Tel Kabri

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Tel Kabri	Hebrew	תֵל כַבְרִי
Kabri	Hebrew	כַבְרִי
Tell al-Qahweh	Arabic	تَلْ ألْقَهوَة
Kabrita
el-Kabira	Arabic
al-Kabrah	Arabic
Le Quiebre	Crusader French

Identification

from Aharon Kempinski in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

The site called Tel Kabri (or Kabri) is a complex of archaeological sites clustered around the mound on which the Arab villages of et-Tell and en-Nahr were built (map reference 1632.2681 ). The lower city of the Middle Bronze Age II extended north of the mound, and the Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic settlements were located east of it, near the 'Ein Gial). spring and the ancient tell's cave. Farther east, remains of the Roman-Byzantine settlement Kabrita (Tosefta Shevi'it 4: 11) were uncovered under the ruins of the village of el-Kabri, whose name is derived from that of the ancient village. In the 1980s, remains of houses and of a church with a fragmentary Syriac inscription that mentions Abraham were accidentally discovered here.

In the early Middle Bronze Age II, the settlement extended over 80 a., making it one of the largest Bronze Age sites in Israel. In the Late Bronze and Iron ages, the settlement was confined to the mound of et-Tell and the vicinity of the spring, which was the center of the Middle Bronze Age site. The settlement was occupied continuously until the Hellenistic period. Its prominence in the Middle Bronze Age II led A. Kempinski to suggest identifying the site with Rehob, mentioned with the main towns on the northern Coastal Plain (Acco, Mishal, and Achshaph) in the Execration texts (Posener group) and in the book of Joshua (19:24-26).

Site Description and Bronze Age History

from Lazar et al. (2020:2)

Tel Kabri is a 34-hectare site located in the western Galilee, Israel. Its location on a large mound overlooking the floodplain of the Ga’aton Stream made it favorable to human habitation, with an abundant water supply and soil for cultivation. The region is characterized geologically by Upper Cretaceous marine carbonate rocks on the east. The Ga’aton stream drains Cenomanian dolomite and limestone, Turonian limestone, and Senonian chalk and marl west wards to the Mediterranean Sea. Chert nodules occur in some rock formations [27]. Terra Rossa soil prevails on limestone and dolomite terrains and thick alluvial soils (grumusol) characterize the valleys [28]. The site was constructed around two springs, with at least two more in the immediate vicinity ([29]; Fig 1). All are fed by karstic limestone and dolomite aquifers from the east [30].

Tel Kabri flourished during the Middle Bronze Age (hereafter MB) and was the third largest site in the Levant at the time (after Hazor and Ashkelon). It was a fortified center of a regional polity and housed the largest MB palace found to date in the southern Levant, with an estimated area of 6000 m². The palace is known from its modest beginning in the MB I (Kabri Area D-West, stratigraphic Phase VI) to its zenith in the MB II (Kabri Area D-West, stratigraphic Phase III) [31–33], dated ca. 1900–1700 BCE (high middle chronology [34]; cf. [35]).

During its final phase, the palace underwent massive renovation, reaching its greatest size. This involved the addition of a two-room complex lined with carved stone blocks known as “orthostats” (the “Orthostat Building”), probably used for banqueting, and a wing for the accommodation of hundreds of large storage jars (pithoi) containing spiced wine—the “Southern and Northern Storage Complexes” [26, 31–33, 36].

At the end of this phase, ca. 1700 BCE, the palace and its surrounding areas were abandoned [34], for reasons that are still unclear. The site then lay uninhabited for almost a millennium, after which only minimal human activity is recorded from the Iron Age and later (e.g. [31] and references therein). This study examines the possibility that the demise of this palace and settlement, during a period of flourishing and expansion, may be attributed to an earthquake.

Excavations

Earlier Excavations

from Aharon Kempinski in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

Salvage excavations were conducted here in the 1950s. After the discovery of magnificent Neolithic stone implements near 'Ein Gial). in 1956, the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums undertook excavations at the eastern part of the site in 1957-1958, directed by M. Prausnitz. Research into the Early and Middle Bronze Age remains began in 1961, when the water company Meqorot dug an east-west trench (500 m long and 3.5 m deep) across the site. Remains from the Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age II, as well as a 40-m-wide rampart that surrounded the city, were uncovered here.

In 1969, as a result of the uprooting of an orchard planted over the lower city area, a group of graves dated to the Middle Bronze Age IIA was exposed. This section, later named area B, was excavated byY. Ben-Yosef, on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums; in 1975, a brief rescue excavation here was directed by Prausnitz and Kempinski, with the participation ofR. Amiran, on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums and Tel Aviv University. Two portions of the lower city, areas Band C, were excavated. Since 1986, new excavations, headed by Kempinski and E. Meron on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums and Tel Aviv University, expanded area C westward (area C2). The center of the site (area D) east of 'Ein Shefa', as well as a new section at et-Tell (area E), were investigated. Area B was reopened in 1987. In 1989, W.-D. Niemeier of Heidelberg University joined the excavations.

