acropolis. The building is part of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter and at least two revetment walls were built against the long part of its northern wall (W5) and its eastern corner (Negev 1997:5, Photograph 7). The revetment walls confirm that like the structure in Area A, repairs and additions to the building were carried out in the early fifth century CE. The exterior courtyard (Room 2) was built against the northern wall, between the northern revetment (W5) and a small room (Room 1) discovered in a collapsed state further west, near the northwestern corner of the structure.

Both Room 1 and the courtyard (Room 2) were built along pre-existing ashlar W4, which extends 12.3 m from the northwestern corner of the building to revetment W5 (Plan 2). Wall 4 was renovated to insert an arch springer and an arch pilaster in Room 1 (Fig. 7; Plan 2: Section 2–2). Room 1, slightly irregular in shape (c. 16 sq m), shares its northern wall (W6) with the courtyard (Room 2). Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). The arch stones uncovered in Room 1 were decorated with incised and red-painted frames (Fig. 10); one stone features incised and red-painted crossed lines (Fig. 11). A 2 × 2 m probe below the collapse in the southwestern corner of Room 1 (L1/03, L1/04) revealed a dirt floor. The foundation of the building and W1 were built directly over bedrock (Fig. 12). Hellenistic and Early Roman period pottery was discovered directly above bedrock in this corner (L1/04). The excavation did not reveal an entrance into the room; access may have been by way of a stairway like that found leading into the courtyard, perhaps under the collapse.

The courtyard (Room 2; c. 4 × 6 m; Plan 2) was accessed via three steps that descended from a higher level, outside the building, close to revetment W5 (Fig. 13). The lower part of a bag-shaped storage jar was found sunken into the floor, directly in front of the stairs. A stepped entrance into the main building, at the back of the courtyard along W4, led into an unexcavated area that also appears to have been an open courtyard (Fig. 14). In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding.

No coins were found in Area B despite careful sifting of the material from the earthen floors in both rooms.

Area D

Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). Facing south and founded on bedrock, the dipinti Wall (8.7 m long, 0.77 m wide; Plan 3; Fig. 17) stands to its full height (2.92 m high) in front of rooms hewn into bedrock on the southern slope below the acropolis. A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). The opening into the cave, in the middle of the wall, is 1.7 m high and 0.75 m wide; its threshold is 0.2 m above bedrock. The lower part of the entryway was found blocked with building stones to a height of 0.38 m (Fig. 19), apparently in the late Byzantine period, to prevent animals and debris from entering the cave. A niche (0.35 m wide, 0.38 m high, 0.15 m deep) in the wall, east of the doorway (Fig. 20), appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94). The later reinforcement of the interior wall incorporated limestone blocks, whereas the original wall had been constructed from a harder type of limestone. The average size of the hard stones used for the exterior face of the wall is 0.42 × 0.25 × 0.14 m. Four ‘slit’ windows are located near the top of the wall and the doorway (Fig. 21). The red-painted figure of a bearded man appears above the right corner of the niche and to the right of one of the slit windows (Figs. 22, 23) is probably a depiction of St. Theodore, a soldier saint for whom a cult was founded in the ‘Avedat South Church (Bucking 2017; Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:29). Red-painted dipinti, primarily in the form of crosses and crosses within circles, appear on the lintel and on either side of the doorway (Figs. 24–26). A red-painted figure, possibly of a man wearing a tunic and holding a sword, is to the left of the entrance (Fig. 27), together with representations of what may be a wagon (Fig. 28), a ship (Fig. 29) and a fringed object (Fig. 30).

The exterior of the dipinti Wall is somewhat perpendicular to W2, at its eastern edge. Wall 2 is the western side of an exterior wall in front of another cave, east of the dipinti Cave. It was built on a high bedrock outcrop, 2.73 m above the surface in front of the dipinti Wall, and exposed for 1.95 m of its length. At the top of W2 is a niche, directly under the bedrock shelf (Fig. 31). Mud-mortar mixed with large pieces of straw was found between the stones at the top of the wall to the right of the niche, well-protected by the bedrock overhang. A red-painted cross within a circle is below the lower right corner of the niche in W2 (Fig. 32), and another red-painted cross within a circle is on the interior face of W2 in the second cave (Fig. 33).

The interior of the dipinti Cave includes two rooms (Plan 3). The southern, main room (8.78 m wide east–west, 6.35 m long north–south, 2.22 m high) is partitioned by a hewn east– west wall (3.25 m long) on its western side, some 2.6 m from the back wall. The eastern side is decorated with red-painted dipinti (Fig. 34). A cupboard niche (0.72 m high, 0.33 deep), decorated with red-painted dipinti, was hewn on the interior of the dipinti Wall, west (right) of the doorway (Fig. 35). It seems to have been large enough to accommodate a wooden shelf. Three carved niches (Fig. 36) surrounded by red-painted dipinti (Figs. 37, 38) were in the eastern wall, and a large triangular carved niche was in the western wall (Fig. 39). The niches and the decoration on the eastern wall may indicate that this room served as a place of worship for a monastic community (Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:32–33).

The irregularly shaped back room (3.71 m high) of the dipinti Cave was accessed through a carved doorway (1.83 m high, 0.6 m wide, 0.64 m deep; Fig. 40). Carved slots on either side of the doorway for a bolt, and part of a carved frame at the doorway’s bottom, reveal that it originally accommodated a wooden door (Figs. 41, 42). The southern wall (2.31 m long, preserved height 2.06 m) of the back room separates it from a large (probably Roman-period) plastered cistern that was accessed from the upper terrace (Fig. 43). This wall was partly hewn and partly built of heavy blocks.

A probe was conducted near the exterior face of the dipinti Cave; the excavated soil was carefully sifted for pottery and other finds. The upper level of the collapse contained modern artifacts—scraps of newspapers in Hebrew, Arabic and English, as well as sherds of Black Gaza Ware, commonly found in the region during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries CE. The upper layer of debris contained finds from recent centuries and the Early Islamic period (eighth–ninth centuries CE) while below it were layers of organic debris including animal manure and finds from earlier periods (seventh century CE; late Byzantine and Early Umayyad periods). The upper layer extended above the level of the threshold of the doorway. A final layer of deposition (0.2 m deep) containing Roman material was revealed below this, extending down to bedrock. A shallow depression (0.46 × 0.20 m) hewn into the bedrock was found east of the doorway.

Summary and Conclusions

The 2012 excavations at ‘Avedat revealed important evidence regarding the effects of earthquakes on the Byzantine-period occupation in Areas A and B and the use of a cave on the southern slope of the site by a monastic community in Area D. The author previously uncovered evidence of a destructive seismic event at the site that occurred in the early fifth century CE in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, directly outside the middle Byzantine town wall east of the acropolis (Erickson-Gini 2010:90–95). Substantiation of this particular event may be inferred by the construction of heavy revetment walls along the southern side of the temenos, i.e., the western part of the acropolis, as well as the construction of smaller revetments against private houses such as that of Area B. However, the excavations appear to provide the first definitive testimony of earthquake damage and subsequent rebuilding in a stratigraphical context. ‘Avedat met its final devastation at the end of the late Byzantine period, postdating the latest epitaph found in the South Church (617 CE), dating to the first half of the seventh century CE.

The most dramatic testimony of earthquake damage was in Area B, in rooms that had been added to the northern exterior of an earlier building, presumably following damage by an earlier earthquake in the early fifth century CE. The rooms appear to have been attached to the earlier building next to a heavy revetment wall located to the east. This building is situated in close proximity to the South Church and the discovery of part of a marble paten in the pantry in Room 2 raises the possibility that the building was occupied by church personnel.

Western Room 1 in Area B appears to have been roofed with heavy stone slabs supported by arches. The heavy collapse remained in situ on the eastern side of the room but further excavation on the western side revealed stone archers bearing incised, red-painted decoration. Room 2 seems to have been kind of a sunken open courtyard, in front of the main entrance into the structure, accessed by means of stairs leading down from the northeastern corner, opposite a baking oven. A number of bag-shaped storage jars found sunken into the earthen floor of the room probably served to store grain for grinding and baking. A similar baking oven, also located in the corner of an open courtyard, was uncovered by the author in Room 38 in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter in ‘Avedat (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). Noteworthy is the mentioning of a baking oven and courtyard in a sale contract between a civilian and a soldier, dated c. 566/7 CE, in the Niẓẓana archive (Colt 1962:259). Unusual is the presence of a pantry in the southeastern corner of the courtyard near the wide entrance into the main building. This small space was used to store cooking and other vessels, including a glass bottle (Fig. 51:2), that were probably placed on wooden shelves. An unusual find in the pantry was part of a marble paten with faded black ink patterns of crosses and circles (Fig. 49). The ceramic and glass vessels in the pantry and the rest of the courtyard, including the latest form of a Gaza wine jar (Fig. 46:9), point to a late Byzantine date in the first half of the seventh century CE. However, there were no organic finds or coins that could have provided a more precise date for the destruction of the rooms.

The dipinti Cave, located on the southern slope below the acropolis in Area D, completes the picture of the late Byzantine occupation at the site. The extant wall in front of the cave apparently dates to the Roman period, based on the fragment of a molded Judean Southern Lamp (Fig. 44:17) and a glass fragment (Fig. 51:1), both produced during the Roman period. Red-painted Christian motifs, such as crosses, were added to the early wall. It seems that this wall too underwent structural damage, probably due to the early fifthcentury CE earthquake. After this event, the interior of the wall was repaired, and a window was blocked. The motifs discovered on the dipinti Wall and in the cave interior, particularly on the eastern wall, deep inside the cave, point to its use by a monastic community. Figueras (1995:434) discussed the existence of monastic communities in ‘Avedat in the South Church and the structure in front of the Cave of the Saints. The winepresses situated in proximity to both the South Church and the Cave of the Saints deserve our attention. The use of the dipinti Cave by such a community may have been encouraged by the presence of the large cistern of an earlier (Roman?) date located on the tier just above and behind the dipinti Cave. Additionally, access to walled gardens, fields and a large winepress located below the cave on the plain to the south of ‘Avedat would have also attracted the community. Layers of organic material (animal manure) outside the cave indicate that the rooms in front of the dipinti Wall served for stabling animals. Stabling animals in close proximity to dwellings was customary in the region among the poorer segments of the population and continued up until modern times (Canaan 1933:35, 70).

Epigraphic evidence from earlier excavations in ‘Avedat show that donkeys and camels were regularly used to bring produce from the fields (Erickson-Gini 2012:53, Fig. 5). The position of the cave and its external rooms well-suited the commanding of the plain below and, among other things, may have been an indication of ownership. According to Canaan, it was customary in this region for low-lying fields to belong to those occupying higher ground (Canaan 1933:53); the higher location within the protected walls of the Byzantine town allowed the inhabitants to easily observe and guard the fields during harvest.

The earthquake that destroyed the site at the end of the late Byzantine period, presumably in the first half of the seventh century CE, appears to have destroyed a room of the cave in front of the dipinti Wall. Extant walls c. 10 m south of the dipinti Wall apparently belong to the same structure that incorporated the dipinti Cave. In the Early Islamic (Abbasid) period, visitors who frequented the cave, probably because of the cistern, left debris on the ruins of the collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the dipinti Wall. Also found in the debris above the collapse were finds from the Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods, among them pieces of Arabic- and English-language newspapers. Unlike many red-painted dipinti in the ‘Avedat caves, those on the dipinti Wall are particularly well-preserved due to the cave’s location on the south-slope facing, thereby ensuring minimum exposure to sunlight.

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).1

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.2 A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).
Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).1

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):
  1. The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

  2. Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

  3. The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

  4. The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

  5. By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.
...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

Renewed Excavations

In 1999–2000 an area located east of the Byzantine town wall and the north tower at Oboda was excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The excavation was directed by T. Erickson-Gini. It revealed a residential quarter with a series of dwellings covering an area of approximately 0.25 a.

Excavation Results

Three definitive architectural phases were revealed in the residential quarter. To the first phase belong three rooms of an early structure (rooms 24, 27–28, 44) located on the eastern edge of the area and dated to the first century CE, possibly a Nabatean caravansary or residential structure. Some of the stones used in this structure were very large and the building appears to have covered an area of at least 40 sq m, including a large central courtyard.

A house and courtyard 19 from the second phase (rooms 6–7, 12–13) were uncovered a few meters west of this early building. The walls were preserved to almost their full height and a stone-lined channel was located in the courtyard. A coarse ware krater of a type generally dated to the later first century CE was buried below the earthen floor in an interior room. Coins found below floors of other rooms in the house date to the late second–early third centuries CE. The pottery recovered in the building indicates that it was occupied from the late first or early second centuries CE until its abandonment in the early third century. A small bronze statuette was found in room 13. A small chamber located under a stairwell in this structure appears to have served as a pantry (room 6). It contained at least 60 complete pottery and glass vessels that appear to have been stacked on wooden shelves, including late Nabatean painted ware bowls, Nabatean unguentaria, and Eastern terra sigillata wares, together with vessels dated to the early third century CE. Several Nabatean and Late Roman cooking pots were also uncovered. Large animal bones were found in the upper layer of this deposit, possibly cuts of salted meat that hung above the shelves. The material finds from this phase belong to the latest period of international trade along the Petra–Gaza road and include the latest form of Nabatean unguentaria, used to package perfumed oils produced at Petra before the collapse of international trade routes through Arabia, Egypt, and Syria in the third century CE.

The architecture and material finds from the third occupational phase, dating to the fourth century CE, differ radically from those found in earlier phases. The change appears to be the result of the shift in the economic base of the inhabitants of the site by the end of the third century CE, when they were compelled to turn to agricultural production following the col lapse of international trade through the region. In this phase, three rooms of the earlier house were completely filled in, and thin plaster floors were laid over the fill (rooms 6, 12–13). Only one room of the earlier structure appears to have been utilized in the fourth century CE (room 7), and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. The surface above the collapsed debris, which filled this room to its full height, was used late in that century.

Also during this phase, starting around 300 CE, the area between the earlier structures and the northern tower, which was probably constructed in the late third century CE, was built up and occupied. A narrow alley ran from east to west towards the tower; at least five simple dwellings were constructed on either side of it. These dwellings had irregular plans, their main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms cut into the bedrock. Earthen floors over bedrock were encountered in all the rooms except for one (room 11), which was stone paved. A stone lintel with a tabula ansata was found on the floor of this room. A primitive depiction of a man working an olive-oil press was scratched onto the stone. Several rooms contained arch springers and evidence of ceilings constructed of stone slabs. Glass windowpanes were found near one of the dwellings. Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways and the collapse of one of the rooms, as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). On one of the plaster walls of room 23 were several lines of Nabatean script written in black ink. This inscription, found in a context dated to the late fourth or early fifth century CE, is the latest known Nabatean inscription in the Negev. The translation of the inscription reads: “In good memory and peace from Dushara. To our Lord Senogovia. [?]. Gadio his son. Plasterer. Nani.”

A courtyard area to the northeast of these dwellings contained two large clay tabuns. In the courtyard of one dwelling (room 38), the stone base of a large oven and stone workbench were found. The central courtyards of the dwellings were apparently used for food preparation, as the upper halves of Gaza wine jars dating to the fourth century CE were used as braziers in all the courtyards. Intact pottery vessels and oil lamps were found in situ throughout the houses. Other finds from this phase include grinding stones, bronze spatulae, and glass bracelets. fully integrated into the inter-regional trade of agricultural produce, particularly wine, by the end of the fourth century.

The numismatic and ceramic evidence uncovered in this third phase indicate that the dwellings were destroyed in a violent earthquake several decades after that of 363 CE. Following this second, local earth quake, the area was abandoned and many of the building stones were robbed. The town wall, encountered above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area, was later constructed sometime in the early fifth century CE.

