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Amman Citadel - Umayyad Mosque

Aerial View of the Citadel in Amman Aerial Photograph of the Northern part of Citadel in Amman with the Umayyad Palace, Structures, and Mosque

APAAME CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
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Introduction
Introduction

  • from Chat GPT 4o, 21 June 2025
The Umayyad Mosque on the Amman Citadel is part of a broader palace complex attributed to the early Umayyad period, likely dating to the first half of the 8th century CE. Located just west of the main audience hall and aligned with a large courtyard and colonnaded street, the mosque represents one of the earliest Islamic congregational prayer spaces in Jordan.

Although not fully preserved, the mosque’s plan has been reconstructed based on foundations and partial wall remains. It consisted of a rectangular prayer hall oriented toward Mecca, preceded by an open courtyard. A small mihrab niche survives, indicating the qibla direction. The building technique combines local limestone masonry with reused Roman and Byzantine architectural elements, consistent with Umayyad spolia practices.

The mosque forms part of a wider effort under the Umayyads to establish Islamic monumental architecture on existing urban acropolises. Its proximity to the palace suggests that it served a primarily administrative or elite residential population, rather than a large urban congregation. Restoration efforts have partially reconstructed its columns and arcades to convey the original layout.

Amman - Introduction Webpage

Aerial Views, Plans, and Photos
Aerial Views, Plans, and Photos

Aerial Views

  • Citadel of Amman in Google Earth
    Citadel of Amman in Google Earth

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth

Plans

Normal Size

  • Area Plan of the Citadel
    Amman Citadel

    JW: Umayyad Palace at top of map

    from maps-amman.com/amman-citadel-map
    in Amman from maps-amman.com
  • Fig. 1 - General plan of
    Figure 1

    General plan of the north part of the Amman citadel.

    Alamgro et al (2000)
    the north part of the Amman citadel from Alamgro et al (2000)
  • Fig. 1 - Congregational
    Figure 1

    Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

    1. General plan
    2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
    3. View to north of the souq east portico
    4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


    Arce (2000)
    Mosque and Souq Square on the Citadel in Amman from Arce (2000)

Magnified

  • Area Plan of the Citadel
    Amman Citadel

    JW: Umayyad Palace at top of map

    from maps-amman.com/amman-citadel-map
    in Amman from maps-amman.com
  • Fig. 1 - General plan of
    Figure 1

    General plan of the north part of the Amman citadel.

    Alamgro et al (2000)
    the north part of the Amman citadel from Alamgro et al (2000)
  • Fig. 1 - Congregational
    Figure 1

    Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

    1. General plan
    2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
    3. View to north of the souq east portico
    4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


    Arce (2000)
    Mosque and Souq Square on the Citadel in Amman from Arce (2000)

Photos

Normal Size

  • Fig. 3d - Cornice Fragments
    Figure 3d

    Cornice Fragments from the Mosque Court

    Arce (2000)
    from the Mosque Court from Arce (2000)
  • Fig. 2e - Broken water
    Figure 2 e

    Channel broken by the A.D. 749 earthquake.

    Arce (2000)
    channel from Arce (2000)

Magnified

  • Fig. 3d - Cornice Fragments
    Figure 3d

    Cornice Fragments from the Mosque Court

    Arce (2000)
    from the Mosque Court from Arce (2000)
  • Fig. 2e - Broken water
    Figure 2 e

    Channel broken by the A.D. 749 earthquake.

    Arce (2000)
    channel from Arce (2000)

Chronology
Mid 8th century CE earthquake

Plans and Figures/Photos

Plans and Figures/Photos

Plans

Normal Size

  • Area Plan of the Citadel
    Amman Citadel

    JW: Umayyad Palace at top of map

    from maps-amman.com/amman-citadel-map
    in Amman from maps-amman.com
  • Fig. 1 - General plan of
    Figure 1

    General plan of the north part of the Amman citadel.

    Alamgro et al (2000)
    the north part of the Amman citadel from Alamgro et al (2000)
  • Fig. 1 - Congregational
    Figure 1

    Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

    1. General plan
    2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
    3. View to north of the souq east portico
    4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


    Arce (2000)
    Mosque and Souq Square on the Citadel in Amman from Arce (2000)

Magnified

  • Area Plan of the Citadel
    Amman Citadel

    JW: Umayyad Palace at top of map

    from maps-amman.com/amman-citadel-map
    in Amman from maps-amman.com
  • Fig. 1 - General plan of
    Figure 1

    General plan of the north part of the Amman citadel.

    Alamgro et al (2000)
    the north part of the Amman citadel from Alamgro et al (2000)
  • Fig. 1 - Congregational
    Figure 1

    Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

    1. General plan
    2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
    3. View to north of the souq east portico
    4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


    Arce (2000)
    Mosque and Souq Square on the Citadel in Amman from Arce (2000)

Figures/Photos

  • Fig. 2e - Broken water
    Figure 2 e

    Channel broken by the A.D. 749 earthquake.