Excavations from 1986-1993

from Naama Scheftelowitz in Stern et. al. (2008)

Excavations at Kabri were conducted over eight seasons, from 1986 to 1993, by A. Kempinski, E. Miron, and W. -D. Niemeier on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University. Excavations were conducted in area B, the ancient nucleus where strata dated to the Wadi Rabah culture and assemblages belonging to the Early Bronze Age I–II were unearthed; areas F and D, the Middle Bronze Age palace; and area E, the Phoenician tell and the post-medieval Arab settlement. Also excavated were area C, the northern part of the tell, in which vestiges of the Middle Bronze Age II fortifications and related structures were found; and area T, the fortifications at the margins of the northeastern rampart.

Area excavations by year

from wikipedia

Area excavations by year
Area	Expeditions
Area	1957–1958 salvage excavation	1969 salvage excavation	1975–1976 salvage excavation	The Tel Kabri Expedition	1999 salvage excavation	2004 salvage excavation	The Tel Kabri Archaeological Project
Area A	1957-1958	–	1975-1976	–	–	–
Area B	–	1969	1975-1976	1987-1992	–	–	–
Area C	–	–	1975-1976	1986-1989	–	–	–
Area D	–	–	–	1986-1993	1999	–	2005, 2009-ongoing
Area E	–	–	–	1986, 1989-1990, 1992-1993	–	2004	–
Area F	–	–	–	1990-1993	–	–	2009
Area T	–	–	–	1990	–	–	–
" – " denotes expeditions where area was not excavated.

Excavation Areas

from wikipedia

Tel Kabri is divided up into areas (some of which are shown in the table above) for practical purposes of organisation. The first areas – A, B, and C – were designated during the 1975–1976 excavations by Kempinski and Prausnitz. Later Areas D, E, F, and T were opened by the 1986–1993 Tel Kabri Expedition, and Area D was subdivided by the ongoing Tel Kabri Archaeological Project starting in 2005.The following areas have been investigated as of the 2013 season.

Area A – This area was designated Area A by Kempinski and Prausnitz during their 1975–1976 excavations.^[57] The area that would come to be called Area A was the first area of archaeological fieldwork at Tel Kabri. This was the survey of Area A in 1957 after Neolithic stone vessels had been found in 1956.^[48] This area was first excavated by Prausnitz from 1957 to 1958, when he found early Chalcolithic cist tombs^[59] and houses.^[60] Exploration in Area A has focused on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic aspects of the site.^[61] This area was not excavated during Kempinski's 1986–1993 Tel Kabri Expedition,^[62] and has not been excavated by the current Tel Kabri Archaeological Project, as of the 2013 season.^[58]
Area B – First excavated by Ben-Yosef in 1969,^[63] the area was later excavated by Kempinski and Prausnitz in 1975 and 1976 who gave it the name, Area B. Kempinski's 1986-1993 expedition found some pottery from the MB II, but modern human activity had destroyed the layers of previous habitation.
Area C – Like Areas A and B, Area C was named during Kempinski and Prausnitz's 1975–1976 excavations. Area C was a 40-metre-long trench cut into the rampart on the northern end of the tell in the first year of their expedition. During Kempinski's 1986–1993 excavations, the trench was expanded south so as to study the fortifications inside the city itself.
Area D – First uncovered as a result of Mekorot's 1961 trench, which exposed the MB plaster floors. Area D is where the excavation on the MB palaces has taken place. Kempinski focused most of his efforts on Area D,^[55] and excavations during the ongoing Tel Kabri Archaeological Project have been confined to Area D.^[58] During the course of the ongoing Tel Kabri Archaeological Project, Area D has been sub-divided as follows:^[58]
- Area D-West (2005, 2008–present) – First opened in 2005 to investigate a possible throne room for the final palace,^[64] D-West has been open every year during the portion of the expedition devoted to excavation, which started in 2008, for the purpose of further uncovering palatial structures.^[58] In 2013, a storage room was found in D-West which was later identified as a wine cellar.
- Area D-South (2005, 2009-2013) – In 2005, D-South was opened to investigate the southern portion of Area D which Kempinski and Niemeier hypothesised might be a religious area. Excavators found evidence of metal-working as well as what excavators referred to as a massive stone structure.^[65] When D-South was reopened in 2009, it was further subdivided into D-South 1 and 2 and remained as two areas in 2009 and 2011, and then just D-South 1 in the 2013 season. During the course of these excavations, a structure called the "Upper Terrace or Courtyard Building" or Building 3079 was exposed in both areas, which the excavators hypothesised might be part of an as of yet unexcavated monumental structure.^[66]
  - D-South 1 (2009-2013) – D-South 1 was opened in 2009 to investigate the massive stone structure found in 2005, which was found to be a wall corner and was further exposed towards the east in later seasons as building 3079. In 2013, the excavators looked for further structures as well as the possible early stages of the city rampart. They found a wall which they believe may be part of the retaining wall for another building.^[67]
  - D-South 2 (2009 and 2011) – D-South 2 was opened in 2009 so as to link areas excavated in 2005 in D-South with Area F as well as to investigate, further towards the west, the massive stone structure found in 2005 (later Building 3079).^[68] By 2011, the large structure had been identified, including a so-called "zig-zag wall" (based on its shape), and the excavators hypothesised that there might be a lower courtyard, as well as a thus far unexcavated monumental structure.^[66]
- Area D-North (2005, 2013 as part of Area D-West East) – Opened in 2005 to locate a possible northern wall of the final palace which had been located by geophysical surveys. The results of the 2005 season in D-North supported an earlier hypothesis by Kempinski and Niemeier that there had been a large structure on the site of the later palace preceding its construction.^[69] In 2013, D-North was linked via D-West East to Kempinski's old Area D excavations.^[51]
- Area D-West East (2013) – D-West East was opened in 2013 in an attempt to link up D-North with the portions of Area D excavated by Kempinski, as well as explore further rooms surrounding one of the final palace's courtyards, as well as to find a complete pottery assemblage free of possible contamination from other periods or locations in the palace.^[70]
Area E – Area E was excavated in 1986 via a trench in the southwest of the tell after a survey found traces of Iron Age settlement.^[55] It was reopened from 1989 to 1990 and from 1992 to 1993.^[71] This area was investigated once more by Smithline in 2004 when he recovered significant amounts of Iron Age pottery, which add to the body of knowledge for the site's post-palatial ceramics.^[72]
Area F – Area F was a portion of Area D created in 1990 as a result of Area D being physically cut in two by the Mandate period road. In both Kempinski's preliminary reports and on-site, Area F was treated as separate from Area D.^[55] However, both Kempinski's final report (2002) treated Area F as part of Area D. In 2009, Area F was reopened and excavated by the Tel Kabri Archaeological Project.^[58]
Area T – Located in the northeast of the tell, this area was excavated in 1990^[71] to investigate what Kempinski's team thought might be a tower.^[55] They found a section of well-preserved city wall instead.^[53]