Summary

The 1999–2000 excavation of the residential quarter has provided a wealth of information about the site in the Early Roman through early Byzantine periods, during which the site appears to have been occupied continuously. In addition, the excavations revealed information concerning the important transitional phase in its history, when its inhabitants were forced to abandon their principal means of livelihood with the cessation of international trade through the region in the third century CE. The succeeding period in the fourth century CE witnessed the rapid expansion of agricultural production and inter-regional trade of agricultural products, particularly wine, in the wake of the large-scale Late Roman military build-up in the eastern provinces. At Oboda this military build-up may be reflected in the erecting of the southern and possibly northern tower around 293/4 CE, as well as the construction of the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis. (This camp was excavated extensively in 1999–2000 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority.)

An examination of the ceramic finds reveals that the economic transition that took place in the third and early fourth centuries CE did not affect ties between the inhabitants of the site and Petra and southern Jordan. A decline in wares originating in southern Jordan found at Oboda in the later fourth century appears to have occurred in the period following the 363 CE earthquake. By the beginning of the fifth century CE, when the residential quarter was destroyed and abandoned, Oboda had already become fully integrated into the inter-regional economic network of southern Palestine.

7th century CE Earthquake

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 2 - Aerial view of the
    Figure 2

    Aerial view of the southern slope at Avdat after the 2018 season, with inset showing final excavation of the southern compound after 2019 season

    (photograph by E. Alajem; inset by S. Bucking)

    Bucking et al (2022)
    southern slope at Avdat from Bucking (2022)
  • Fig. 4 - South-western section
    Figure 4

    South-western section chronology in context

    (photographs by T. Erickson-Gini)

    Bucking et al (2022)
    chronology from Bucking (2022)
  • Fig. 5 - from Bucking (2022)
    Figure 5

    1. Western section sampling
    2. northern section sampling
    3. reference photo for samplings, showing passageway to the cave after clearing of the northern section


    (photographs by D. Fuks)

    Bucking et al (2022)

Discussion

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) discussed the early 7th century earthquake.
The destruction of the town by a massive earthquake sometime in the early 7th century CE was one piece of a puzzle not mentioned by Negev. The earthquake certainly occurred after the latest inscription found at the site in the Martyrion of St. Theodore (South Church) in 617 CE (Negev 1981: 37). Direct evidence of the destruction and abandonment of the site was uncovered by Fabian, with massive destruction evident throughout the site, and particularly along the western face of the site with its extensive caves and buildings (Korjenkov et al., 1996). Mezad Yeruham, several kms further south, was apparently destroyed at the same time (Y. Baumgarten, personal communication), while the earthquake left a trail of damage at numerous sites. This is indicated by the early seventh-century construction of revetment walls around churches and private houses at Sobota (Shivta), Sa'adon, Rehovot in-the-Negev, and Nessana. Compared to other Nabataean sites in the Negev Highlands that indicate a continued occupation through the late Byzantine period well into the early Islamic period in the 9th c., Oboda was devoid of settlement in the early Islamic period. In place of a central town, such as Sobota (Shivta), Rehovot in-the-Negev, or Nessana, a significant number of early Islamic farming villages — many with open-air mosque — were found in close proximity to Oboda.
Later excavations, however, uncovered evidence for substantial human activity in the caves on the slope during the Early Islamic period, c. AD 650–900 (Bucking et al., 2022:1). Investigations focused on the 2ha residential sector, which comprises hundreds of rock-hewn dwellings built in terraces along the northern, southern and western slopes immediately below this necropolis (Shereshevski 1991: 38–42; see Figure 2). Site chronology was established using radiocarbon dating along with ceramics. These results were described as follows:
Radiocarbon results were surprising: while a sample of straw extracted from mortar in the dipinti-intensive cave vestibule wall yielded dates within the expected Byzantine range, nine samples from the organic, dung-enriched south-western section were of Umayyad–Abbasid date, ranging from 1190–1320±30 BP/AD 650–890 (Figure 4) (Bucking & Erickson-Gini 2020). Three newly obtained dates from the northern and western sections yielded Abbasid dates (Figure 5): two from a substantial organic layer in the northern section, and one in the western section, where Abbasid Mefjer/Buff Ware (Cytryn-Silverman 2010) further corroborated this result (Figure 6). The emerging extended chronology enriches ongoing debate surrounding the fate of Negev Highland settlement in the Early Islamic period, especially that regarding continuities and discontinuities of site use between the Byzantine, Umayyad and Abbasid periods (e.g. Magness 2003; Avni 2008; Butler et al. 2020).
Erickson-Gini (2022) found evidence for what they surmised was the 7th century CE earthquake in a cave on the southern slope of the acropolis (Area D) and in some buildings in the Roman-Byzantine Quarter (Areas A and B). In the cave, a bedrock shelf collapsed leaving massive earthquake debris and in the Roman-Byzantine Quarter, Erickson-Gini (2022) encountered evidence of collapsed, folded and/or displaced walls, collapsed ceilings, broken and fallen pottery, and fallen arches including one arch springer that appears slightly rotated. Erickson-Gini (2022) dated the destruction based on ceramics and although they were able to establish a fairly secure Late Byzantine terminus post quem, the terminus ante quem was not well established - presumably due to a lack of overlying occupational layers.

References
Erickson-Gini (2022)

Plans and Photos

Plans and Photos

Plans

Area Plans

Dipinti Cave (Area D)

Normal Size

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Magnified

  • Fig. 1 Excavation Areas A, B,
    Fig. 1

    The excavation areas

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and D from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Plan 3 plan of dipinti
    Plan 3

    Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Cave in Area D from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Areas A and B in Roman/Byzantine Quarter

Normal Size

Magnified

Photos

  • Fig. 2 Warped external wall
    Fig. 2

    Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    in Area A from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 8 Collapsed arches
    Fig. 8

    Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    and ceiling slabs in Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 9 Rotated Blocks in
    Fig. 9

    Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 of Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 10 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 10

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 11 Arch Stone from
    Fig. 11

    Area B, arch stone with incised, red-painted lines and frame from the collapse in Room 1.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    Room 1 in Area B from Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • Fig. 16 Collapsed bedrock
    Fig. 16

    Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

    Erickson-Gini (2022)
    shelf fronting cave above dipinti Cave from Erickson-Gini (2022)

Excerpts
Introduction

In 2012, salvage excavations were carried out in three areas in ‘Avedat National Park (Fig. 1), near and within the acropolis (Areas A, B; map ref. 178250/522720) and at the foot of the site’s western slope (Area D; map ref. 178188/522584).1 The excavations were initiated to facilitate restoration work (Area A) and following damage to the site when electric lines were dug to provide lighting for the acropolis (Area B).

Area A was opened in the western half of a room in a building located at the northwestern end of the main street of the ‘Roman Quarter’ (henceforce, ‘Roman/Byzantine Quarter’). Area B (50 sq m) was located along the northern exterior of a building south of the acropolis, near the South Church. Here, an exterior courtyard with a baking oven and pantry (Room 2) and the remains of another room (Room 1), were uncovered; all collapsed due to an earthquake sometime in the early seventh century CE. The probe in Area D was conducted along the southern exterior of a wall covered with red-painted dipinti, built in front of a cave.
Footnotes

The excavations (Permit No. A-6391) were directed by the author, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and were funded by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority (INPA), who also provided the workers. The probe in Area D was also conducted by the author on behalf of the IAA and was underwritten by DePaul University. It was part of a documentation project carried out by the author and Scott Bucking (DePaul University), who assisted in the excavation in front of the collapsed cave in Area D. Assistance was provided by Mark Kunin and Avraham Hajian (surveying), Natalia Zak (drafting), Irena Lidski-Reznikov (pottery drawings), Lena Kupershmidt (cleaning of metal finds), Donald T. Ariel (numismatics) and Yael Gorin-Rosen (glass analysis). Photographs are by the author and Scott Bucking (Area D). I wish to thank the park manager, Nili Dvash, and the INPA Southern District Archaeologist, Orit Bortinik, for their aid and support.

History of Research

The Architectural Remains

The ancient town of ‘Avedat (Greek: Oboda; Arabic: Abdeh), located along the Petra–Gaza road (popularly referred to as the ‘Incense Route’), shows evidence of seasonal occupation by the Nabataeans in the third–second centuries BCE, with extensive remains on the upper plateau overlying bedrock. In the late first century BCE, the Nabataeans built a temple dedicated to the deified king Obodas at the western end of the upper plateau, and a town was established on the eastern and southern parts of the site. Hundreds of caves were hewn into the western slope of the site, which was apparently a necropolis in pre-Christian times.

Following an earthquake in the early fifth century CE, settlement in the town shifted westward and many of the caves were converted for use as dwellings and stables. In the late Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE), two churches were built on the acropolis, where the earlier Western Temple had stood. In this period, a wall was built around the town and a citadel was added to the temenos area of the acropolis (Negev 1997:6–9).

... Evidence of destruction by earthquake, leading to the abandonment of the town in the seventh century CE, was exposed by Fabian in 1993 south of the acropolis in Building T (unpublished; Permit No. A-1991; but see Fabian 1996). In 1999, the author uncovered evidence of an early fifth-century CE earthquake destruction in a residential quarter situated east of the acropolis and the Middle Byzantine (450–550 CE) town wall (Erickson-Gini 2010:91–95).

The Caves

The man-made caves of ‘Avedat first attracted study in the twentieth century, beginning with Musil in 1902 (1907:127–151, Figs. 65, 96–119). The caves and some dipinti were documented by Jaussen, Savignac and Vincent (1904; 1905), who were the first to suggest that they had been re-used for habitation. In 1914, Woolley visited the site and proposed that the caves initially served as Nabataean tombs, followed by a phase of re-use as dwellings in the Byzantine period (Woolley and Lawrence 1914–1915:99–100).

The most extensive excavation of a cave dwelling in ‘Avedat was carried out in the 1960s by Negev (1997:157–169), who exposed a large, multi-roomed complex on the lowest terrace of the western slope, referred to as the ‘Saints’ Cave’, due to a dipinti-intensive wall in one of the rooms featuring images of Saint George and Saint Theodore. These dipinti led Figueras to suggest in his 1995 gazetteer of monastic sites that the ‘Saints’ Cave’ may have been inhabited by a monastic community (1995:434). Negev differed, holding that the cave served a general population only, for ordinary habitation. He proposed that some of the other caves at the site originally functioned as tombs, possibly from the Middle Nabataean (Early Roman) period (Negev 1997:137).

Area A

In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). In the southern part of W1 was a space that originally accommodated an arch springer, and in the northern part of the wall was the stone construction of a second springer and a pilaster (Fig. 3). The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. A scant number of poorly preserved bronze coins from this layer (L102, B18) were found; they could not be identified but their size indicates that they may be sixth-century CE nummi (Donald T. Ariel, pers. comm.).

A probe in the southwestern corner of the room revealed that W1 was built over the remains of an earlier wall (Fig. 4). Finds dated to the late Byzantine period were revealed at the bottom of W1. Below the foundations of W1, in L1/03, flush with the lowest courses of the southern wall (W3), were finds from the fourth century CE, indicating that the original building was constructed sometime in the early Byzantine period. The probe also revealed floor slabs, apparently from an upper floor, and archers from an earlier collapse (Fig. 5). A line of stones (W5; length 1.1 m) was roughly parallel to W1 at a depth of 2.25 m; it may be the remains of a stone course that had collapsed from original W1 in the early fifth century CE. These correspond to a blockage in the northern wall (W2; Fig. 6) in the early fifth century CE, when the site was damaged by a local earthquake, evidence of which was discovered by the author in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter nearby (Erickson-Gini 2010:91– 95; 2014:100).

Area B

The excavation here revealed an open courtyard and a room situated along the northern exterior of a large structure east of the winepress excavated by Tahal (1995:113–114, Fig. 130) and south of the main entrance of the citadel on the acropolis. The building is part of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter and at least two revetment walls were built against the long part of its northern wall (W5) and its eastern corner (Negev 1997:5, Photograph 7). The revetment walls confirm that like the structure in Area A, repairs and additions to the building were carried out in the early fifth century CE. The exterior courtyard (Room 2) was built against the northern wall, between the northern revetment (W5) and a small room (Room 1) discovered in a collapsed state further west, near the northwestern corner of the structure.

Both Room 1 and the courtyard (Room 2) were built along pre-existing ashlar W4, which extends 12.3 m from the northwestern corner of the building to revetment W5 (Plan 2). Wall 4 was renovated to insert an arch springer and an arch pilaster in Room 1 (Fig. 7; Plan 2: Section 2–2). Room 1, slightly irregular in shape (c. 16 sq m), shares its northern wall (W6) with the courtyard (Room 2). Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). The arch stones uncovered in Room 1 were decorated with incised and red-painted frames (Fig. 10); one stone features incised and red-painted crossed lines (Fig. 11). A 2 × 2 m probe below the collapse in the southwestern corner of Room 1 (L1/03, L1/04) revealed a dirt floor. The foundation of the building and W1 were built directly over bedrock (Fig. 12). Hellenistic and Early Roman period pottery was discovered directly above bedrock in this corner (L1/04). The excavation did not reveal an entrance into the room; access may have been by way of a stairway like that found leading into the courtyard, perhaps under the collapse.

The courtyard (Room 2; c. 4 × 6 m; Plan 2) was accessed via three steps that descended from a higher level, outside the building, close to revetment W5 (Fig. 13). The lower part of a bag-shaped storage jar was found sunken into the floor, directly in front of the stairs. A stepped entrance into the main building, at the back of the courtyard along W4, led into an unexcavated area that also appears to have been an open courtyard (Fig. 14). In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding.

No coins were found in Area B despite careful sifting of the material from the earthen floors in both rooms.

Area D

Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). Facing south and founded on bedrock, the dipinti Wall (8.7 m long, 0.77 m wide; Plan 3; Fig. 17) stands to its full height (2.92 m high) in front of rooms hewn into bedrock on the southern slope below the acropolis. A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). The opening into the cave, in the middle of the wall, is 1.7 m high and 0.75 m wide; its threshold is 0.2 m above bedrock. The lower part of the entryway was found blocked with building stones to a height of 0.38 m (Fig. 19), apparently in the late Byzantine period, to prevent animals and debris from entering the cave. A niche (0.35 m wide, 0.38 m high, 0.15 m deep) in the wall, east of the doorway (Fig. 20), appears to have originally been a window that was blocked on the eastern side of the back of the dipinti Wall when it was reinforced, possibly following damage by the earthquake in the early fifth century CE (see Erickson-Gini 2010:90–94). The later reinforcement of the interior wall incorporated limestone blocks, whereas the original wall had been constructed from a harder type of limestone. The average size of the hard stones used for the exterior face of the wall is 0.42 × 0.25 × 0.14 m. Four ‘slit’ windows are located near the top of the wall and the doorway (Fig. 21). The red-painted figure of a bearded man appears above the right corner of the niche and to the right of one of the slit windows (Figs. 22, 23) is probably a depiction of St. Theodore, a soldier saint for whom a cult was founded in the ‘Avedat South Church (Bucking 2017; Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:29). Red-painted dipinti, primarily in the form of crosses and crosses within circles, appear on the lintel and on either side of the doorway (Figs. 24–26). A red-painted figure, possibly of a man wearing a tunic and holding a sword, is to the left of the entrance (Fig. 27), together with representations of what may be a wagon (Fig. 28), a ship (Fig. 29) and a fringed object (Fig. 30).

The exterior of the dipinti Wall is somewhat perpendicular to W2, at its eastern edge. Wall 2 is the western side of an exterior wall in front of another cave, east of the dipinti Cave. It was built on a high bedrock outcrop, 2.73 m above the surface in front of the dipinti Wall, and exposed for 1.95 m of its length. At the top of W2 is a niche, directly under the bedrock shelf (Fig. 31). Mud-mortar mixed with large pieces of straw was found between the stones at the top of the wall to the right of the niche, well-protected by the bedrock overhang. A red-painted cross within a circle is below the lower right corner of the niche in W2 (Fig. 32), and another red-painted cross within a circle is on the interior face of W2 in the second cave (Fig. 33).