    Arce (2000)
    channel from Arce (2000)

Discussion

Arce (2000:130) reports that the Umayyad Congregational Mosque at the Amman Citadel collapsed in the 749 CE Sabbatical Year Quakes. Structural damage included displaced column bases and dislocated foundations, which broke an adjacent water channel. Arce (2000) notes that the collapse resulted not only from the seismic shock but also from poor construction techniques, particularly inadequate fill compaction and unstable foundation design.

Arce (2000) dates the mosque to the Umayyad period based on construction techniques (lime-with-ash mortar, chip jointing), layout parallels with early Islamic hypostyle mosques, and its integration into the broader palatine complex. No direct inscriptions or coins were used to date the mosque itself, but associated architectural style and stratigraphy firmly place it in the early 8th century. The mosque was never rebuilt and was converted into residential use in the Abbasid period, providing an Abassid terminus ante quem for its destruction.

Arce (2000:135–140) also reports that multiple architectural elements were found in the 749 CE earthquake debris, including decorative cornices, fragments of façade decoration, niches, and colonnette panels. Four niche fragments displayed trefoil, vegetal, and composite tree motifs, with several pieces identified in undisturbed collapse layers along the west street/ziyada.

These smaller-scale niches differ from standard Umayyad assemblies by lacking structural interlocking elements and being designed for close viewing. Arce (2000) concludes they likely came from the lateral façades or interior of the mosque. Their form lacked the mechanically integrated joints found in more robust ashlar masonry, which may have contributed to their vulnerability during the collapse.

Additional evidence of interior damage includes fragments of carved stucco retrieved from the mosque’s courtyard and cisterns, indicating that while exterior façades used carved stone, the interior decoration relied on more fragile materials. A marble slab with a carved Kufic inscription—painted in red and blue—was also found in the collapsed debris at the mosque’s west wall. The reverse side bore a rougher reused inscription. Other graffiti found on steps include fragmentary invocations of the divine name "Allah" and phrases such as "Allah ’umma" and "Illa[..]".

References
Arce (2000)

Notes by JW

Arce (2000:130) report that the Congregational Mosque collapsed in the A.D. 749 earthquake noting that:

It can be seen in Figure 2e how the displacement of the column base and the foundation socle (as a result of the quake tremor) broke the water channel running beside it. The poor compacting of the fills, as well as the design itself of the building, were the reasons for this displacement of the column foundation and the consequent collapse of the building.
Arce (2000:135-140) reported on the following architectural elements found in A.D. 749 earthquake debris
  • Cornices

  • Small Niches Series and Lateral-Inner Façade Decoration noting 3 new types

    1. This piece combines arch, panel and colonnettes, with the same height but slightly wider (59 centimeters) than the average (48 centimeters). The panel does not have any carved decoration; perhaps a painted or mosaic decoration was applied on it (Figure 3h).
    2. This piece includes also an archivolted arch. The panel bears a huge trefoil motif that occupies the whole area of the arch. The height of the arch is 37 centimeters (Figure 3i).
    3. The panel decoration of this already known piece has a composite tree with a zig-zag stem and alternating half-palmettes, medlar leaves, and a pomegranate on a ground of three semicircles (Northedge 1992: figure 54.4 and plate 28f; Bartoccini 1933: 14, no.i) (Figure 3j).
    4. The panel from this new piece has a composite tree with a central stem and alternating half-palmettes pointing downwards and bunches of grapes. The ground has the typical three semicircles (Figure 3k). A single colonnette of the same series and another small fragment were found in the undisturbed debris from the mosque collapse in the west street/ziyada.

    Arce (2000:135-137) made the following structural conclusions from the niche evidence:
    There is an important characteristic of this set of niches that contrasts with the standard type (consisting of double engaged colonnettes, archivolted arches, and decorated panels). In the standard freezes, the decoration is displayed on a separate panel that is placed between two double-engaged colonnette pieces. Each of these pieces—with colonnettes—support two different neighboring archivolted arches. Therefore, we have an alternating vertical joint building system that provides more strength to the whole. In this other case, the elements are not three but two (and in some cases just one): the archivolted arches and the blocks that bring together the decorated panel are flanked by single colonnettes. Thus each niche stands on its own pair of colonnettes and decorated panel, without any link to the neighbouring ones. The standard set was designed to tie together its pieces as structural weight-carrying elements that formed part of the ashlar masonry fabric. In the small set case, the mechanical characteristics seem not to be so demanding.

    Another important feature is the scale of the pieces and consequently the place they were designed for. After knowledge achieved from the restoration of the vestibule, it can be asserted that the higher or more distant a decorated niche is away from the observer, the bigger it is in size.17 In our case, their smaller dimension would indicate that they were intended to be seen close up, as would be the case in a narrow street. This evidence would indicate that these small-scale pieces could have belonged to the lateral façades of the mosque, or even to its interior, being placed in between the buttresses.