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Tables, and Photos

Maps

Fig. 1b Fault map of
Figure 1b

Compiled map of faults in the Galilee area.

Thin black lines indicate faults that appear on the 1:200000 geological map Colored lines mark Quaternary faults :

Red — evidence of Quaternary activity

Yellow — marginal faults and main branches

Purple —> 6km segments associated with recent activity

Blue dashed — inferred/subsurface

Thick black — Main strike-slip segments of the Dead Sea fault (DSF).

Blue square marks location of geological map shown in Fig 1c.

SoG—SeaofGalilee

CF—Carmel fault

KF—Kabri fault

Red circle marks the location of Acco

yellow circle marks the ancient city of Hazor.

Black Lines Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998]). Colored Lines Reprinted from [23] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [2018]).

Lazar et al. (2020)
the Galilee Area from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 1c Geological map
Figure 1c

Geological map of the area showing the mound of Tel Kabri and its associated potentially active tectonic fault. Colored lines mark different interpretations for the Kabri fault:
- black line after [22]
- green line after [24]
- red line after [25]
Blue dots mark the location of the four springs located in the vicinity of Tel Kabri. Light blue rectangle marks the location of the study area shown in Fig 2.

(Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998])

Lazar et al. (2020)
of the area around the mound of Tel Kabri from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 2 Map of Surveyed

Figure 2

Map of Surveyed MBII sites around Tel Kabri

Map by George E. Pierce

Yasur-Landau et al. (2014)

MBII sites around Tel Kabri from Yasur-Landau et al. (2014)

Aerial Views

Tel Kabri in Google Earth

Tel Kabri

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
Tel Kabri on govmap.gov.il

Tel Kabri

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Plan of Kabri from

Kabri: plan of the site.

Stern et al. (1993 v. 3)

Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

Magnified

Plan of Kabri from

Kabri: plan of the site.

Stern et al. (1993 v. 3)

Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

Area Plans

Phase III

Normal Size

Fig. 2 Plan of Phase III
Figure 2

Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri.

Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text

W indicates wall locus numbers

Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit

red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text

Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis

green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled

Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench

Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows).

Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a

Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b.

Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig.

Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes)

dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d.

Lazar et al. (2020)
from Lazar et al. (2020)

Magnified

Fig. 2 Plan of Phase III
Figure 2

Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri.

Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text

W indicates wall locus numbers

Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit

red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text

Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis

green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled

Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench

Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows).

Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a

Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b.

Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig.

Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes)

dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d.

Lazar et al. (2020)
from Lazar et al. (2020)

Area D and vicinity

Normal Size

Fig. 2 Plan of Areas

Figure 2

Plan of Areas D-West and D-West East

Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)

D-West and D-West East from Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)
Fig. 3 Plan of northern

Figure 3

Plan of northern storage room in Area D-West, with entrances from northwest and southeast

Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)

storage room in Area D-West from Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)
Fig. 2 Plan of the

Figure 2

Plan of the northwestern corner of the palace and adjacent features, with wall numbers

(drawn by Dov Porotsky)

Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)

northwestern corner of the palace and adjacent features from Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)
Fig. 2 Plan of the
Figure 2

Plan of the southern and northern storage complexes after the 20155 season. Feature labels are abbreviated as follows
- F = Floor
- I = Installation
- L = Locus
- R = Room
- W = Wall
(drawing by S. Pirsky)

Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)
southern and northern storage complexes after the 2015 season from Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)

Magnified

Fig. 2 Plan of Areas

Figure 2

Plan of Areas D-West and D-West East

Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)

D-West and D-West East from Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)
Fig. 3 Plan of northern

Figure 3

Plan of northern storage room in Area D-West, with entrances from northwest and southeast

Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)

storage room in Area D-West from Yasur-Landau et al. (2013)
Fig. 2 Plan of the

Figure 2

Plan of the northwestern corner of the palace and adjacent features, with wall numbers

(drawn by Dov Porotsky)

Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)

northwestern corner of the palace and adjacent features from Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)
Fig. 2 Plan of the
Figure 2

Plan of the southern and northern storage complexes after the 2015 season. Feature labels are abbreviated as follows
- F = Floor
- I = Installation
- L = Locus
- R = Room
- W = Wall
southern and northern storage complexes after the 2015 season from Yasur-Landau et al. (2012)

Tables

Table 1 - Potential (off-fault) Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs)

from Lazar et al. (2020)

Table 1

Potential (off-fault) Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs)

(after [11]) and corresponding findings in Kabri

Lazar et al. (2020)

Photos

Macro Photos

Normal Size

Fig. 3a Aerial View of

Figure 3a

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench.

Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3b backroom (2411)

Figure 3b

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster.

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the Orthostat Building covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3c Displaced floor

Figure 3c

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Step or displacement in the floor of the Orthostat Building, just inside the entrance. One of the offset orthostats is visible at the top of the image.

Lazar et al. (2020)

in the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3d Main Room of

Figure 3d

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Orthostat Building showing unbroken warped cross-walls and tilted and collapsed walls from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3e Broken and

Figure 3e

The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor.

Lazar et al. (2020)

sloping plaster floor in the backroom of the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4a Aerial View of

Figure 4a

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b.

Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the wine cellar from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4b Room 2440 showing

Figure 4b

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2).

Lazar et al. (2020)

~48 in situ pithoi and warped eastern wall from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4c Room 2440 after

Figure 4c

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 after being cleared of the pithoi.

Lazar et al. (2020)

being cleared of the pithoi from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4d Displaced wall

Figure 4d

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2.

Lazar et al. (2020)

W2443 in Room 2440 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 5a Collapse in

Figure 5a

Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm.

Lazar et al. (2020)

Room 3306 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 5b Broken Pottery

Figure 5b

Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm.

Lazar et al. (2020)

and Collapse in Room 3306 from Lazar et al. (2020)

Magnified

Fig. 3a Aerial View of

Figure 3a

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench.

Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3b backroom (2411)

Figure 3b

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster.

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the Orthostat Building covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3c Displaced floor

Figure 3c

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Step or displacement in the floor of the Orthostat Building, just inside the entrance. One of the offset orthostats is visible at the top of the image.

Lazar et al. (2020)

in the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3d Main Room of

Figure 3d

The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Orthostat Building showing unbroken warped cross-walls and tilted and collapsed walls from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 3e Broken and

Figure 3e

The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor.

Lazar et al. (2020)

sloping plaster floor in the backroom of the Orthostat Building from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4a Aerial View of

Figure 4a

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b.

Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the wine cellar from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4b Room 2440 showing

Figure 4b

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2).

Lazar et al. (2020)

~48 in situ pithoi and warped eastern wall from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4c Room 2440 after

Figure 4c

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 after being cleared of the pithoi.

Lazar et al. (2020)

being cleared of the pithoi from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 4d Displaced wall

Figure 4d

The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2.

Lazar et al. (2020)

W2443 in Room 2440 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 5a Collapse in

Figure 5a

Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm.

Lazar et al. (2020)

Room 3306 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 5b Broken Pottery

Figure 5b

Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm.

Lazar et al. (2020)

and Collapse in Room 3306 from Lazar et al. (2020)

Micro Photos

Normal Size

Fig. S1a Field photograph
Figure S1a

Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (a) Wall W2450 and its surrounding. The blue tags indicate bulk sample positions.
- mud bricks in the wall
- white plaster lining the wall
- fill deposits next to the wall associated with several pithoi on the floor next to the wall. Note the white-speckled nature of the fill deposits, due to abundant plaster fragments
Lazar et al. (2020)
demonstrating sampling of bulk sediments from Wall W2450 and its surrounding from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. S1b Field photograph
Figure S1b

Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (b) Field photograph exemplifying sampling of block samples in Room 2520.
- Phase III floor
- ceramic walls of a storage jar lying on the floor and sectioned in situ
- fill deposit
Lazar et al. (2020)
demonstrating sampling of block samples in Room 2520 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6a Thin section

Figure 6a

Results of micromorphology analysis. (a) Scan of thin section of a mudbrick from a Phase III wall (sample KAB-2450.5 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of a mudbrick from a Phase III wall from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6b Microphotograph

Figure 6b

Results of micromorphology analysis. (b) Microphotograph of a Phase III mudbrick (sample KAB-2450.5 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of a Phase III mudbrick from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6c Thin section

Figure 6c

Results of micromorphology analysis. (c) Scan of thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor (sample KAB-B2 in S2 Table). The red particles are pottery sherds.

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6d Microphotograph

Figure 6d

Results of micromorphology analysis.floor (d) Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in (c).

Lazar et al. (2020)

showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in 6 (c) from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6e Field photo showing

Figure 6e

Results of micromorphology analysis. (e) Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6f Thin section

Figure 6f

Results of micromorphology analysis. (f) Scan of thin section of the contact shown in (e) (sample KAB-2603.13 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the contact shown in 6 (e) from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6g Microphotograph

Figure 6g

Results of micromorphology analysis. (g) Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in (f).