The interior of the dipinti Cave includes two rooms (Plan 3). The southern, main room (8.78 m wide east–west, 6.35 m long north–south, 2.22 m high) is partitioned by a hewn east– west wall (3.25 m long) on its western side, some 2.6 m from the back wall. The eastern side is decorated with red-painted dipinti (Fig. 34). A cupboard niche (0.72 m high, 0.33 deep), decorated with red-painted dipinti, was hewn on the interior of the dipinti Wall, west (right) of the doorway (Fig. 35). It seems to have been large enough to accommodate a wooden shelf. Three carved niches (Fig. 36) surrounded by red-painted dipinti (Figs. 37, 38) were in the eastern wall, and a large triangular carved niche was in the western wall (Fig. 39). The niches and the decoration on the eastern wall may indicate that this room served as a place of worship for a monastic community (Bucking and Erickson-Gini 2020:32–33).

The irregularly shaped back room (3.71 m high) of the dipinti Cave was accessed through a carved doorway (1.83 m high, 0.6 m wide, 0.64 m deep; Fig. 40). Carved slots on either side of the doorway for a bolt, and part of a carved frame at the doorway’s bottom, reveal that it originally accommodated a wooden door (Figs. 41, 42). The southern wall (2.31 m long, preserved height 2.06 m) of the back room separates it from a large (probably Roman-period) plastered cistern that was accessed from the upper terrace (Fig. 43). This wall was partly hewn and partly built of heavy blocks.

A probe was conducted near the exterior face of the dipinti Cave; the excavated soil was carefully sifted for pottery and other finds. The upper level of the collapse contained modern artifacts—scraps of newspapers in Hebrew, Arabic and English, as well as sherds of Black Gaza Ware, commonly found in the region during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries CE. The upper layer of debris contained finds from recent centuries and the Early Islamic period (eighth–ninth centuries CE) while below it were layers of organic debris including animal manure and finds from earlier periods (seventh century CE; late Byzantine and Early Umayyad periods). The upper layer extended above the level of the threshold of the doorway. A final layer of deposition (0.2 m deep) containing Roman material was revealed below this, extending down to bedrock. A shallow depression (0.46 × 0.20 m) hewn into the bedrock was found east of the doorway.

Summary and Conclusions

The 2012 excavations at ‘Avedat revealed important evidence regarding the effects of earthquakes on the Byzantine-period occupation in Areas A and B and the use of a cave on the southern slope of the site by a monastic community in Area D. The author previously uncovered evidence of a destructive seismic event at the site that occurred in the early fifth century CE in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter, directly outside the middle Byzantine town wall east of the acropolis (Erickson-Gini 2010:90–95). Substantiation of this particular event may be inferred by the construction of heavy revetment walls along the southern side of the temenos, i.e., the western part of the acropolis, as well as the construction of smaller revetments against private houses such as that of Area B. However, the excavations appear to provide the first definitive testimony of earthquake damage and subsequent rebuilding in a stratigraphical context. ‘Avedat met its final devastation at the end of the late Byzantine period, postdating the latest epitaph found in the South Church (617 CE), dating to the first half of the seventh century CE.

The most dramatic testimony of earthquake damage was in Area B, in rooms that had been added to the northern exterior of an earlier building, presumably following damage by an earlier earthquake in the early fifth century CE. The rooms appear to have been attached to the earlier building next to a heavy revetment wall located to the east. This building is situated in close proximity to the South Church and the discovery of part of a marble paten in the pantry in Room 2 raises the possibility that the building was occupied by church personnel.

Western Room 1 in Area B appears to have been roofed with heavy stone slabs supported by arches. The heavy collapse remained in situ on the eastern side of the room but further excavation on the western side revealed stone archers bearing incised, red-painted decoration. Room 2 seems to have been kind of a sunken open courtyard, in front of the main entrance into the structure, accessed by means of stairs leading down from the northeastern corner, opposite a baking oven. A number of bag-shaped storage jars found sunken into the earthen floor of the room probably served to store grain for grinding and baking. A similar baking oven, also located in the corner of an open courtyard, was uncovered by the author in Room 38 in the Roman/Byzantine Quarter in ‘Avedat (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). Noteworthy is the mentioning of a baking oven and courtyard in a sale contract between a civilian and a soldier, dated c. 566/7 CE, in the Niẓẓana archive (Colt 1962:259). Unusual is the presence of a pantry in the southeastern corner of the courtyard near the wide entrance into the main building. This small space was used to store cooking and other vessels, including a glass bottle (Fig. 51:2), that were probably placed on wooden shelves. An unusual find in the pantry was part of a marble paten with faded black ink patterns of crosses and circles (Fig. 49). The ceramic and glass vessels in the pantry and the rest of the courtyard, including the latest form of a Gaza wine jar (Fig. 46:9), point to a late Byzantine date in the first half of the seventh century CE. However, there were no organic finds or coins that could have provided a more precise date for the destruction of the rooms.

The dipinti Cave, located on the southern slope below the acropolis in Area D, completes the picture of the late Byzantine occupation at the site. The extant wall in front of the cave apparently dates to the Roman period, based on the fragment of a molded Judean Southern Lamp (Fig. 44:17) and a glass fragment (Fig. 51:1), both produced during the Roman period. Red-painted Christian motifs, such as crosses, were added to the early wall. It seems that this wall too underwent structural damage, probably due to the early fifthcentury CE earthquake. After this event, the interior of the wall was repaired, and a window was blocked. The motifs discovered on the dipinti Wall and in the cave interior, particularly on the eastern wall, deep inside the cave, point to its use by a monastic community. Figueras (1995:434) discussed the existence of monastic communities in ‘Avedat in the South Church and the structure in front of the Cave of the Saints. The winepresses situated in proximity to both the South Church and the Cave of the Saints deserve our attention. The use of the dipinti Cave by such a community may have been encouraged by the presence of the large cistern of an earlier (Roman?) date located on the tier just above and behind the dipinti Cave. Additionally, access to walled gardens, fields and a large winepress located below the cave on the plain to the south of ‘Avedat would have also attracted the community. Layers of organic material (animal manure) outside the cave indicate that the rooms in front of the dipinti Wall served for stabling animals. Stabling animals in close proximity to dwellings was customary in the region among the poorer segments of the population and continued up until modern times (Canaan 1933:35, 70).

Epigraphic evidence from earlier excavations in ‘Avedat show that donkeys and camels were regularly used to bring produce from the fields (Erickson-Gini 2012:53, Fig. 5). The position of the cave and its external rooms well-suited the commanding of the plain below and, among other things, may have been an indication of ownership. According to Canaan, it was customary in this region for low-lying fields to belong to those occupying higher ground (Canaan 1933:53); the higher location within the protected walls of the Byzantine town allowed the inhabitants to easily observe and guard the fields during harvest.

The earthquake that destroyed the site at the end of the late Byzantine period, presumably in the first half of the seventh century CE, appears to have destroyed a room of the cave in front of the dipinti Wall. Extant walls c. 10 m south of the dipinti Wall apparently belong to the same structure that incorporated the dipinti Cave. In the Early Islamic (Abbasid) period, visitors who frequented the cave, probably because of the cistern, left debris on the ruins of the collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the dipinti Wall. Also found in the debris above the collapse were finds from the Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods, among them pieces of Arabic- and English-language newspapers. Unlike many red-painted dipinti in the ‘Avedat caves, those on the dipinti Wall are particularly well-preserved due to the cave’s location on the south-slope facing, thereby ensuring minimum exposure to sunlight.

Erickson-Gini (2010)

Chapter 2 Previous Research in the Central Negev and Central Arava Valley

Oboda and the Surrounding Area

At Oboda (Eboda/Abde/Avdat) the Colt Expedition excavated an isolated ‘villa’ located south of the town, but they never published their results. The plans and a description of this structure were later published by Negev, who dated it (on the basis of architectural features) to the second and third centuries CE (Negev 1997: 73-79). The Colt Expedition also excavated and published a structure located between the South Church and the Byzantine Citadel, described as a “Hellenistic building” (Colt 1962: 45-47, Pl.LXVIII, Negev 1997: 24-25). P.L.O. Guy reported that the expedition carried out some preliminary work on the bathhouse that was left unfinished (Guy 1938: 13).

Between the years 1958 and 1961, Avi-Yonah and Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed excavations at Oboda in conjunction with the restoration project instigated by the National Parks Authority. This work produced a large quantity of important Nabataean, Aramaic, Nabataean Greek and Byzantine Greek inscriptions, many of which were translated and published by Negev (Negev 1961: 127-138,1963a: 113-124).

Negev was appointed to supervise on site work under Avi Yonah’s supervision in 1958, and in 1959 he took over the project (Negev 1997: X). Negev carried out excavations throughout the site between 1958-1961 and in 1989. The results of these excavations were published in many small articles and in two books: The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Negev 1986) and The Architecture of Oboda (Negev 1997), (Fig. 1.17). Negev’s work at the site concentrated on areas of the acropolis such as the two Byzantine churches, the Byzantine Citadel and a structure inside the temenos area that he identified as a temple. This last structure was the same “Hellenistic Building” studied by the Colt Expedition (Negev 1997: 24-38). Negev also studied the western side of the temple platform and adjoining structures (Negev 1997: 38-61). During the course of these excavations several important Nabataean and Greek inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions date to two primary periods: the late first century BCE and the second half of the third century CE. The earliest inscription dates to the second regnal year of Aretas IV, 8/7 BCE (Negev 1997: 3). Eight Greek inscriptions that appear to have been engraved on the lintel over the main entrance to the platform portico date to the later phase of the temple in the third century. These include a dedicatory inscription dating to 267/8 CE. Although the inscriptions are written in the Greek language, the names of the worshippers appear to be Nabataean (Negev 1997: 53). Near the southeastern corner of the portico a small space was discovered, which appears to have served as the temple treasury. An inscription, engraved on a marble plaque found in the southwestern staircase tower, records the names of three of Aretas’ IV children (Negev 1961: 127 128, 1997: 51). In addition, a hoard of bronze figurines and other objects were also found in this area (Negev 1997: 51, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1997: 192-202).

Negev also excavated buildings that he described as the ‘Roman Quarter’ located south of the acropolis, including the Roman tower first discovered by Musil in 1902, the en Nusra burial cave, the Byzantine bathhouse, a Byzantine dwelling and the Saints’ Cave located below the acropolis. Inscriptions from the Roman tower and the en-Nusra burial cave were of particular importance in reconstructing the history of the site. This inscription, engraved on the lintel of the entrance into the tower, dates to 293/4 CE and describes the builder as a Nabataean mason named Wa’il from Petra (Negev 1981a: 26-27, no. 13). Inscriptions found in the en-Nusra burial cave date to the mid third century and according to Negev they appear to relate exclusively to women buried there. The earliest inscription dates to July 23, 241 CE (Negev 1981a: 24-25, no.10). On the eastern edge of the site, Negev excavated a pottery workshop that he believed to have functioned between 25 BCE to around 50 CE (Negev 1974, 1986: XVII). He reported that only two coins were found in the structure. The first dates to the reign of Trajan and the second I dated generally to the third or fourth centuries CE (Negev 1986: XVIII). Contrary to Negev's initial belief that Nabataean fine painted wares were produced in this workshop, subsequent neutron activation analysis of the posttery has indicated that it was produced in or near the area of Petra (Gunneweg et al 1988: 342). Likewise, Negev's designation of another example of early fine ware discovered in the structure and elsewhere at Oboda, as "Nabataean Sigillata," proved to be a form of Eastern terra sigillata, called ETS II by Gunneweg and Cypriote Sigillata by Hayes (Gunneweg et al 1988, Hayes 1977). The fact that the pottery workshop abuts a second to third century CE caravanserai (see below) on the north and a heavy midden on the south cast serious doubts about the dating of the structure to the early first century CE. A recent study by Fabian and Goren (2008) refutes Negev's identification of the structure as pottery workshop.

Between 1975-1977, Negev, sponsored by the Hebrew University at Jerusalem, carried out joint excavations with R. Cohen from the Israel Department of Antiquities. They carried out trial excavations in the large military camp located northeast of the acropolis, a structure identified as a caravanserai south of the military camp, and a fourth century CE farmhouse complex east of the town (Cohen and Negev 1976: 55-57; Negev 1977a: 27-29; 1997: 7). The final report of the excavations has not yet been published (Negev 1997: XI). However, some preliminary findings were published by Cohen (Cohen 1980a: 44-46). Negev subsequently claimed that the military camp was constructed by the Nabataeans and functioned in the first century CE, a conclusion not shared by Cohen (Cohen 1982a: 45).

According to Cohen, the caravanserai found abutting the pottery workshop on the eastern side of the site dates to the second and third century CE. This structure measures 22.5 by 31 m. and is made up of a series of rooms located around a central courtyard. This structure was rich in ceramic finds and particularly Nabataean painted ware bowls and other vessels dated to the early third century. Cohen pointed out that these bowls, which appear to be a debased version of the Nabataean fine ware tradition in decoration, form and texture, are identical to a bowl found next door in the pottery workshop, dated by Negev to the early first century CE, and in the Nabataean necropolis at Mampsis. Coins found on the floors of the structure included several dated to the late second through the third quarter of the third century CE. Above the collapse layer of the caravanserai at least 80 coins dated to the second half of the fourth c. CE were found (Cohen 1982a: 45 46), (Fig. 1.18). During the 1975 excavations, Negev discovered a large house dated to the first century CE less than 100 meters from the military camp. Sixteen rooms of this structure were cleared. At least one room served as a kitchen with large ovens. Negev, impressed with the fact that several small cubicles were found throughout the structure and the poor quality of the architecture, claimed that the structure was probably a tavern or hostel (Negev 1996: 83-84). Elsewhere at the site, a pouch with coins and semi-precious stones from the region of the Indian Ocean were found in graves dated to the early first centuries of the first millennium CE (Negev 1977a: 29).

In the same excavation season, a large structure located east of the “Roman Quarter” (the Byzantine town) was also investigated. This structure proved to be a farmhouse complete with a finely constructed wine press and cooking facilities dated to the fourth and fifth centuries CE. Negev reports that the building appears to have been built over an earlier Nabataean structure. Pieces of a large stone libation altar bearing a Nabataean inscription were found in the courtyard of the building. In a room next to the winepress two large jars were found sunk into the floor, which Negev believed to have been used to store wine that may have been tasted before its purchase by buyers. Elsewhere in the building plaques made from camel bones were found bearing lines of Greek script written in ink. One inscription apparently contains receipts concerning the hiring of camels and donkeys for transporting grapes from nearby vineyards (Negev 1977a: 28).

Further excavations were carried out at Oboda in the 1990s by archaeologists of the Israel Antiquities Authority. These include excavations by Katz and Tahal in structures in the ‘Roman Quarter” and the excavation by Tahal of the large Byzantine period winepress located next to the southern side of the acropolis and Saints’ Cave (Tahal 1994: 112 114). The exterior of the bathhouse and the pools next to the bathhouse well were excavated by Tahal in 1992 (Tahal 1994: 114-115). The excavation of the well area was resumed by Erickson-Gini in 1993. The area around the pool produced evidence that the bathhouse and the well were constructed in the fourth century CE and continued in use, after substantial renovations due to earthquake damage, in the Byzantine period. The earthquake probably occurred in the early fifth century CE, and damage related to it was detected elsewhere in the site.

In 1993-1994, P. Fabian, of the Israel Antiquities Authority, excavated a domestic dwelling in the ‘Roman Quarter,’ Building “T,” and he conducted several trial excavations along the town wall east of the acropolis. Fabian’s work demonstrated that the structures in the area described by Negev as the “Roman Quarter” dated to the Byzantine period. He also discovered that Building “T” was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the early seventh century that demolished the entire site of Oboda (Fabian 1996).