  • Inner Decoration:Carved Stucco - Several pieces of carved stucco were found on the mosque courtyard floor and inside its cisterns. Therefore, it could be inferred that while the outside façades were decorated with carved stone the interior of the mosque was mainly decorated with carved stucco.

  • Carved Inscriptions - Among the collapsed debris from the 749 earthquake at the base of the west wall of the mosque a piece of great interest was found. It is a fragment of a marble slab with a carved Kufic inscription. Each line of the text was alternatively painted with red and pale blue pigments. Being Kufic, the inscription does not have diacritical marks. It has a carved edge that fitted into a supporting groove. On the rear another, much rougher, inscription can be seen, also in Arabic, indicating the block was reused. In both inscriptions the only complete word that can be read is "Allah" (Figures 4i, 4j). Other noticeable inscriptions are those scratched on the third step in front of the mosque; only "Allah 'umma" and also "Illa[..]" can be read.

Dating Evidence for the 749 CE Earthquake

  • from Chat GPT 4o, 21 June 2025
Arce (2000) attributes the destruction of the Umayyad Congregational Mosque at the Amman Citadel to the 749 CE Sabbatical Year Earthquake based on a convergence of stratigraphic, architectural, and structural evidence uncovered during excavation.

Arce observes that foundational elements such as column socles, prismatic bases, and a water channel were physically disrupted by lateral seismic motion. This was confirmed by a displaced column base that had fractured the adjacent water channel—damage clearly linked to earthquake activity and not later human destruction. This specific feature is illustrated in Figure 2e of the report and was discovered in undisturbed collapse debris (Arce 2000:130).

Additional confirmation comes from architectural fragments— including small decorative niches, cornices, and capitals—all recovered within collapsed layers attributed by Arce to the 749 CE event. These remains were found in situ within earthquake rubble in the mosque courtyard and surrounding street (ziyada). Because the mosque was never rebuilt and was reused as residential structures in the Abbasid period, the destruction event that ended its use can be dated to the mid-8th century. This stratigraphic transition and reoccupation further support Arce’s dating.

Lastly, the attribution is strengthened by the broader regional correlation: similar patterns of structural failure and abandonment due to the 749 CE earthquake have been documented at other major Umayyad sites, reinforcing the historical context and timing of the event at Amman.

Seismic Effects
Mid 8th century CE earthquake

Effect Location Image (s) Comments
  • Displaced Column Base     
  • Broken Water Channel
  • Foundation Damage
 Umayyad Mosque
Figure 1

Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

  1. General plan
  2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
  3. View to north of the souq east portico
  4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


Arce (2000)
Figure 2 e

Channel broken by the A.D. 749 earthquake.

Arce (2000)
displacement of the column base and the foundation socle (as a result of the quake tremor) broke the water channel running beside it. - Arce (2000)
Debris indicating wall and arch or semi dome collapse Umayyad Mosque
Figure 1

Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

  1. General plan
  2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
  3. View to north of the souq east portico
  4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


Arce (2000)
Arce (2000) reports that the earthquake debris included Cornices indicating wall collapse, niches indicating arch collapse or semi dome vault collapse, carved stucco decoration from interior walls, and carved inscriptions in marble indicating wall damage or collapse (the inscription would have presumably been attached to a wall)

Intensity Estimates
Mid 8th century CE earthquake

Effect Location Image (s) Comments Intensity
  • Displaced Column Base     
  • Broken Water Channel (displaced masonry blocks)
  • Foundation Damage
 Umayyad Mosque
Figure 1

Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

  1. General plan
  2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
  3. View to north of the souq east portico
  4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


Arce (2000)
Figure 2 e

Channel broken by the A.D. 749 earthquake.

Arce (2000)
displacement of the column base and the foundation socle (as a result of the quake tremor) broke the water channel running beside it. - Arce (2000)
  • VIII+
  • VIII+
  • VIII+
Debris indicating wall and arch or semi dome collapse Umayyad Mosque
Figure 1

Congregational Mosque and Souq Square at Amman Citadel:

  1. General plan
  2. Elevation of the souq east portico.
  3. View to north of the souq east portico
  4. View of the blind arch on the western façade of the vestibule


Arce (2000)
Arce (2000) reports that the earthquake debris included Cornices indicating wall collapse, niches indicating arch collapse or semi dome vault collapse, carved stucco decoration from interior walls, and carved inscriptions in marble indicating wall damage or collapse (the inscription would have presumably been attached to a wall) VIII +
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). Although Arce (2000) reports foundation damage, he noted that the foundation was weak and poorly constructed hence foundation damage is classified as VIII+ instead of IX+. The Amman Citadel may be subject to a ridge effect.

Notes and Further Reading
References

Arce, I. (2000). The Umayyad Congregational Mosque and the Souq Square Complex at Amman Citadel. Architectural Features and Urban Significance. Proceedings of the 2nd ICAANE, Copenhagen.

Wikipedia pages

Amman Citadel in English



Amman Citadel (in Spanish)