Lazar et al. (2020)

showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in 6 (f) from Lazar et al. (2020)

Magnified

Fig. S1a Field photograph
Figure S1a

Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (a) Wall W2450 and its surrounding. The blue tags indicate bulk sample positions.
- mud bricks in the wall
- white plaster lining the wall
- fill deposits next to the wall associated with several pithoi on the floor next to the wall. Note the white-speckled nature of the fill deposits, due to abundant plaster fragments
Lazar et al. (2020)
demonstrating sampling of bulk sediments from Wall W2450 and its surrounding from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. S1b Field photograph
Figure S1b

Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (b) Field photograph exemplifying sampling of block samples in Room 2520.
- Phase III floor
- ceramic walls of a storage jar lying on the floor and sectioned in situ
- fill deposit
Lazar et al. (2020)
demonstrating sampling of block samples in Room 2520 from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6a Thin section

Figure 6a

Results of micromorphology analysis. (a) Scan of thin section of a mudbrick from a Phase III wall (sample KAB-2450.5 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of a mudbrick from a Phase III wall from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6b Microphotograph

Figure 6b

Results of micromorphology analysis. (b) Microphotograph of a Phase III mudbrick (sample KAB-2450.5 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of a Phase III mudbrick from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6c Thin section

Figure 6c

Results of micromorphology analysis. (c) Scan of thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor (sample KAB-B2 in S2 Table). The red particles are pottery sherds.

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6d Microphotograph

Figure 6d

Results of micromorphology analysis.floor (d) Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in (c).

Lazar et al. (2020)

showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in 6 (c) from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6e Field photo showing

Figure 6e

Results of micromorphology analysis. (e) Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it.

Lazar et al. (2020)

the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6f Thin section

Figure 6f

Results of micromorphology analysis. (f) Scan of thin section of the contact shown in (e) (sample KAB-2603.13 in S2 Table).

Lazar et al. (2020)

of the contact shown in 6 (e) from Lazar et al. (2020)
Fig. 6g Microphotograph

Figure 6g

Results of micromorphology analysis. (g) Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in (f).

Lazar et al. (2020)

showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in 6 (f) from Lazar et al. (2020)

Stratigraphy

Entire Site

Neolithic to Ottoman - Wikipedia

from wikipedia

Kempinski identified twelve stratigraphic layers at Tel Kabri. ... The 1986-1993 Tel Kabri Expedition did not find a continuous stratigraphic sequence in any one excavation trench, and so Kempinski based the identification of the layers at Tel Kabri on finds in different areas.

Stratum	Period	Areas studied
1	Hellenistic – Ottoman	E
2	LB – Iron Age II	E, and D
3	MB IIB	B, C, and D
4	MB IIA	B, C, and D
5	MB IIA	B, and C
6	EB III	Sherds found in rampart
7	EB II	B
8	EB II	B
9	EB IB	B
10	EB IA	B
11	EB IA	B
12	Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic	B

Middle Bronze Age

from Yasur-Landau et al. (2018)

Table 1

Stratigraphic overview of the Middle Bronze Age phases at Tel Kabri

Yasur-Landau et al. (2018)

Time Periods

Traditional and Revised Early and Middle Bronze Age Chronology from Fall et al. (2023)

from Fall et al. (2023)

Table 1

Traditional and revised Early and Middle Bronze Age chronologies for the Southern Levant. (Traditional chronology based on Dever 1992; Levy 1995:fig. 3; revised chronology based on Regev et al. 2012; Fall et al. 2021; Höflmayer and Manning 2022.)

Fall et al. (2023)

Time periods from Stern et al (1993)

Age	Dates	Comments
Early Bronze IA-B	3300-3000 BCE
Early Bronze II	3000-2700 BCE
Early Bronze III	2700-2200 BCE
Middle Bronze I	2200-2000 BCE	EB IV - Intermediate Bronze
Middle Bronze IIA	2000-1750 BCE
Middle Bronze IIB	1750-1550 BCE
Late Bronze I	1550-1400 BCE
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE
Iron IA	1200-1150 BCE
Iron IB	1150-1100 BCE
Iron IIA	1000-900 BCE
Iron IIB	900-700 BCE
Iron IIC	700-586 BCE
Babylonian & Persian	586-332 BCE
Early Hellenistic	332-167 BCE
Late Hellenistic	167-37 BCE
Early Roman	37 BCE - 132 CE
Herodian	37 BCE - 70 CE
Late Roman	132-324 CE
Byzantine	324-638 CE
Early Arab	638-1099 CE	Umayyad & Abbasid
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE	Fatimid & Mameluke
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE

Time periods from Meyers et al (1997)

Phase	Dates	Variants
Early Bronze IA-B	3400-3100 BCE
Early Bronze II	3100-2650 BCE
Early Bronze III	2650-2300 BCE
Early Bronze IVA-C	2300-2000 BCE	Intermediate Early-Middle Bronze, Middle Bronze I
Middle Bronze I	2000-1800 BCE	Middle Bronze IIA
Middle Bronze II	1800-1650 BCE	Middle Bronze IIB
Middle Bronze III	1650-1500 BCE	Middle Bronze IIC
Late Bronze IA	1500-1450 BCE
Late Bronze IIB	1450-1400 BCE
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE
Iron IA	1200-1125 BCE
Iron IB	1125-1000 BCE
Iron IC	1000-925 BCE	Iron IIA
Iron IIA	925-722 BCE	Iron IIB
Iron IIB	722-586 BCE	Iron IIC
Iron III	586-520 BCE	Neo-Babylonian
Early Persian	520-450 BCE
Late Persian	450-332 BCE
Early Hellenistic	332-200 BCE
Late Hellenistic	200-63 BCE
Early Roman	63 BCE - 135 CE
Middle Roman	135-250 CE
Late Roman	250-363 CE
Early Byzantine	363-460 CE
Late Byzantine	460-638 CE
Early Arab	638-1099 CE
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE

Chronological Scheme for the Levant from Palmisano et al. (2019)

from Palmisano et al. (2019)

Table 1

A chronological scheme for the Levant (after Finkelstein 2010 and 2011; Regev et al. 2012; Sharon 2013).