In 1999, the military camp east of the town, previously excavated by Negev and Cohen, was excavated extensively by Fabian and Erickson–Gini, revealing over fifty percent of the total area of the camp (Fig.1.19). Results of the excavation indicate that the camp was a Roman military camp and not Nabataean as proposed by Negev (Erickson Gini 2002), (Fabian 2001: 18; 2005). Further excavations were carried out by the author in a domestic quarter in Oboda dating to the fourth century CE that was destroyed in an earthquake sometime in the early fifth century CE (Fig. 1.20). In addition, remains of two earlier structures were found on the eastern side of the quarter. One structure dates to the second and early third centuries CE and it appears to have been abandoned abruptly with the contents of the household left intact, possibly as the result of an epidemic that struck the town in the first half of the third century CE. Three rooms of a second structure appear to belong to a large villa dating to the first century CE located on the eastern edge of the excavation area (Erickson-Gini 2001a: 6; 2001b: 374-375).

The Nabataean fort, Mezad Nahal Avdat, (12280/1810), measuring 17.5×17.5 m., was excavated in 1986 by Y. Lender (Lender 1988: 66-67), (Fig. 1.21). Nabataean pottery dated to the first and second centuries CE. An ostrakon in Nabataean script and a coin of Trajan were found in the fort. Near the fort a second building measuring 10×13.5 was excavated, producing pottery dated to the first century CE. ...

Chapter 8 Oboda

A Brief Description of the Site

The site of Oboda is situated on a plateau overlooking Nahal Zin a few kilometers south of the springs of ‘En Avdat and ‘En Aqev. It is located several kilometers south of the communities of Kibbutz Sede Boqer and Midreshet Ben Gurion on the modern Mizpe Ramon highway leading to Eilat.

It appears that Oboda was first occupied by the Nabataeans in the Hellenistic period until around 100 BCE. No structural remains have been found at the site dating to this period. However, pottery and coins dating to the late Hellenistic period have been found in most areas of the plateau. In this early period the site appears to have been primarily used for seasonal occupation as a camping ground in conjunction with the transport and trade of incense resins between Petra and Gaza. In the Hellenistic period the main road linking Oboda with the central Arava valley and Petra was the Darb es-Sultan, the “Way of the King” by way of Moa, Mezad ‘En Rahel, ‘En Orahot and Mezad ‘En Ziq. Along with other early Nabataean sites dating to this period, Oboda appears to have been abandoned for several decades in the first century BCE in wake of the Hasmonaean conquest of Gaza by Alexander Jannaeus at the beginning of that century. Oboda was reoccupied in the last decades of the first century BCE, possibly during the reign of Obodas III or Malichus I (Negev 1997:3). At that time a temple platform and temples were constructed at the site and the town was named after the deified Nabataean king Obodas II. In the late first century BCE a new road with caravansaries, forts and cisterns was constructed between Moyat 'Awad and Oboda by way of the Ramon Crater.

The site was occupied continuously from that period until the early seventh century CE. Seismological studies carried out at the site indicate that the final destruction there was caused by a compressional seismic wave originating only 15 km. south, south-west of Oboda, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone (Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a: 27-28).

In the intermediate period, Oboda appears to have been an important caravan station on the Petra – Gaza road until a decline in international trade occurred throughout this area in the early third century CE. The town appears to have been revitalized at the end of the third century CE during the Diocletianic military build-up in the region. In 293/4 CE, a watch tower was constructed at the south end of the town. Further north a second tower, located near the acropolis, (as yet unexcavated) was probably constructed in the same period. In this period a large army camp measuring 100 x 100 m. was constructed northeast of the acropolis on the plateau (Erickson-Gini 2002). The size and nature of this installation indicates that it may have been occupied by a Roman cavalry force the size of a cohort. The camp was abandoned in an orderly fashion after a short period of occupation, possibly as the result of military arrangements under Constantine I. The results of recent excavations indicate that the site sustained some damage in the 363 earthquake and more devastating damage in an earthquake sometime around the beginning of the early fifth century as discuss here above.

The Byzantine town was constructed over the remains of the former settlement south of the acropolis and a town wall was constructed around the Byzantine period town, including the large complex of caves that were utilized as dwellings. Two churches were built inside the temenos area constructed from stones of the destroyed temples that formerly stood there. In the fifth century a citadel, quite similar to that constructed in the same period at Nessana, was constructed next to the temenos. From the fourth through the sixth century the primary occupation of the town’s inhabitants appears to have been agriculture and particularly the manufacture of wine. Five wine presses have been found in and around the site dating to this period (Negev 1997:7). It also appears that some of the caves and particularly one designated the “Saints Cave,” were used to store and ferment wine (Negev 1997:165-167).

Regarding the abandonment of the town, A. Negev points out that the churches were both destroyed by fire, sometime after 617 CE, the latest burial found in the South Church (Negev 1997: 9). More recent investigations have revealed that the town was destroyed by a severe local earthquake in the early seventh century, around 630 CE, and subsequently abandoned (Fabian 1996; Korjenkov and Mazor 1999a).

The 1999 And 2000 Excavation Areas

The Roman Army Camp

Between March and December 1999, the army camp situated north-east of the acropolis was excavated by P. Fabian and the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as part of a project initiated by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare and in order to facilitate further development of the site for tourism (Fig.1.70).1

The ceramic material and small finds found in the excavation of the camp was sorted and registered by the writer and a final report of the excavation will be produced by Fabian.2 A preliminary publication of the excavation of the camp, including the stratigraphy, was prepared by the author entitled: ‘Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the Date of the Camp at Avdat in Light of Recent Excavations’, (Erickson-Gini 2002).

A few rooms in the camp had been previously excavated by Negev and Cohen between 1975 and 1977. Negev proposed that the camp was constructed by the Nabataeans in the mid-first century CE (Negev 1977:622-624). His co-excavator, Cohen deemed the scope of the excavation insufficient in determining whether the camp was occupied only in the first century or after the Roman annexation in 106 CE (Cohen 1980:44, 1982a:245). The new excavations uncovered over fifty percent of the total area of the camp, including the main gate located on the east side of the camp, four blocks of barrack rooms, two rows of casemate rooms along the interiors of the eastern and southern walls, and what appears to have been the principia, or camp headquarters, along the interior western wall of the camp.

The camp measures approximately 100 x 100 meters with corner towers and interval towers as well as towers guarding the main access to the camp on the east and south sides. In the recent excavations the remains of stairs were found leading up to the southeast and southwest towers. It is assumed that the interval and guard towers were accessed by means of wooden stairs or ropes that are no longer extant. The casemate rooms along the southern and eastern walls of the camp do not appear to have been roofed over and these rooms may have been used as stables and storerooms. A single pilaster was found along the center of the back wall in each casemate room, presumably used as a base for a wooden pillar holding up a wooden rampart or parapet along the walls. Evidence for this type of construction was found in casemate rooms along the southeast part of camp. Walls that survived to their full height in this section were offset along the upper row of stones, providing support for a wooden construction such as a rampart. The upper half of a Gaza wine jar, dated to the fourth century CE, was found embedded in the floor of Room 66, a casemate room near the southwest corner of the camp.

The rooms in the barracks measured approximately 20 square meters of floor space. It is estimated that the room could have accomadated between 4 and 8 men per room depending on the type of sleeping arrangements. The rooms do not appear to have been roofed with stone slabs as is commonly found in most buildings from this period in the region. No arch springers were found in any of the rooms and it is assumed that the roofing was made of wooden beams covered with organic material and mud plaster. The spaces between the stones on the exterior walls were covered with a hard hydraulic plaster to prevent seepage during rain. The same type of construction was found in the sixth century CE fort of Mezad Ma’ale Zin excavated by the writer in 1999 (Israel and Erickson-Gini 1999). No specific activities were found in the barrack rooms other than evidence in one room of lead fragments probably used to repair tools or weapons.

A series of rooms along the western side of the camp appear to have served as the principia or headquarters (Fig.1.71). While some rooms, constructed out of regular large building stones, survived in the southern side of this section, the rooms further north appear to have been constructed from fine ashlar blocks, presumably stones in secondary use collected from earlier buildings at the site.

Many of these stones were stripped out to the foundation. One block, in secondary use, was found among the stones of a collapsed wall and it bears part of a Nabataean inscription with the name Rabbel, presumably that of Rabbel II, the last Nabataean king (70-106 CE). The rest of the inscription awaits translation.

The principia contained a long room (Room 80) facing the eastern gate, the main gate of the camp, this being the only room in the camp with a plaster floor. Pottery found over this floor included a Late Roman cooking pot, one of the few restorable vessels found in the camp, as well as fragments of Beit Natif lamps dated to the third and fourth century and rims of Gaza Wine jars dated to the fourth century Excavation in this room provided clear evidence that some of the walls were constructed over and offset to earlier walls of a Nabataean building dated by coins and pottery to the last quarter of the first century CE. Coins of the Jewish Revolt from 68 CE were found over the floor surface of this early structure in Room 74 by the author.

The camp appears to have been used for a short amount of time and it was abandoned in an orderly fashion. During its occupation it was well maintained with a minimum amount of buildup of debris throughout the camp. The confusion concerning the date of its construction appears to be the result of copious amounts of Nabataean pottery sherds and coins, dating to both the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, found throughout the camp. This material was discovered from the surface down to deposits of collapsed stones over the floors, as well as under the dirt floor surfaces. In some cases foundation trenches of the walls were cut directly into Hellenistic and Early Roman middens, particularly in the southeast side of the camp. At least one Hellenistic lamp was found in a layer of ash in one of the barrack rooms on the east side of the camp, only a few centimeters below the floor surface of the room. In the eastern side of the street, oriented east to west along the southern side of the camp, a heavy layer of crushed limestone was used to seal heavy deposits of ash from middens dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods.

Two hundred and seventy coins were found in the camp, one hundred and forty-three of which were identified after cleaning. The overwhelming amount of coins and pottery found in the camp date to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. However, coins dated to the late third and early fourth century CE were found in key locations over floor surfaces and streets and also below the floor surface of one of the interval towers. The coins from this period made up the second largest group of coins found in the camp. Only a small amount of pottery from that period was found in the camp, as described here above.

The co-excavator of the site, P. Fabian has proposed that the camp was constructed by the Roman army in wake of the Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE. He proposes that the camp was occupied until the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-135 CE) and evacuated when Roman forces were deployed in Judaea (Fabian 2001; 2005). However, only one Roman coin from the early second century was found in the camp.

Due to the fact that only one occupational phase was indicated by the architecture of the camp, I propose that the camp was constructed in the late third or early fourth century and abandoned sometime in the first half of the fourth century CE. In my opinion, the Hellenistic and Early Roman Nabataean pottery and coins found in the camp are derived, from soil used in the construction of the camp, the source of which may be found in the middens covering the area around and under the camp itself. In order to prove this hypothesis, micromorphological analysis of soil obtained in sections in the barrack rooms and inside of unexcavated walls, as well as in the middens outside the camp, were examined in the laboratories of Cambridge University, UK. These samples, which have not yet been officially published, have revealed traces of microscopic pieces of ceramics, ash, charcoal, bones and other organic matter found in middens (B. Pittman, pers. comm.).
Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. These and other finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and plans and sections of the excavation were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. C. Amit and T. Segiv photographed the excavation and the finds. The ceramic finds were sorted by the writer.

2 An alternative interpretation of the excavation and the date of the construction and occupation of the camp may be found in Fabian's unpublished doctoral dissertation (2005)

The Late Roman / Early Byzantine Residential Quarter

In addition to the army camp, an area near the north tower situated east of the acropolis and the town wall was excavated by the writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority as a continuation of the work project sponsored by the Ministry of Labor and Welfare. A few years earlier, in 1994, a series of probes were carried out along the town wall north of the tower by P. Fabian on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, the results of which are Figure 1.76a. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Phase 2 building facing West, early third c. CE Figure 1.76c. Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, Room 6, Pantry with in situ pottery as yet unpublished. My excavation joined up with one of these probes, located east of the town wall next to the north tower. My new excavation covered an area of approximately 4 dunams (one acre) revealing a series of dwellings with over thirty rooms (Fig. 1.72).1

Three major phases of construction were found in this area: the earliest phase dates to the first century CE, the second phase dates to the second century CE and the third phase dates to the late third or early fourth century CE.

The earliest phase of construction includes three rooms of an early structure excavated on the eastern edge of the investigated area (Fig. 1.73). This building was constructed around a large central courtyard utilizing a few massive dressed stones similar to Nabataean buildings found in isolated areas west of Oboda (Haiman 1993:15). This structure appears to have been in use in the first and second century CE and in the fourth century. Debris was dumped in some of the rooms on its south end.

The structure constructed in the second phase was found in the eastern part of the excavated area and coins found under the floor level of this dwelling indicate that it was constructed in the second century CE (Fig. 1.74). The latest coins from this structure date to the late second and early third century CE. The date of the pottery found in this building indicates that it was occupied through the second century and into the first half of the third century when it was abandoned.

Four extant rooms and an adjoining courtyard were found in this building. The building was accessed through a doorway facing east. A second doorway along the western wall of the building was blocked, possibly when the room was filled after the building was abandoned. Two rooms, including the room on the east side of the building, Room 13, appear to have been purposely filled to nearly their full height. The walls in these rooms were the highest extant structures found in the excavation area. The fill was clean for the most part but a rather large amount of second and early third century pottery was found in the upper layers of the room (Fig. 1.75). The ‘entrance’ room leading into the structure from the east had a floor made of small sized field stones over which earth was placed. In the earthen floor of the next room, Room 12, a ceramic krater was found sunk into the soil partially below the surface.

The courtyard was situated on the northern side of the structure and enclosed along its eastern side with a wall containing an entrance. Remains of a stone water channel were found in the courtyard leading away from the structure to the west. On the western side of the building, a small chamber, measuring 1.5 x 2 m. under a stairwell of the structure, appears to have served as a pantry and nearly 80 whole and complete pottery and glass vessels were found stacked inside the room along with large animal bones that were apparently the remains of pieces of salted meat hanging under the stairs and above the shelves (Fig.1.76). The shelves, probably made of wood, had long since disintegrated. The findings suggest that the abandonment of the pantry with its contents intact may indicate a rapid desertion of the building, possibly as the result of an epidemic. The two main rooms of the structure were filled to nearly their full height sometime after the abandonment of the house. In the fourth century thin plaster floors were constructed above the fill (Fig.1.75). Only one room of the structure (Room 7) appears to have been utilized in the fourth century and it apparently collapsed in the 363 earthquake. Above the collapse layer, which filled the room to its full height, the surface was used in the late fourth century. Restorable pottery vessels of the type found in the pantry were found in the fill of the abandoned rooms of the house, Rooms 12 and 13. Among these vessels a small bronze statuette (Figs. 3.1-2) and part of a ceramic female figurine were found. The bronze statuette is similar to fragments of a bronze statuette found in the ruins of the temple treasury on the acropolis at Oboda (Rosenthal Heginbottom 1997: Pl.1:5-6). The ceramic figurine of a pregnant female appears to have been of Nabataen origin: an identical fragment was found by the writer at nearby H. Hazaza and complete examples have been found at Jerash (Iliffe 1945:Pl.IV: 55). In Phase 3, in the late third or early fourth century, the area between the structures described above and the tower was built up and occupied, probably in wake of the construction of the tower in the late third century (Fig. 1.77). Some evidence was found suggesting that the buildings in Phase 3 sustained structural damage, possibly as a result of the earthquake of 363. In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper). Doorways leading from this room into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked and Room 7 was found filled with collapsed building stones, loose soil, rubble and air pockets. Two intact vessels were found in a protected corner of the floor of Room 7 (Figs. 4.7, 4.26) and coins and other items over the floor show that the room, built in Phase 2 of the building, was later floor surface, remains of reoccupied and utilized until around 363 CE.