Palmisano et al. (2019)

Comparative global chronology of the Neolithic Period

from wikipedia

BC	Europe	Egypt	Syria Levant	Anatolia	Khabur	Sinjar Mountains Assyria	Middle Tigris	Low Mesopotamia	Iran (Khuzistan)	Iran	Indus/ India	China
11000												Early Pottery (18,000 BC)
10000			Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Gesher Mureybet (10,500 BC)
9000			Jericho Tell Abu Hureyra
8000			Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Jericho Tell Aswad	Göbekli Tepe Çayönü Aşıklı Höyük								Initial Neolithic (Pottery) Nanzhuangtou (8500–8000 BC)
7000		Egyptian Neolithic Nabta Playa (7500 BC)	Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Jericho Tell Aswad	Çatalhöyük (7500–5500) Hacilar (7000 BC)	Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Jarmo				Ganj Dareh Chia Jani Ali Kosh	Mehrgarh I
6500	Neolithic Europe Franchthi Sesklo		Pre-Pottery Neolithic C ('Ain Ghazal)		Pottery Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Pottery Neolithic Jarmo			Chogha Bonut	Teppe Zagheh	Mehrgarh I	Pottery Neolithic Peiligang (7000–5000 BC)
6000	Pottery Neolithic Sesklo Dimini		Pottery Neolithic Yarmukian (Sha'ar HaGolan)		Pottery Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Pottery Neolithic Jarmo		Pottery Neolithic Ubaid 0 (Tell el-'Oueili)	Pottery Neolithic Chogha Mish	Pottery Neolithic Sang-i Chakmak	Pottery Neolithic Lahuradewa Mehrgarh II Mehrgarh III
5600	Pottery Neolithic Sesklo Dimini	Faiyum A	Amuq A		Halaf Halaf-Ubaid	Umm Dabaghiya	Samarra (6000–4800 BC)	Pottery Neolithic Ubaid 0 (Tell el-'Oueili)	Tepe Muhammad Djafar	Tepe Sialk
5200	Linear Pottery culture (5500–4500 BC)	Faiyum A	Amuq B	Hacilar Mersin 24–22		Hassuna		Ubaid 1 (Eridu 19–15) Ubaid 2 (Hadji Muhammed) (Eridu 14–12)	Susiana A	Yarim Tepe Hajji Firuz Tepe
4800		Pottery Neolithic Merimde	Amuq C	Hacilar Mersin 22–20		Hassuna Late Gawra 20			Tepe Sabz	Kul Tepe Jolfa
4500		Pottery Neolithic Merimde	Amuq D	Gian Hasan Mersin 19–17	Ubaid 3	Ubaid 3 (Gawra) 19–18	Ubaid 3		Khazineh Susiana B
3800		Badarian Naqada	Amuq D	Gian Hasan Mersin 19–17	Ubaid 4
		Succeeded by: Historical Ancient Near East

Phase III Earthquake - Middle Bronze IIB - ~1700 BCE

Discussion

Lazar et al. (2020) identified fairly extensive archaeoseismic evidence from Phase III (Middle Bronze IIB - ~1700 BCE) at Tel Kabri. Evidence included collapsed, tilted, displaced, and/or folded walls, folded and faulted floor surfaces, pockmarked floors (presumably from falling objects), in situ smashed pottery, fallen pottery and fallen objects, debris, and an approximately E-W striking fault scarp referred to as a "trench" which aligns with active faults in the area. In addition, samples were taken of the debris which appears to be of a seismic origin. These samples were examined under the microscope and for chemical composition. Based on the microscope work, Lazar et al. (2020:13) concluded that the chaotic arrangement of post Phase III floor deposits [i.e. the debris], together with lack of mud slurry deposits, implies a rapid collapse rather than the slow accumulation of degraded mudbrick material from standing walls or ceilings of an abandoned structure. This, along with other evidence refuting alternative explanations such as economic decline, an environmental crisis, a pandemic, or violent human activity, suggests that an earthquake was responsible for the observed destruction. Lazar et al. (2020:12) also noted that there was no evidence for a fire associated with the destruction layer as chemical analysis of the debris and intact mudbricks was dominated by clay which showed no indications of being exposed to temperatures above 500 °C and calcite whose ν₂/ν₄ ratio indicates geogenic rather than pyrogenic calcite.

Although Lazar et al. (2020) were unable to attribute all of the damage to just one earthquake, it does appear that one seismic event was responsible for the majority of observed archaeoseismic evidence. Because the site appears to have been abandoned after its destruction, Lazar et al. (2020:14) suggested that the earthquake was likely a severe one. Lazar et al. (2020:14) noted that it was also possible that abandonemnt occurred because the earthquake dried up springs near the site. The Phase III layer was dated to ca. 1900-1700 BCE with destruction estimated around 1700 BCE in Middle Bronze IIB. This date was apparently based on radiocarbon results from Hoflmayer et al. (2016), ceramics, and the high middle chronology of Bietak (2002). The fault scarp/"trench" was found to be cut by an unexcavated Iron Age pit which provided an Iron Age terminus ante quem and indicates that the "trench" does not have a modern origin.

References

Lazar et al. (2020)

Abstract

from Lazar et al. (2020:1)

For years there has been much speculation surrounding the abandonment of the Middle Bronze Age IIB palace of Tel Kabri, ca. 1700 BCE. There are no weapons, hoards of money and jewelry, or visible evidence for fire, which rules out hostile attack or conquest. There are also no indications of drought or environmental degradation that might have forced the inhabitants to vacate the site, nor mass graveyards to indicate a pandemic. The current study uses micro-geoarchaeological methods to show that the demise of the palace was rapid, with walls and ceilings collapsing at once prior to abandonment. Macroscopic data (stratigraphic and structural) from five excavation seasons were reexamined, showing that at least nine Potential Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs) are found and associated with the last occupation phase of the site’s palace. All lines of evidence point to the possibility that an earthquake damaged the palace, possibly to a point where it was no longer economically viable to repair. This conclusion is compounded by the discovery of a 1–3 m wide trench that cuts through the palace for 30 m, which may be the result of ground shaking or liquefaction caused by an earthquake. This study shows the importance of combining macro- and micro-archaeological methods for the identification of ancient earthquakes, together with the need to evaluate alternative scenarios of climatic, environmental, and economic collapse, as well as human-induced destruction before a seismic event scenario can be proposed.

The Site

from Lazar et al. (2020:2)

Tel Kabri is a 34-hectare site located in the western Galilee, Israel. Its location on a large mound overlooking the floodplain of the Ga’aton Stream made it favorable to human habitation, with an abundant water supply and soil for cultivation. The region is characterized geologically by Upper Cretaceous marine carbonate rocks on the east. The Ga’aton stream drains Cenomanian dolomite and limestone, Turonian limestone, and Senonian chalk and marl west wards to the Mediterranean Sea. Chert nodules occur in some rock formations [27]. Terra Rossa soil prevails on limestone and dolomite terrains and thick alluvial soils (grumusol) characterize the valleys [28]. The site was constructed around two springs, with at least two more in the immediate vicinity ([29]; Fig 1). All are fed by karstic limestone and dolomite aquifers from the east [30].

Tel Kabri flourished during the Middle Bronze Age (hereafter MB) and was the third largest site in the Levant at the time (after Hazor and Ashkelon). It was a fortified center of a regional polity and housed the largest MB palace found to date in the southern Levant, with an estimated area of 6000 m². The palace is known from its modest beginning in the MB I (Kabri Area D-West, stratigraphic Phase VI) to its zenith in the MB II (Kabri Area D-West, stratigraphic Phase III) [31–33], dated ca. 1900–1700 BCE (high middle chronology [34]; cf. [35]).

During its final phase, the palace underwent massive renovation, reaching its greatest size. This involved the addition of a two-room complex lined with carved stone blocks known as “orthostats” (the “Orthostat Building”), probably used for banqueting, and a wing for the accommodation of hundreds of large storage jars (pithoi) containing spiced wine—the “Southern and Northern Storage Complexes” [26, 31–33, 36].

At the end of this phase, ca. 1700 BCE, the palace and its surrounding areas were abandoned [34], for reasons that are still unclear. The site then lay uninhabited for almost a millennium, after which only minimal human activity is recorded from the Iron Age and later (e.g. [31] and references therein). This study examines the possibility that the demise of this palace and settlement, during a period of flourishing and expansion, may be attributed to an earthquake.

Neotectonic Background

The Dead Sea fault

from Lazar et al. (2020:4)

... Despite the presence of contemporary archaeological sites near Kabri, such as Tel Hazor and Acco (Fig 1b), there have been no reports from these extensively excavated sites of evidence for MB II earthquakes. This could be due to a number of factors, such as the difficulty in recognizing the expression of ground shaking due to earthquakes in structures that were built of mudbrick.

JW: There is some Bronze Age

(Canaanite) Wall Collapse at Tel Hazor which may be due to an earthquake.

The Kabri fault

from Lazar et al. (2020:4)

A number of potentially active faults can be found in the vicinity of Tel Kabri (Fig 1b). However, the site is located along the trace of a NE-SW trending normal fault (Fig 1b and 1c), termed the Kabri fault (e.g., [24, 44]). The Kabri fault is part of a 10 km long fault that stems from the foothills of the Galilee mountains, across the coastal plain towards the Mediterranean coast of northern Israel. It is one of a network of normal faults in the Galilee region [45]. Little-to-no work has been conducted along the trace of the Kabri fault. Marked on geological maps, it has been thought to be potentially active [25, 46]. This activity is evident by the series of springs that lie along its trace [29, 44]. According to [47], Tel Kabri is located within an area of anomalously high potential ground motion amplification; i.e., the site is susceptible to amplified ground shaking during an earthquake. Other nearby MB sites, such as Hazor, which is not located in such an area, do not seem to be prone to amplification.