Above the collapse layer of Room 7, braziers and in situ pottery were found, approximately at the same level as the plaster floor surface found in the latest phase of occupation overlying Room 13 (Fig. 1.78). Blocked doorways were also found between Rooms 10 and 17 on the north side of the complex and between Rooms 5 and 15. Traces of an earlier sublevel dating to the fourth century were found in Rooms 5 and 17.

The latest occupation of the Phase 3 complex displays a narrow walkway that ran from east to west towards the tower and at least five simple dwellings that were constructed on either side of the walkway. These dwellings had irregular plans with the main feature being a raised central courtyard surrounded by rooms constructed at a lower level. Rooms at lower levels were accessed by way of stairs. This feature was noted by the writer in fourth century CE structures in the Roman camp in Humayma in southern Jordan during a tour there with the excavator, J.P. Oleson, in 2001.

Courtyards in the buildings and outside of the complex appear to have been used for cooking and industrial purposes. The stone foundation of a large oven was found in the corner of Room 38, which appears to have been a courtyard. A stone bench was found along the western wall of the courtyard opposite the oven. A courtyard area to the north of Room 11 contained two large clay tabuns. The central courtyards in each dwelling appear to have been used for cooking and the inverted upper halves of Gaza wine jars were found throughout the dwellings in use as braziers in courtyards and also in Room 16.

The dwellings in Phase 3 were quite simple and only a few rooms contained evidence of a higher quality of construction. Most of the rooms had dirt floors or traces of thin plastered floors. The exception was Room 11, which had a stone paved floor and a lintel stone containing a tabula ansata lacking any writing but with traces of what appears to be a man working an olive press. The lintel stone was found thrown onto the floor of the room. The only room with plastered walls was that of Room 23 in which a Nabataean inscription was found on pieces of the plaster written in ink by the plasterer himself (Fig.1.79). This room also contained arch springers along the walls. Arch springers were found along the walls of many but not all of the rooms in the complex and a few in situ stone slabs and a lintel were found in the collapse of Room 22 (Fig.1.80). It is assumed that many building stones and particularly ceiling slabs were stripped from the structure after its destruction. Numismatic and ceramic evidence found in the fourth century dwellings indicate that they were destroyed in a violent earthquake sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century CE and not as previously assumed in the earthquake of 363. Intact pottery vessels, braziers and oil lamps, such as a collection of oil lamps found in Room 16, were found in situ throughout the structures (Figs.1.81-1.82). Similar to Building XXV at Mampsis, the dwellings in this area were robbed out for building stone and left abandoned. The town wall and stone fences for livestock were later constructed above the ruins of the buildings on the western edge of the excavated area.

Footnotes

1 The numismatic finds were examined by H. Sokolov of the IAA. The coins and other metal finds were cleaned by the laboratories of the IAA under the direction of E. Altmark. Plans of the site were drawn by V. Essman and S. Persky. The glass finds from the excavation were examined and are being published by Y. Gorin-Rosen. The ceramic and small finds were drawn by A. Dudin and pottery reconstruction was carried out by S. Lavi. The faunal material from Room 6 is being examined by R. Kahatti. Photographs of the excavation and the finds were produced by C. Amit and T. Segiv. N.S. Paran and L. Shilov assisted in directing the excavation and sorting the finds.

Chapter 11 Vessels and Special Finds, 363 CE

On May 19th, 363 CE, a massive earthquake struck the East, causing great damage to cities and towns along the Syrian-African rift and as far away as the Mediterranean coast. Compared to other earthquakes in ancient times, this particular event was well documented in historical sources and in the archaeological record. In situ evidence from this event has been found in several sites in our region, at Petra and in the Negev sites at Mampsis, ‘En Hazeva and Oboda. This earthquake, whose epicenter was probably located in the northern Arava valley, did not destroy whole sites but caused considerable damage and subsequent reconstruction that can be identified in the archaeological record (Mazor and Korjenkov 2001: 130, 133).

The clearest in situ evidence for this event was found in Building XXV at Mampsis. This entire building, situated as it was on a hilltop, sustained such heavy damage that it was abandoned and never rebuilt. One room in this house was used as a kitchen that was apparently in use when the earthquake struck. As a result, nearly the entire contents of the kitchen was found in situ, at floor level, including evidence of objects that fell to the floor from shelves along two walls. The walls of the kitchen (Room 2) and an adjoining room (Room 1) were rather insubstantial additions to the original structure and unlike the earlier Nabataean walls constructed on bedrock, these walls were constructed in a shallow layer of soil. This inferior construction technique appears to have been a major contribution to the collapse of the kitchen.

‘En Hazeva was situated in the Arava valley itself, in close proximity to the epicenter. The effects on this site were truly devastating, and the Late Roman fort and army camp underwent massive renovations. This was particularly true in the case of the cavalry camp situated below the fort. The walls in this camp were constructed on shallow foundations in soil and as a result, the original structure appears to have been completely shattered. The bathhouse adjoining the camp was built more solidly, although it too contains substantial cracks and subsequent renovations. The fort, which was founded on the walls of earlier buildings on the tell, withstood the earthquake to some extent, but whole floors with crushed in situ pottery appear to have been abandoned and covered by new floor surfaces in the subsequent phase of occupation.

Oboda was situated much further from the rift valley and although it was affected by the earthquake in 363, recent excavations have shown that this damage was limited in scope. In the Late Roman Quarter, some structural damage and renovations were noted, but this event did not create massive devastation at the site as was earlier thought to have occurred.

The 363 earthquake has left valuable evidence of pottery and other finds from the mid-fourth century CE that will be discussed here. An examination of this evidence makes it immediately apparent that few pottery types survived the transition from the third century CE. However, much of the pottery, and particularly the lamps found at the three Negev sites, were still produced in the region of Petra and southern Jordan as in earlier centuries. This in itself implies a continuation of material and cultural ties between the Negev and southern Jordan, a relationship that was undoubtedly rejuvenated by the activity of the Late Roman army in the region in wake of the transfer of the Tenth Legion from Jerusalem to Aila.

Other forms of vessels, such as fine ware bowls and amphorae, were brought from abroad, usually from the Eastern Mediterranean region. The one overwhelming type of vessel in fourth century assemblages throughout the Negev was the Gaza wine jar, corresponding to Majcherek’s Form 2, dated 300-450 CE (Majcherek 1995:Pl.5, 167-168). This type of jar was produced in the Gaza and Ashkelon region as has recently been proved on the basis of recent petrographic studies (Fabian and Goren 2002:148-149). Gaza jars were circulating in the Central Negev to such a great extent that by 363 CE it was common to find it in secondary use as braziers.

Evidence of Roman military presence can be detected in the distribution of a small, wide-mouthed storage jar that appears to have been designed to ration out wine or some other liquid. This type of jar was found extensively at the fort in ‘En Hazeva, but also at Oboda.

Discussion and Conclusions

In the examination of the historical sources concerning the third and fourth centuries it is obvious that although general information concerning developments in the East exists, very little of this information pertains to the history of the central Negev. In the face of this dearth of historical data, archaeological findings provide details with which to trace the development of the region in a crucial phase of its history. The following are the results of an examination of the archaeological evidence and the implications of this evidence as it pertains to the accelerated growth in settlement and agriculture that took place in the fourth century CE.

The Results of an Examination of the Material Evidence

Material evidence has been presented here from three sites: Mampsis, Oboda and Mezad ‘En Hazeva dating to the period between the early third and the early fifth century CE. This evidence, mainly in the form of ceramic assemblages, is important in different ways. First of all, the contexts in which the main assemblages were found were primary, “Pompeii-type” deposits, i.e. the material was deposited together, abandoned and sealed as opposed to deposits of archaeological material added to over a number of years in a tomb, or thrown as refuse into a well or midden. Sealed, primary deposits provide rare data on the actual quantity and types of wares used simultaneously. Secondly, when the material from these three assemblages are studied together, patterns emerge that can shed light on economic and cultural trends. These patterns and other clues derived from the archaeological record mount in importance when historical evidence, particularly at a local level, is lacking for a particular region, as in this case the central Negev during the period under discussion. The results of studying these assemblages may be summed up as follows (Figs.1.90-91):
  1. The pottery assemblage dated to the first half of the third century CE is radically different in type and quality from the assemblage of the mid-fourth century. Vessels from the earlier assemblage reflect the international long distance trade of luxury goods passing through the central Negev, and particularly unguents produced and packaged in Petra. Nabataean fine wares produced in Petra, Eastern Terra Sigillata wares produced abroad and glass vessels from as far away as Nubia and Dura Europos were circulating through the region until the early to middle third century CE.

  2. Material evidence in the form of inscriptions found at Oboda and the continuous archaeological record found at Mampsis both indicate that the settlements in the central Negev were not abandoned during the third century. A tradition of local pottery production continued throughout this period and some local plain ware types survived well into the fourth century CE. The region appears to have been cut off from international trade and fine wares produced abroad were no longer reaching the area until after the Diocletianic period (Figs.1.64-65).

  3. The ceramic assemblage in the fourth century reflects new economic activity that replaced the long distance trade of the earlier period. The new economy was based on inter-regional trade of agricultural produce and particularly the production of wine. Wine jars produced in the region of Gaza and Ashkelon circulated with increased frequency through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the through the region by the mid-fourth century and these jars are among the most common vessels found at sites throughout the region in this period. Other vessels produced outside the Negev, such as African Red Slipped wares and Beit Natif style lamps, begin to appear in the Negev towards the middle of the century.

  4. The economic and cultural ties between the Negev and Petra continued in the fourth century and were revitalized by the regional build-up of the Roman army from the time of Diocletian. Pottery of a lower quality produced in Petra continued to flow into the Negev towns until the earthquake of 363 CE.

  5. By the early fifth century CE, the ties with Petra and southern Jordan began to wane and local pottery production increased. There are some indications that more pottery began to arrive from of what is central and northern Israel and Transjordan. The circulation of Gaza wine jars in the towns of the central Negev increased to such a great extent that they are often found in secondary use as braziers. Rare evidence of the survival of Nabataean language and religion is found at Oboda.
...

Pottery Assemblages of the Negev in the 3rd-5th centuries CE

Fig. 1.90 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.90

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Fig. 1.91 - Erickson-Gini (2010)

Fig. 1.91

Pottery Assemblages from the Negev

Erickson-Gini (2010)


Seismic Effects
4th century CE Earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Comments
Collapsed Vaults   Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Collapsed Walls Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Collapsed Walls Room 7 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
Displaced walls surmised from blocked doorways (the blockage shoring up weakened walls) Rooms 4, 7?, 17 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways [rooms 4, 7, 17] and the collapse of one of the rooms [Room 7], as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

  • Doorways leading from this room [Room 4] into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)
Collapsed Arch Room 4 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.78a

Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE

Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper) - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Effect
Event
"Previous"
or
7th century
 Location Image(s) Comments
TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER "Previous" Room 10 of Court in South Quarter
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
5
Figure 5

Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°.
In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES "Previous" Room 8 of Court in South Quarter
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
6
Figure 6

Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°.
These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES "Previous" N yard of bath-house 7a
Figure 7a

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.

(a) View to northern yard corner

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

7b
Figure 7b

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br>
(b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
SUPPORT-WALLS "Previous" Southern Church
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
8
Figure 8

Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
CAVE DESTRUCTIONS "Previous" Caves
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock.
The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case).
A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X.
The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake.
The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

7th century CE Earthquake

Effect
Event
"Previous"
or
7th century
 Location Image(s) Comments
JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS 7th century WSW external wall of the Northern Church
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
4
Figure 4

Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process.
Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part.
All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS mostly 7th century ? various locations 9
Figure 9

Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

10
Figure 10

Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
COLLAPSE FEATURES 7th century ? Agricultural Fences 11a
Figure 11a

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

11b
Figure 11b

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

12
Figure 12

Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls.
It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS 7th century ? Avdat Tower and wall in the southern quarter
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14a
Figure 14a

Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14b
Figure 14b

Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

15
Figure 15

Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14.
For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°.
The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
  • Warped or folded wall
  • collapsed stone ceiling slabs
  • collapsed arch
 7th century Area A
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 2
Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). ... The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • collapsed stone ceiling slabs
  • collapsed arches
  • rotated blocks in arch
 7th century Area B Room 1
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room [1] (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • collapsed walls
  • broken and fallen pottery
  • collapsed arch
 7th century Area B Room 2
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 15

Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • collapsed walls (massive earthquake debris)
  • collapsed bedrock shelves
 7th century Dipinti Cave in Area D
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 18

Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). ... A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). - Erickson-Gini (2022)

Seismic Effects from the "Previous" Earthquake and the 7th century CE Earthquake of Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

Discussion

In surveys conducted in 1994 and 1996, Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) examined hundreds of deformation features and selected 41 measurements of wall inclinations, 26 of wall collapse, 17 of block rotations, and 96 cases of through-going fractures, where [they] were certain of the non-static origin of dislocations. They divided the features of seismic destructioninto 2 groups based on diagnostic use.

  1. Seismic-related features, which can be used for the determination of the seismic origin of the destruction, and degree of seismic shaking - seismic intensity
    1. joints crossing through a few adjacent blocks
    2. rotation of arch or roof slabs around horizontal axis
    3. hanging stones in the arches
    4. later built supporting walls for the tilted walls and columns
    5. non-coincidence of lower rows of masonry with upper building construction
  2. Seismic indicators which can be used for the determination of epicentral direction
    1. inclination of walls
    2. shifting of complete walls or wall fragments
    3. collapse of arches and wall fragments
    4. rotation of building fragments in arches and walls around the vertical axis

Seismic Effects Table

Effect
Event
"Previous"
or
7th century
 Location Image(s) Comments
JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS 7th century Northern Church 4
Figure 4

Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process.
Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part.
All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion.
TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER "Previous" Room 10 of Court in South Quarter 3
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

5
Figure 5

Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°.
In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3).
SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES "Previous" Room 8 of Court in South Quarter 3
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

6
Figure 6

Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°.
These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES "Previous" N yard of bath-house 7a
Figure 7a

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.

(a) View to northern yard corner

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

7b
Figure 7b

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br>
(b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph.
SUPPORT-WALLS "Previous" Southern Church 8
Figure 8

Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
CAVE DESTRUCTIONS "Previous" Caves As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock.
The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case).
A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X.
The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake.
The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century.
INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS mostly 7th century ? various locations 9
Figure 9

Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

10
Figure 10

Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly.
COLLAPSE FEATURES 7th century ? Agricultural Fences 11a
Figure 11a

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

11b
Figure 11b

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

12
Figure 12

Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls.
It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse.
ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS 7th century ? various locations 13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14a
Figure 14a

Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14b
Figure 14b

Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

15
Figure 15

Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14.
For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°.
The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator.

Archaeoseismic Analysis
Archeoseismic Analysis

Study of the destruction in the Avdat ruins reveals a systematic type of dislocation:
  1. Walls of buildings trending SE 120° revealed strong preferential collapse or inclination toward south, whereas walls trending NE 20°-50° tilted and fell without a noticeable systematic pattern (see Figure 10
    Figure 10

    Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south.

    Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
    ). A similar structure of collapse was observed for the ruins of agricultural fences (see Figure 12
    Figure 12

    Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed.

    Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
    ). These observations indicate that the seismic shock arrived from the south in the case of a compressional wave, or from the north, if the wave causing the collapse was extensional. Thus, by this exercise the eastward and westward propagating seismic waves can be excluded.
  2. Most rotated blocks in the Avdat ruins are turned counterclockwise and they were found exclusively on NE-trending walls (see Figure 15
    Figure 15

    Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site.

    Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
    ). The only case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°. The fact of the appearance of rotated blocks, as described above, indicates push movements (compression wave approaching the buildings). Thus, the only possibility left is a compressional seismic wave coming from the south. Rotation itself involves shear stresses acting along the walls, thus the seismic wave must have arrived at some angle to the walls.
Following the well-known strong earthquakes a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined toward the epicenter, however, in some cases the inclination was in the opposite direction. As in the case with the wall inclinations, the walls facing the seismic wave collapsed systematically toward the seismically induced compression strain, whereas the walls aligned parallel to the seismic wave lost support and collapsed in a random manner. Therefore, one has to look for a correlation between the trend of a construction element and the direction of collapse. The collapse debris form the shape of a cone, because the central part of a collapsing wall segment undergoes maximum oscillation during the seismic event (Figure 16
Figure 16

Symmetric shape of a collapse cone due to earthquake-induced wall oscillations. Oscillation of the wall ends is attenuated by the support of the perpendicular walls, and maximal oscillation occurs at the center (a). This results in a cone-shaped collapse feature, with a collapse line oriented normal to the wall (b).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
).

The preferred direction of collapse or inclination of building elements may be either toward an epicenter or away from it. If the damaged site is located in the quadrangle of compression strain (Figure 17
Figure 17

Strain quadrangle diagram and direction of destruction. Dashed lines depict the direction of wave front propagation, and the circle represents a projection of an epicenter. Direction of inclination of damage features is towards the epicenter in the quadrangles of compression strain, and it is away from the epicenter in the quadrangles of extension strain.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
), the deformation will be caused by a push movement exerted on the ground, resulting in inclination and collapse toward the epicenter. In contrast, in the sites located in a tensional quadrangle, the deformations are induced by a pull movement causing inclination and collapse away from the epicenter. In either case, the line of collapse or relative motion can be determined. This line connects the original position of an object and its position after an earthquake, or corresponds to the dip azimuth of an inclined element. The intersecting points of the collapse lines measured in many places will converge at the area of the epicenter (Figure 18
Figure 18

Identification of earthquake epicenter applying a collapse pattern. Lines of collapse, measured in the damaged area, applied to determine an epicenter:

(1) epicenter

(2) directions of collapse

(3) lines of collapse.

As the collapse occurs toward or outward the epicenter, the intersections of the collapse lines are scattered around the epicenter, that allows to depict it.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
).

Shear stresses applied to an elongated element cause its rotation. The direction of rotation depends on two factors:
  1. orientation of principle stresses in a location and
  2. the orientation of the elongated element
Field study of the epicentral zones of the world-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise. A seismic wave approaching a building parallel or normal to its walls will result in collapse, shift or inclination with no rotation (Figure 20(a)
Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
). The rotation should take place in the cases where the principle stresses are oblique to a construction element, and the resolved shear stresses are high (Figure 20(b)
Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
). Thus, rotated elements situated on perpendicularly oriented walls should have an opposite direction of rotation, if the seismic shock came along the bisector of the two walls (Figure 20(c)
Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
).

Two mechanisms of rotation, caused by tectonic movements, are known in geology (Figure 21
Figure 21

Simple shear producing an opposite sense of rotation

(a) book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks

(b) asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks. Adapted from Jordan (1991).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
):
  1. book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks, and
  2. asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks (Jordan, 1991)
As can be seen in Figure 21
Figure 21

Simple shear producing an opposite sense of rotation

(a) book-shelf structures, or synthetically rotated blocks

(b) asymmetric pull-aparts, or antithetically rotated blocks. Adapted from Jordan (1991).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
, the same direction of rotation can be obtained by the different stress setups. These rotated blocks are termed "antithetical" or "synthetic" because with respect to the same simple shear couple two directions of rotation are possible. A synthetic structure is formed as a result of compression acting parallel to an element along axis, whereas the antithetical structure is developed when extension is parallel to an elongated element. Thus, in tectonics the interpretation of the rotation structures should be proceeded by a determination of the strain that occurred parallel to a rotated element. Such an ambiguity does not exist in seismic interpretations. Any lateral extension applied to a construction should lead to its collapse or inclination, whereas rotation could occur only under horizontal compression. This provides an additional criterion for the determination of strain accompanying an earthquake: the appearance of rotated blocks is an indication of a push movement. A scheme showing the direction of rotation, with respect to the direction of seismic wave propagation, is shown in Figure 20
Figure 20

Rotation of building elements

(a) seismic rays normal to a wall cause no rotation

(b) seismic rays oblique to a wall result in a rotation of building elements

(c) a seismic shock arriving along the bisector to perpendicular walls of a building causes an opposing sense of rotation in these walls.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
.

This discussion leads to an additional conclusion explaining the lack of oriented inclination and collapse features in an epicentral area (and additionally, to the assumption that the point seismic source is not valid in the epicentral zone): the shock wave moving from a hypocenter under a high angle to the surface, results in a lateral extension applied to constructions. This explains why in recent earthquakes (Acapulco, 1962; Scopje, 1963; Tashkent, 1966 and others) the areas above a hypo-center do not reveal systematic inclination and collapse patterns (Muto et al., 1963; Binder, 1965; Medvedev, 1966; The Scopje Earthquake of 26 July 1963, 1968; Mirzoev et al., 1969; Liquidation of Consequences of Tashkent Earthquake, 1972), whereas some distance away inclination and collapse have pronounced directional patterns (Figure 22
Figure 22

Scheme of different patters of seismic destruction on different angles from hypocenter.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
).

All said above is true for the features of destruction found in building constructions built on an isotropic massive foundation without a strong preferential orientation of the fabric in the basement rocks. In the studied case, Avdat was built directly on massive limestones. Thus, an input caused by rock anisotropy could be neglected. To avoid gravitational reasons for the city's destruction, the authors did not conduct the measurements on the slope of Avdat hill.

Avdat ruins have two perpendicular directions of walls (—NE 50° and —SE 140°), so the overall model can be represented as a single building (or room). To cause south-directed wall collapse by a compressional seismic wave, the shock should have come from south side. If the shock arrived exactly perpendicular to the NE-trending walls (i.e., from SW, Figure 23(a)
Figure 23a

Modelling of seismic wave's coming to Avdat town from SW (perpendicularly to walls with trend azimuth 130°-140°).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
), the shear stresses along walls should be minimal and the rotations should appear only occasionally.

In contrast, maximal shear stresses would result if the seismic wave approached the buildings along a bisector line between the walls (Figure 23(b)
Figure 23b

Modelling of seismic shock's coming to Avdat from SSE (under the angle 45° to walls of both directions).

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
), i.e., from south. In this case rotations on both wall directions should be clearly pronounced, whereas both NE and SE-trending walls should reveal oriented collapse and inclinations to the south (SE and SW sides correspondingly).

In the case of Avdat the only NE-trending walls revealed oriented collapse and inclinations, and SE-trending walls demonstrate systematic counterclockwise rotations. Such a situation is possible if the compressional wave came from SSW (Figure 23(c)
Figure 23c

Modelling of seismic wave's coming to Avdat town from SSW.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
).

Thus, the epicenter was located somewhere SSW from the Avdat settlement, and the scale of destruction indicates that the epicenter was situated 15 km south of Avdat, probably in the area of the Nafha Fault zone. The force (seismic intensity) of a shock resulting in the destruction of buildings was determined using the scale of earthquake intensity MSK-64. Buildings in Avdat town according to this scale are classed as B type - buildings from natural hewed stones. Quantitative characteristics of destruction: most buildings were destroyed (more then 75%). According to the degree of destruction Avdat town is classified as fourth degree:
  • through cracks and breaks in the walls
  • collapse of building parts
  • breaking of connections between separate parts of buildings
  • collapse of internal walls and walls of framework filling
All these features of destruction show on IX-X intensity of seismic shock on territory of Avdat town.
...
The destruction was caused by a compressional seismic wave and the epicenter was located SSW of Avdat somewhere in central Negev. The degree of town destruction during the historical earthquake according to Seismic Intensity Scale MSK-64 was IX-X.

Intensity Estimates
4th century CE Earthquake

Effect Location Image(s) Comments Intensity
Collapsed Vaults   Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
VIII +
Collapsed Walls Caves in the slopes adjacent to the Avdat Acropolis
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
VIII+
Collapsed Walls Room 7 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
VIII+
Displaced walls surmised from blocked doorways (the blockage shoring up weakened walls) Rooms 4, 7?, 17 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • Some structural damage, probably resulting from the 363 CE earthquake, is evident in the blockage of a few doorways [rooms 4, 7, 17] and the collapse of one of the rooms [Room 7], as described above (rooms 4, 7, 17). - Tali Erickson-Gini in Stern et al (2008)

  • Doorways leading from this room [Room 4] into Rooms 3 and 7 were blocked - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)
 VII+
Collapsed Arch Room 4 of Late Roman/Early Byzantine quarter
Late Roman/early Byzantine quarter occupational phases and rooms

Stern et al (2008)
Fig. 1.77

Oboda Late Roman / Early Byzantine Quarter, 1999-2000 excavations

Erickson-Gini (2010)
Fig. 1.78a

Fallen arch under the floor of Room 4, Phase 3, sublevel, 363 CE

Erickson-Gini (2010)
  • In Room 4 a row of fallen arch stones were found buried beneath the latest floor of the room (Fig. 1.78, upper) - Erickson-Gini (2010:91-95)
 VI+
This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Cave collapses were observed in the caves furthest upslope which suggests a site effect or what Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999) call a "sky-scraper effect".

The "Previous" Earthquake - 5th century CE

Effect
Event
"Previous"
or
7th century
 Location Image(s) Comments Intensity
Displaced Walls - TREND DISCORDANCE OF FIRST LOWER ROWS OF MASONRY WITH UPPER WALL FRAGMENTS, AND TREND DEVIATION FROM PERPENDICULAR OF WALLS JOINING EACH OTHER "Previous" Room 10 of Court in South Quarter
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
5
Figure 5

Counterclockwise rotation of whole western wall of room No. 10 of the court (see Figure 4). Its former position - preserved fundamental row - is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Strange discordance of trends of first lower rows of masonry (usually one or two rows) and upper wall fragments is visible in some parts of Avdat. For example, there is counterclockwise rotation of the whole NW wall of room No. 10 of the court (see, Figure 3). Horizontal displacement was 45 cm. During rotation around the vertical axis the NW wall was not collapsed and townsmen, who settled there after the 363 A.D. shock, used the rotated wall for rebuilding (Fabian 1996, 1997). The original trend of the wall was 50°, preserved first and second lower rows testify about that building (Figure 5). Modern trend azimuth of rotated wall is 41°.
In some places, one can see a sharp deviation of trends for separate walls joining to each other perpendicularly. Such deviations can sometimes amount to an angle of 11° (see, for example, SE wall of room No. 2 of the court on the Figure 3). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VII+
Displaced walls - SHIFTING OF UPPER PRESERVED FRAGMENTS OF WALLS AS COMPARED WITH LOWER ROWS OF STONES "Previous" Room 8 of Court in South Quarter
Figure 3

Detailed plan of one court in the South Quarter (after Fabian, 1997, with modifications). Area of the court is shaded in Figure 2.
  1. Inclination of the walls, the beaks show the dip azimuths.
  2. Wall collapse, the arrows show the direction of wall collapse.
  3. Joints crossing two stones, touches show the dip of the joints.
  4. Subvertical joints passing two stones.
  5. Rotations of stones in the walls and arch columns.


Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
6
Figure 6

Displacement to WNW of wall fragment of room No. 8 of the court (see Figure 3). Its former position is shown by pointers.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
The shift of the building elements without rotation may be used in a similar manner to wall inclination or block collapse. The upper element of a construction is shifted toward or away from an epicenter due to inertia. In the Avdat such a displacement, of 80 cm, can be observed for the upper fragment of the NW wall of room No. 8 of the court (see, Figure 3) in a NW direction (Figure 6). Its former position (trend azimuth is 41°) is marked by one stone row of 20 cm height. The width of the shifted wall fragment is 70 cm, length is 165 cm, height of preserved fragment is 55-60 cm, its trend azimuth is 45°.
These facts apparently testify to the adaptation of the lower non-destroyed rows of masonry and preserved walls (only rotated slightly) for the regeneration of the town in Byzantine times. During Roman times at the same place, there was a settlement which was destroyed by an earthquake. Later the town was, again rebuilt on the site of the former settlement using the preserved lower rows of masonry and preserved whole walls (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VII+
Displaced walls - NONCOINCIDENCE OF LOWER STONE ROWS WITH UPPER BUILDING STRUCTURES "Previous" N yard of bath-house 7a
Figure 7a

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.

(a) View to northern yard corner

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

7b
Figure 7b

Noncoincidence of lower most stone rows and upper fragments of wall in the northern yard of bath-house situated near Avdat hill foot.>br>
(b) NW external wall of yard, lower most stone row is continuing to NW "without reason" (field notebook is on it). The bath-house is on the background.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Additional indirect evidence of possible seismic activity in the studied territory is non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures. Such patterns occurred when a building was partly destroyed during an earthquake, but ancient people decided not to restore it. They removed still standing preserved fragments of the destroyed building and smoothed out the piles of rubble. They built a new building on the site of the old one. Later, during recent archeological excavations, researchers discovered strange non-coincidence of lower stone rows with upper building structures (Fabian, 1996, 1997).
For example, such non-coincidence can be observed in the northern yard of the bath-house, which is located near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 7). The bottom row of the NW corner of the wall is pulled out to the west 13 cm if compared with the upper fragment of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 159° (see, Figure 7(a)). This non-coincidence is even larger - 28.5 cm if compared with the SE part of the wall, with the trend azimuth of 167°. The lower pulled row of the northern fragment of the wall continues to the NW over the perpendicular external wall of the yard (see Figure 7(b)). The probable explanation of this case is given in the previous paragraph. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VII+
Tilted Walls - SUPPORT-WALLS "Previous" Southern Church
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
8
Figure 8

Support-wall was built for support of eastern corner of Southern Church.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Indirect evidence of more old shocks are special support-walls which were built solely for this purpose. One such wall was built to support the eastern corner of the Southern Church (P. Fabian, 1994, personal communication). The wall which needed support had an ENE trend (Figure 8). One more support-wall was built to support the external wall (with NE strike) of the South Quarter of the town, opposite the eastern corner of the Fort, later it was dismantled by archeologists during excavation (P. Fabian, personal communication, 1996). This building of supporting walls for city walls of the same trend is not isolated. Apparently, during the Roman earthquake these city walls were slightly tilted, but they were not collapsed. Ancient people built those support-walls specifically to prevent them from possible future collapse (Fabian, 1996, 1997). - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) VI+
Collapsed Walls and Collapsed Vaults - CAVE DESTRUCTIONS "Previous" Caves
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
As stated above, on the slope of Avdat hill there are many caves which were inhabited for living during Nabatean—Byzantine times. However, below the caves there are huge piles of rubble, which consist of debris from Avdat hill's rocks and from remains of domestic objects (pieces of Nabatean earthenware vessels, for example - T. Gini, personal communication, 1996). This fact also indicates a possible earthquake in 363 A.D. during which the collapse of inhabited caves took place. After that event ancient people cleaned out the caves and used them for living in for the second time. However, some of the caves were not cleaned after the 363 A.D. shock.
The caves near the top of the hill were the most severely damaged (T. Gini, 1996, personal communication). This fact can be explained by the "sky-scraper effect - maximum oscillation during earthquakes is in the upper part of the building (or the hill in the Avdat case).
A study of habitable (in the past) caves was made. They were dug up on a hill slope, on top of which there are main town buildings. This study shows numerous collapses of walls and cave vaults, and also considerable long fractures. The displacement of chisel traces on the cave ceilings was observed, where those traces are crossed by long fractures in limestone massif . The latest ones show subsidence on the first few centimeters of the middle parts of the limestone hill compared to the external parts. It is the opposite to what one would expect due to gravitation forces. Such graben-like subsidence of watershed parts of mountain ridges was observed during strong earthquakes in the Baikal Rift area (Khromovskikh, 1965) and in the Tien Shan seismic belt (Korjenkov and Chedia, 1986; Korjenkov and Omuraliev, 1993; Ghose et al., 1997). These seismogenic features are indicators of an earthquake intensity of IX—X.
The new Byzantine town existed until the beginning of the seventh century A.D., probably 633 A.D., and was then totally destroyed by an earthquake never to be rebuilt (Fabian, 1996, 1997). This may explain the absence of any Early Muslim period finds at the site in spite of the continued occupation of other Negev sites such as Nessana and Shivta (see Figure 1) that existed until the tenth century A.D. (E. Oren, personal communication, 1996). These towns were located west of Avdat and were probably less affected by the earthquake.
The following are the seismic features belonging to group 2, used for the determination of the seismic wave propagation direction. They belong to the seismic event which occurred in the 7th century. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VIII+
This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

7th century CE earthquake

Intensity Estimate from the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Effect
Event
"Previous"
or
7th century
 Location Image(s) Comments Intensity
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - JOINTS AS AN INDICATION OF THE SEISMIC NATURE OF THE DESTRUCTIONS 7th century WSW external wall of the Northern Church
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
4
Figure 4

Joints in western end of NNW wall of Northern Church (trend azimuth of a wall 151°). One joint on left corner crosses two blocks. Width of opening is to 1.5 cm. Trend azimuth of joint in upper block is 57-70°, in lower one is 35°.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Joints are mode 1 (dilatation) fractures developed as a result of extension (Engelder and Fisher. 1996). Joints confined to stone breaks often appear in old buildings. Interpretation of such joints is somewhat ambiguous: they could be erected tectonically, they could also be the result of weathering, i.e., repeated heating and cooling events. In contrast, joints passing through two or more adjacent blocks (through-going joints) could be formed only under high strains. Such joints require the application of tremendous amounts of energy to overcome the stress shadows, appearing along free surfaces at the block margins (Fisher et al., 1995: Engelder, and Fisher, 1996; Becker and Gross, 1996) and therefore cannot be related to the weathering process.
Numerous examples of through-going joints were observed during the study of the ruins of Avdat town. One such joint was found in the WSW external wall of the Northern Church (trend azimuth is 150°) in a corner of a small ledge (Figure 4). The joint crosses two adjacent blocks with a thickness of 50 cm each. What is most important in this case, is that the joint has passed straight through cement between the two blocks, without any bends. The length of the joint is 1 m. It starts 30 cm in from the upper corner of the upper block and it finishes 70 cm in from the lower corner of the lower block. The joint is inclined by an azimuth 174° L59° in its upper part, dip azimuth is 173° L68° in its lower part.
All of the above is evidence of an earthquake which took place in the region of Avdat town in the 7th century A.D., probably 631-633 A.D. However, there is other evidence in the town, dating back to the Late Roman period, of at least one more strong seismic event, probably the well known earthquake of 363 A.D. (Amiran, 1950-1952; Russell, 1980; Amiran et al., 1994), which terminated the Late Roman settlement of the city. Several years later, a new town was rebuilt on the ruins of the old one. This idea was suggested by P. Fabian (1996, 1997). Our study has confirmed his suggestion. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VI +
Tilted and Collapsed Walls - INCLINATION OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS mostly 7th century ? various locations 9
Figure 9

Example of inclination and collapse of walls of the Byzantine Avdat, inclination of the lower part of a courtyard wall and collapse of the upper part, both in the same direction.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

10
Figure 10

Angle of inclination of walls versus wall trends, Avdat ruins. Walls trending 40-60° have no preferential direction of inclination. In contrast, walls trending 130-140° are systematically inclined to the south.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
As in strong earthquakes throughout the world, a large number of structural elements were found to be preferentially inclined (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978; Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993a and others). A similar destruction was found in the ancient city of Avdat: forty one cases of preferentially inclined walls (Figures 9 and 10) and inclination of single stones within walls can be seen there. As seen in Figure 5, walls trending SE 130°-140° are systematically inclined to the SW. In contrast walls trending NE 40°-60° are inclined to NW and SE with no preferential direction. This observation seems to indicate that the seismic shock arrived along the NE—SW direction: the walls oriented roughly normal to the seismic wave direction were systematically collapsed or inclined, whereas walls oriented parallel to the seismic waves lost support, were tilted and collapsed randomly. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) VIII+
Collapsed walls - COLLAPSE FEATURES 7th century ? Agricultural Fences 11a
Figure 11a

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained on the top of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

11b
Figure 11b

Ruins of Byzantine agricultural fences remained near the foot of Avdat hill.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

12
Figure 12

Direction of preferred collapse, measured at Avdat, as a function of wall directions. A single group of collapse directions has been observed.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Numerous ruins of agricultural fences remained on the top (Figure 11(a)) and near the foot of the Avdat hill (Figure 11(b)). The fences trending about EW reveal a clear systematic picture of the collapse: the lower part of the wall is intact (easily seen from its northern side), whereas the upper part of the fences fell southward (see Figure 11). Azimuth of preferred collapsed features are plotted in Figure 12 versus wall trend. One group of walls trending SE 90°-140° reveals collapse toward SW 180°-240°, whereas walls oriented in other directions fell on both sides of the original wall position, they did not show a systematic pattern of the collapse, and so they were not shown on the graph. This observation indicates that the direction of seismic wave propagation was roughly perpendicular to the SE-trending walls.
It is necessary to mention the cases of wall drags (rotations) because of wall collapse. Many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by the drag due to the collapse of a wall (Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be used to determine shear stresses, however the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VIII+
Displaced Masonry Blocks - ROTATION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS 7th century ? Avdat Tower and wall in the southern quarter
Plan of of Avdat

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
Figure 3

Avdat Settlement Plan

Zion et al (2022)
13
Figure 13

Drag because of wall collapse in Avdat

(a) model of the drag

(b) diagram of drag cases in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14a
Figure 14a

Counterclockwise rotation of whole fragment of the wall in Southern Quarter, Avdat

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

14b
Figure 14b

Clockwise rotation in SW wall of the Avdat Tower.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)

15
Figure 15

Rotation of stones and walls in Avdat archaeological site.

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)
Field study of the epicentral zones of the well-known strong earthquakes revealed that some building constructions or rock fragments were rotated clockwise, whereas others were rotated counterclockwise (Richter, 1958; Cloud and Scott, 1969; Bolt, 1978: Polyakov, 1978; Omuraliev et al., 1993b and others). Horizontal rotation of arch supports, separate blocks in arch supports and walls, or rotation of a large fragment of a wall with tens to hundreds of stones were measured in the ruins of Avdat town. Clockwise and counterclockwise patterns of rotation were observed. Some examples of the rotated elements are shown in Figure 14.
For the case of the Avdat ruins the pattern and degree of rotations were plotted against the wall trends (Figure 15 ). As can be seen in the graph, the only one case of clockwise rotation was found in a wall fragment with trend SE 140°, whereas counterclockwise rotations were found on walls trending NE 40°-60°.
The rotations described above were measured in well-preserved walls at some distance from the corners, so that a researcher could be confident, that the rotations were caused by a shear couple. However, many rotated blocks or block fragments in Avdat were caused by a drag which occurred due to collapse of a wall (see Figure 13). Such rotations cannot be applied to determine shear stresses, however, the patterns of drag-caused rotations enable us to reconstruct the direction of wall collapse, which, as described above, is an independent kinematic indicator. - Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)		 VIII+
  • Warped or folded wall
  • collapsed stone ceiling slabs (displaced walls)
  • collapsed arch
 7th century Area A
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 1

Area A

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 2
Fig. 2

Area A, the warped external western wall (W1), looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
In a structure at the end of the main street of the residential Roman/Byzantine Quarter, the western half of a room was excavated (Plan 1; 2.5 × 5.0 m) to facilitate the reconstruction of its western wall (W1); its exterior had been warped by earthquake damage that occurred in the early seventh century CE (Fig. 2; see Negev 1997:2, Fig. 1). The walls survived to an impressive height: the western wall (W1) stood 10 courses high (2.3 m), the northern wall (W2), 14 courses (2.3 m), and the southern wall (W3), 15 courses (2.8 m). ... The walls apparently supported an upper floor. Inside the room, in the upper layer of the excavation trench, where stone ceiling slabs and arch stones were uncovered, was evidence of heavy earthquake collapse. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • VII+
  • VII+
  • VI+
  • collapsed stone ceiling slabs (displaced walls)
  • collapsed arches
  • rotated blocks in arch (displaced masonry blocks)
 7th century Area B Room 1
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 8

Area B, collapsed arches and ceiling slabs in Room 1, looking west.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 9

Area B, signs of rotation in the arch springer along W1 in Room 1.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Collapsed arches and ceiling slabs were discovered throughout the room [1] (L1/00; Fig. 8) and the arch springer in W1 appears to have rotated slightly due to an earthquake (Fig. 9; Plan 2: Section 1–1). - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • VII+
  • VI+
  • VIII+
  • collapsed walls
  • broken and fallen pottery
  • collapsed arch
 7th century Area B Room 2
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 2

Area B, plan and sections

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 15

Area B, remains of pantry in L2/01, looking southeast.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
In the southeastern corner of the courtyard (L2/01), the collapsed remains of a small pantry room (Fig. 15) were uncovered, containing several broken ceramic vessels, mainly cooking wares, as well as a late form of a Gaza wine jar, parts of a late Byzantine glass bottle and part of a marble paten with faded decoration (see below). A collapsed baking oven (L4/00, L4/01; c. 1.5 × 2.0 m), revealed in the northwestern corner of the courtyard, opposite the stairs, and its roof, appear to have been supported by a small limestone arch discovered in a collapsed state. The oven was built into the corner of the courtyard and may have had an opening in the oven’s southern end. It is similar in plan to an oven of the early Byzantine period in Room 38 of the Roman/Byzantine Quarter (Erickson-Gini 2010:94). A nearly complete imported semi-fine-ware bowl was uncovered above the collapsed oven, and a large bagshaped storage jar lacking its rim was found sunk into the floor south of the oven. The presence of the oven and storage jars sunk into the earthen floor of the courtyard indicate that the room served as a bakery where grain was stored for grinding. - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • VIII+
  • VII+
  • VI+
  • collapsed walls (massive earthquake debris)
  • collapsed bedrock shelves
 7th century Dipinti Cave in Area D
Fig. 1

The excavation areas

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Plan 3

Area D, plan of the Dipinti Cave.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 16

Area D, collapsed bedrock shelf fronting the cave above the Dipinti Cave, looking north.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Fig. 18

Area D, eastern extension of probe in front of Dipinti Wall, looking east toward W2.

Erickson-Gini (2022)
Area D was excavated on the southern slope of the acropolis, c. 15 m north of the modern access road. Evidence of massive earthquake debris was revealed, similar to that discovered on the western and northern slopes of the acropolis, where bedrock shelves above the front rooms of man-made caves had collapsed (Fig. 16). ... A probe 0.7 m wide was excavated along the exterior of the dipinti Wall, in an area covered with heavy collapsed debris from the bedrock shelf of the terrace above the cave (Plan 3; Fig. 18). - Erickson-Gini (2022)
  • VIII+
  • ?
This archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)'s seismic characterization of the 7th century earthquake

As mentioned previously, Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) were able to sort a number of seismic effects by earthquake event - distinguishing whether the observed damage was due to the 7th century earthquake or one of the "previous" earthquakes (i.e the southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE and/or the 5th century CE earthquake). As such, one can have confidence in the Intensity estimate Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) produced for the 7th century earthquake. Korjenkov and Mazor (1999)'s conclusion for the 7th century CE earthquake is that

The destruction was caused by a compressional seismic wave, the epicenter was located SSW of Avdat somewhere in central Negev, and the degree of town destruction [] according to Seismic Intensity Scale MSK-64 was IX-X.

Discontinuous Deformation Analysis by Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 13 - Northern wall of the Roman Tower
    Figure 13

    A. The northern wall of the roman tower at Avdat. The five corner blocks are marked and their displacement direction is displayed with an arrow.

    B. The DDA block system for the tower at Avdat. Five fixed points (squares) are assigned to the confining block, and five measurement points (circles) are assigned and numbered on corner blocks. 1,2 and 3 are three of the displaced blocks.

    Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
    from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
  • Fig. 12 - Bulged Rocks on western wall
    Figure 12

    A The Roman tower in Avdat, a view of the western wall. The displaced blocks are numbered for reference.

    B. The displaced blocks.

    Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
    from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
  • Fig. 16A - Best - fit simulations
    Figure 16

    Best - fit simulations of the Avdat earthquake

    A (left)
    • Ah = l g
    • Av = 0
    • f =3 Hz.
    • Dh_avmax = 8 cm.


    B (right)
    • Ah = l.5 g
    • Av = 0
    • f =5 Hz.
    • Dh_avmax = 14 cm.


    Kamai and Hatzor (2005)
    from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)

Discussion

Kamai and Hatzor (2005) performed Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA) on a model (Fig. 13) for displaced blocks on the western wall of the Roman Tower (Fig. 12) of Avdat. The tower, dated to 294 AD, was founded directly on bedrock, and has risen to a height of 12 m, from which only 6 m are left standing today. (Kamai and Hatzor, 2005 citing Negev, 1997). The best-fit simulation (Fig. 16A) was run with the following seismic parameters:
  • Ah = l g
  • Av = 0
  • f =3 Hz.
  • Dh_avmax = 8 cm.
Kamai and Hatzor (2005:133-134) did not present single best fit parameters due to various limitations so this parameterization, though consistent with other estimates of Intensity, should only be considered approximate. A PGA of 1 g converts to an Intensity of 9.3 using Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). Although Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) did not explicitly attribute the bulges in the Roman Tower to the 7th century CE earthquake, the high PGA that comes from Kamai and Hatzor (2005)'s simulations suggests that this is the case as the 7th century earthquake was apparently a powerful and destructive earthquake which both destroyed Avdat and led to its abandonment.

Kamai and Hatzor (2007) noted that seismic amplification can be at at play at higher parts of a structure (i.e. the "Sky-scraper effect" mentioned by Korzhenkov) leading to potential amplification of bedrock PGA by as much as 2.5. This could in turn lead to a bracket of PGA values for The Roman Tower from 0.4 and 1.0 g. These PGA values convert to Intensities of 7.8 - 9.3 using Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). A final result can thus be that DDA modeling of the Roman Tower suggests bedrock Intensities between 8 and 10 during this earthquake. Note that this ignores seismic amplification due to a ridge effect over the entire site. The ridge effect could add an additional amplification factor.
Variable Input Units Notes
g Peak Horizontal Ground Acceleration
Variable Output - Site Effect not considered Units Notes
unitless Conversion from PGA to Intensity using Wald et al (1999)
  

Model and Lab derived properties

Model was run in qk.mode using a sinusoidal input function. The authors noted that in the case of Avdat the obtained ground-motion parameters may be higher than reasonably expected (e.g. l g at Avdat). Therefore, they do not argue at this stage for exact historical ground motion restoration. Soil-structure and rock-structure interactions were not part of the analysis and considering that Avdat may be subject to a ridge effect, 1 g could be reasonable and could explain the unusual wall bulge at the Roman Tower at Avdat which appears to have been generated by a significant seismic force. Although the authors date this seismic effect to the 3rd or 4th century CE, Erickson-Gini (2014)'s characterization of the 363 CE earthquake as causing the least damage to the site of the 4 recognized earthquakes suggests that this is not the case.

Lab Measurements of original stones from Avdat
Property Value Units
Density 2555 kg./m3
Porosity 5 %
Dynamic Young's Modulus 54.2 Gpa
Dynamic Shear Modulus 20.4 Gpa
Dynamic Poisson's Ratio 0.33 unitless
Interface friction angle 35 degrees

Distinguishing 7th century effects from "Previous" earthquake effects

Korjenkov and Mazor (1999) did not produce an Intensity or directional estimate for any of the earthquakes that preceded the 7th century CE event. However, by making use of their detailed descriptions of seismic effects and the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart, I produced Intensity estimates for both the 7th century CE earthquake and the "previous" one. "Previous" earthquake seismic effects were presumed to come from seismic effects associated with rebuilding as limited rebuilding should be associated with the 7th century earthquake. Although Bucking et al (2022) produced evidence of Umayyad and Abbasid occupation on the slopes below the acropolis, the upper acropolis area may have been destroyed and largely abandoned as archaeologists (e.g. Peter Fabian) have posited in the past. Although I cannot rigorously distinguish whether my "previous" earthquake Intensity estimate is for the southern Cyril Quake of 363 CE or the early 5th century CE earthquake, if Erickson-Gini, T. (2014) is correct that the southern Cyril Quake only caused some structural damage and the 5th century earthquake was massive, my Intensity estimate for the "previous" earthquake is likely effectively for the 5th century quake.

Site Effect
Topographic or Ridge Effect

Terrain Map - Avdat/Obod Terrain Map

Avdat/Oboda

Google Maps


Citing a personal communication with Tali Erickson-Gini in 1996, Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999), noted increased seismic damage in upslope caves adjacent to the Avdat acropolis after the 363 CE earthquake. This suggests that a ridge effect may present at Avdat. A terrain map (above) shows that Avdat is situated at the end of a ~4 km. long ridge Avdat. Orientation of the ridge further indicates that seismic energy arriving from the NE or the SW (orthogonal to the ridge) would be most likely to produce seismic amplification at the site. A slope effect may also be at play as Avdat is surrounded by steep slopes on 3 sides.

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Bucking, S., et al. (2022). "The Avdat in Late Antiquity Project: uncovering the Early Islamic phases of a Byzantine town in the Negev Highlands." Antiquity 96(387): 754-761.

Bucking, S., et al. (2022). "The Avdat in Late Antiquity Project: uncovering the Early Islamic phases of a Byzantine town in the Negev Highlands." Antiquity: 1-8.

Erickson-Gini, T., Crisis and Renewal: Settlement in the Negev in the 3rd and 4th Centuries CE, with an Emphasis on the Finds from the New Excavations in Mampsis, Oboda and Mesad ‘En Ḥazeva (Ph.D. diss.), Jerusalem

Erickson-Gini, T. (2000). Nabataean or Roman? Reconsidering the date of the camp at Avdat in light of recent excavations. XVIIIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Amman, Jordan.

Erickson-Gini T. (2010) Nabataean Settlement and Self-Organized Economy in the Central Negev: Crisis and Renewal (BAR Int. S. 2054). Oxford.

Erickson-Gini, T. and I. Yigal (2013). "Excavating the Nabataean Incense Road." Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 1(1): 24-53.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2014). "Oboda and the Nabateans." STRATA - Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 32.

Erickson-Gini, T. (2022) Evidence of a Late Byzantine Period Earthquake and a Monastic Stable at ‘Avedat (Oboda) ‘Atiqot 107

Fabian P. 1996. Evidence of Earthquake Destruction in the Archaeological Record. The Case of Ancient Avdat. Big Cities World (Conference on Natural Disaster Mitigation in Conjunction with the Tenth International Seminar on Earthquake Prognostics, Abstracts, January 5–10, 1996, Cairo, Egypt). Cairo. P. 25.

Fabian, P. (1998). Evidence of earthquakes destruction in the archaeological record–the case of ancient Avdat. Pp. 21E-26E in The Annual Meeting of the Israel Geological Society, Mitzpeh Ramon.

Goren, Y. and P. Fabian (2008). "The Oboda Potter's Workshop Reconsidered." Journal of Roman Archaeology 21.

Kamai, R. and Y. Hatzor (2005). Dynamic back analysis of structural failures in archeological sites to obtain paleo-seismic parameters using DDA. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on the Analysis of Discontinuous Deformation (ICADD-7).

Korzhenkov, A. and E. Mazor (1998). "Seismogenic Origin of the Ancient Avdat Ruins, Negev Desert, Israel." Natural Hazards 18: 193-226.

Korzhenkov, A. and E. Mazor (1999). "Structural reconstruction of seismic events: Ruins of ancient buildings as fossil seismographs." Science and New Technologies 1: 62-74.

Negev, A. (1974). The Nabatean Potter's Workshop at Oboda, Habelt.

Negev, A. (1986) The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda: Final Report , Qedem, v. 22, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Negev, A. (1986) The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda: Final Report , Qedem, v. 22, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - at JSTOR

Negev, A. (1991). The Temple of Obodas: Excavations at Oboda in July 1989 . Israel Exploration Journal, 41(1/3), 62–80. - at JSTOR

Negev, A. (1997) The Architecture of Oboda: Final report , Qedem, v. 36, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Negev, A. (1997) The Architecture of Oboda: Final report , Qedem, v. 36, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem - at JSTOR

Rodkin, M. V. and A. M. Korzhenkov (2018). Estimation of maximum mass velocity from macroseismic data: A new method and application to archeoseismological data. Geodesy and Geodynamics.

Zion, O., Ashkenasi, Eli, Erickson-Gini, Tali , (2022). Byzantine Oboda / Avdat and the Surrounding Agricultural Regime. Archaeological Excavations and Research Studies in Southern Israel Collected Papers. A. Golani, Varga, Daniel, Tchekhanovets, Yana, Birkenfeld, Michal. 5.

Excavation Reports

Negev, A. (1997). "THe Architecture Of Oboda: Final Report." Qedem 36: III-214..

Websites

Avdat at BibleWalks.com

Avdat at Monastic Archaeology

Avdat at Madain Project

Bibliography from Stern et al (1993 v.3)

Main publications

A. Negev, The Nabatean Potter's Workshop at Oboda, Bonn 1974

id., Tempel, Kirchen und Cisternen, Stuttgart 1983, 53-96, 153-167, 181-192

id., The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery of Nabatean Oboda (Qedem 22), Jerusalem 1986.

Other studies

: E. H. Palmer, PEQ 3 (1871), 1-80

A. Jaussen et al., RB 13 (1904), 403-424

14 (1905), 78- 89, 235-244

M. J. Lagrange, CRAIBL (1904), 279-298

Musil, Arabia Petraea 2, Edom, 106-151; J. Cledat, Annales du Service des Antiquites de /'Egypte 10 ( 191 0), 234-237

12 (1912), 145-168

Woo HeyLawrence, PEFA 3, 93-107, 143-145

T. Wiegand, Sinai, Berlin 1921

M. Avi-Yonah, CNII0/3-4 (1959), 23-35

id., RB 67 (1960), 378-381

M. Avi-Yonah and A. Negev, ILN (Nov. 26, 1960), 944-947; A. Negev,!EJ9 (1959), 274-275

11 (1961), 127-138

13 (1963), 113-124

15 (1965), 185-194

17 (1967), 46-55

24 (1974), 153-159

36 (1986), 56-60

41 (1991), 62-80

id., Archaeology 14 (1961), 122-130

id., BTS 40 (1961), 4-13

id., Ariell6 (1966), 12-19

id., Cities oft he Desert, Tel Aviv 1966

id., PEQ 99 (1966), 89-98

101 (1969), 5-14

108 (1976), 125-133

114 (1982), 119-128

id., Die Nabataer: Ein vergessenes Volk am Totem Meer, Munich 1970, 48-51

id., RB 79 (1972), 381-398

80 (1973), 364-383

81 (1974), 397-420

83 (1976), 203-236

id., Aufsteig und Niedergang der romischen Welt 2/8, Berlin and New York 1977, 520-586

id., LA 28 (1978), 87-126

39 (1989), 129-142

id., MdB 19 (1981), 11-15, 28-31

id., The Greek lnscriptionsfrom the Negev, Jerusalem 1981, 11-45

id., Antike Welt 13 (1982), 2-33

id., Nabatean Archaeology Today, New York 1986

id., Qedem 22 (Review), JNES 50 (1991), 66-69

id., BAR 14/6 (1988), 30-31

J. Naveh, IEJ 17 (1967), 187-189

R. Rosenthal, ibid. 24 (1974), 95-96

D. Chen, LA 35 (1985), 291-296

J. Gunneweg et al., Jahrbuch des romisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 35 (1988), 315-345

S. Noja, Studio Semitica Neenan lranica (R. Macuch Fest.), Wiesbaden 1989, 187-194; J. A. Bellamy. Journal of Semitic Studies 35 (1990), 73-79.

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

Main publications

A. Negev, The Architecture of Oboda: Final Report (Qedem 36), Jerusalem 1997

ibid. (Reviews) BAR 24/6 (1998), 56. — NEA 61 (1998), 182. — BAIAS 17 (1999), 93–94. — AJA 104 (2000), 154. — BASOR 318 (2000), 84–85

T. Erickson-Gini, Crisis and Renewal: Settlement in the Negev in the 3rd and 4th Centuries CE, with an Emphasis on the Finds from the New Excavations in Mampsis, Oboda and Mesad ‘En Hazeva (Ph.D. diss.), Jerusalem (in prep.)

P. Fabian, The Development of the Roman Army at the Limits of the Empire: The Annexation of the Nabatean Kingdom and Its Implications—Avdat as a Test Case (Ph.D. diss.), Beer Sheva (in prep.)

Studies

M. Salzmann, Das Heilige Land 123/2–3 (1991), 11–14

H. Castritius, ZDPV 108 (1992), 82–91; A. Negev, ABD, 5, New York 1992, 6–7

id., BA 56 (1993), 141–142

id., Eretz 8/2 (1993), 35–44

id., ESI 12 (1993), 108–109

id., Aram 8 (1996), 67–87

id., Judaea and the Graeco-Roman World in the Time of Herod in the Light of Archaeological Evidence, Göttingen 1996, 219–251

id., OEANE, 1, New York 1997, 236–238

id., The Nabateans in the Negev (Reuben and Edith Hecht Museum Catalog 22

ed. R. RosenthalHeginbottom), Haifa 2003, 17*–20*

id., Petra Rediscovered: Lost City of the Nabataeans (ed. G. Markoe), London 2003, 101–105

S. Noja, Semitica: serta philologica (C. Tsereteli Fest.

eds. R. Contini et al.), Torino 1993, 183–188

O. Potchter & Y. Tepper, Studies in the Geography of Israel 14 (1993), ix–x

R. Snir, AbrNahrain 31 (1993), 110–125

P. Figueras, Aram 6 (1994), 284–285

M. Kropp, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 27 (1994), 165–174

G. Tahal, ESI 14 (1994), 130–133

Petra-Ez Zantur, Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen, 1: 1988–1992 (Terra Archäologica 2), by A. Bignasca et al., Mainz am Rhein 1996, 68–69

D. Testen, JNES 55 (1996), 281–293

L. Di Segni, Dated Greek Inscriptions from Palestine from the Roman and Byzantine Periods (Ph.D. diss.), 1–2, Jerusalem 1997

R. Sivan, The Conservation of Archaeological Sites in the Mediterranean Region (ed. M. de la Torre), Los Angeles 1997

R. Wenning, Religion und Gesellschaft 1 (1997), 179–201

H. Goldfus, Tombs and Burials in Churches and Monasteries of Byzantine Palestine (324–628 A.D.), 1–2 (Ph.D. diss., Princeton 1997), Ann Arbor, MI 1998, 70–80

A. M. Korjekov & E. Mazor, Natural Hazards 18 (1998), 193–226

H. Geva, Archaeological Sites in Israel, 4, Jerusalem 1999, 41–45

W. Zanger, BAR 25/4 (1999), 68–69

G. Lacerenza, Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino Oriente Antico 17 (2000), 105–114

S. G. Schmid, Die Feinkeramik der Nabatär: Typologie, Chronologie und kulturhistorische Hintergründe (Petra-Ez Zantur, Ergebnisse der Schweizerisch-Liechtensteinischen Ausgrabungen 2/1

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Caves of Avdat

Description Image Reference
Caves on north slope
Figure 4

Location of the caves in the northern part of Avdat, looking east

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 4 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves on south slope
Figure 5

Location of the caves in the southern part of Avdat

Photo: Yaakov Shmidov, preparation: Ofer Sion

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 5 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 1
Figure 6

Cave plans North 1

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 6 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 1
Figure 7

Cave plans North 1

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 7 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans North 2
Figure 8

Cave plans North 2

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 8 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2
Figure 9

Cave plans South 2

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 9 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 1
Figure 10

Cave plans South 1

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 10 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2
Figure 11

Cave plans South 2

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 11 - Zion et al (2022)
Caves Plans South 2
Figure 12

Cave plans South 2

Measurements: Tali Erickson-Gini, drawing: Ofer Sion, Yelena Delerson

Zion et al (2022)
Fig. 12 - Zion et al (2022)
Aerial view of the southern slope
Figure 2

Aerial view of the southern slope at Avdat after the 2018 season, with inset showing final excavation of the southern compound after 2019 season

(photograph by E. Alajem; inset by S. Bucking)

Bucking et al (2022)
Fig. 2 - Bucking et al (2022)

Notes on the so-called Potter's Workshop

so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Obod Photo 6

The khan, potter's workshop

Negev (1997:5)


Russell (1985) cited archeoseismic evidence for the Incense Road Quake at Avdat citing Negev (1961:123,125) and Negev (1974:24) where Russell (1985) states
At Avdat, an imperial coin struck at Alexandria and tentatively identified as Trajanic was apparently found in association with the collapse of the potter's workshop (Negev, 1974:24).
Ambraseys (2009) supplied the following comments:
Negev argues instead that these destructions were caused by invading Safaitic and Thamudic hordes in the mid first century (Negev 1976), basing his thesis on the period of pottery debris found in a workshop at Oboda. This solution might seem preferable, since it is best not to assume an earthquake unless there is written evidence for it. However, apart from the complexity of the multiple dates of the pottery discovered by Negev (and the fact that later potters often imitated earlier styles), the appearance of a second-century coin among the pottery (Russell 1981, 8) seems to refute his thesis. Of course, this coin does not prove that Oboda was destroyed by an earthquake; it merely shows that Negev has made a mistake. What may suggest an earthquake is the sheer severity and extent of the destruction. Russell believes that neither a Roman annexation of the territory nor sacking by Safaitic or Thamudic hordes could, in any case, have done so much damage.
Negev (1976:229) states
Several years ago I suggested, on account of the results of the excavations at Oboda, a new chronological division for the archaeological history of the Nabateans in the central Negev, based on three phases, focusing at that time my attention on what I named the Middle Nabatean Period. The archaeological data indicated that this period, which began at the end of the reign of Obodas II, terminated abruptly during the generation following the death of Aretas IV, after the middle of the first century CE. I attributed the destruction of Oboda and several road stations along the Petra-Gaza road to attacks of Arab tribes who penetrated from Arabia, and left their imprints in the thousands of Safaitic and Thamudic graffiti in the central Negev, to the east of the Arabah, and also in northern Arabia itself.

The evidence on which I based this chronological scheme was purely archaeological — pottery and coins under a destruction layer, and on the basis of the finds in the Nabatean potter's workshop at Oboda 145 which all pointed to a break in the settlement of the central Negev sometime after the middle of the first century CE.
Goren and Fabian (2008) re-examined the so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda and concluded that it was probably a 2nd to early 3rd century CE mill-bakery in the Roman Quarter of town. They noted, among other things, that the original excavations by Negev of the "Potter's workshop" were in unstratified deposits, had coins dating from Hellenistic to the 3rd-4th centuries CE, and geochemical and minerological analysis indicated that the pottery found there appeared to be imported rather than made locally. This suggests that Negev's original hypothesis that the so-called Potter's workshop at Avdat/Oboda showed a break in occupation in the 1st century CE due to invasion (as Negev suggested) or an earthquake (as Russell (1985) proposed) is not supported by the evidence.

Negev's Notes on Retaining Walls and a post 3rd century CE Earthquake

Negev (1961) identified several phases of occupation at Avdat one of which, dated by inscriptions, began in the third century CE. Negev (1961: 126) noted that during this Late Roman/Byzantine occupation phase, the retaining walls were "probably shattered by a strong earthquake" and were repaired by "adding a second, rounded wall, screening the original one". A precise date for the archeoseismic damage was not supplied.

Wikipedia pages

Avdat



Incense trade route



Obodas I