The aim of this study is to assess the possibility that Tel Kabri was affected by a destructive earthquake that damaged the palace and its surroundings to a point that caused its complete abandonment. Our approach is integrative, combining macroscopic data in the form of PEAEs with micro-geoarchaeological evidence, further supported through an examination of a variety of other possible causes for destruction and abandonment (elaborated on in the Discussion).

Methods

Macro-archaeological indicators (PEAEs)

from Lazar et al. (2020:4-)

All observations related to architectural features and artifacts were routinely recorded by field measurements, photography, excavation plans, and post-excavation reports during excavation seasons that took place between 2011 and 2019. Criteria for the identification of off-fault earthquake damage [17], i.e., PEAEs, are based on [11], who adjusted these to sites characterized by rubble and mudbrick architecture such as that found in MB II Kabri (Table 1). According to their study, aside from the main structural indicators such as folded, rotated, or tilted walls, there are seven additional primary (direct) criteria that can be used to identify off-fault earthquake damage [17] in mudbrick constructions. These include compact layers of rubble suggesting wall collapse; folded/faulted floor structures and archaeological deposits; pockmarked floors; localized fire damage; broken, in situ vessels; broken, fallen vessels from furniture or upper floors; and oriented fallen objects.

References cited

11 Jusseret, S. ,Langohr, C, Sintubin, M. (2013) Tracking earthquake archaeological evidence in Late Minoan IIIB (~1300–1200 B.C.) Crete (Greece): a proof of concept. Seismol Soc Am Bull. 2013; 103: 3026–3043.

17. Rodrıguez-Pascua MA, Perez-Lopez, R., Giner-Robles, J.L., Silva, P.G., Garduño-Monroy, V.H., Reicherter, K. A. (2011) Comprehensive classification of earthquake archaeological effects (EAE) in archaeoseismology: application to ancient remains of Roman and Mesoamerican cultures. Quat Int. 2011; 242: 20–30.

Micro-geoarchaeological indicators

from Lazar et al. (2020:5-6)

Sediments belonging to Phase III deposits and features were sampled based on stratigraphic and contextual considerations. The stratigraphy of this phase includes two beds: the Phase III plaster floor and a homogeneous, gravelly, greyish-brown deposit above it. As no finer bedding was observed macroscopically in the field, samples of the floor and homogeneous fill above it were collected randomly from exposed sections. In addition, samples of mud bricks from a mudbrick wall stump, as well as from its thin plaster lining, were collected to serve as reference to MBII construction materials, likely representing the natural sediments that were available near the site during the Middle Bronze Age. Sediments were sampled in two formats: undisturbed blocks for micromorphology and loose (bulk) for mineralogical analyses.

In terms of micromorphology, mudbrick block samples were obtained from wall 2450 of Phase III (n = 3), while the floor of Phase III and the deposits directly above it were sampled in block format in two locations across the Southern Storage Complex (S1 Fig and S1 Table). The undisturbed sediment blocks were placed in an oven (Binder) at 50˚C for a few days. The dried blocks were then impregnated with a mixture comprised of seven parts polyester and three parts acetone (v:v) with 10 ml MEKP hardener for every liter of mixture. The impregnation process was done in a fume hood, allowing slow polymerization of the resin for about one month. The hardened blocks were placed in the oven at 50˚C for a two day curing period, then cut by a Hillquist RF 20–24 Slab Saw. Thin sections (5x7 cm, 30μm thick) were prepared by Quality Thin Sections (Arizona). Micromorphological examination and description were conducted using a polarized light microscope (Nikon Eclipse 50i POL) under plain polarized light (PPL) and cross polarized light (XPL) at magnifications between 25 and 400X. Descriptions of thin sections follow the terminology given in [48].

In terms of mineralogy, bulk sediment samples were collected from the mudbrick wall as well as from deposits exposed along profiles of Phase III (S1 Fig and S2 Table). Sampling from profiles was based on differences in sediment color as well as contextual position (i.e., directly on the Phase III floor or above it).

Bulk samples were air-dried and FTIR spectra were obtained following grinding of a small portion of the sample. They were then homogenized with potassium bromide (KBr), at a ratio of about 1:20 sample to KBr, using an agate mortar and pestle and pressed into a 7 mm pellet (see details in [49]). The pellet was placed in a Nicolet iS5 FTIR spectrometer and spectra were collected between 4000 and 400 cm^-1 at 4 cm^-1 resolution. The spectra were interpreted in reference to guidelines about the effect of heat on clay minerals [48] and the effect of heat on calcite [50].

Results

Stratigraphic and depositional macro-indicators (PEAEs)

from Lazar et al. (2020:6-9)

The structures mentioned below belong to the end of Phase III, the time when the palace and surroundings were destroyed and abandoned (all locations correspond to rooms and walls in Fig 2). Each sub-section refers to one of seven Potential Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs) defined by [11] (Table 1).

Compact layer of rubble burying valuables suggesting sudden collapse. The entire floors of the main and back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively; Fig 3a) were covered by a ca. 30 cm thick layer, composed of sizeable pieces of plaster and mudbrick (Fig 3b). This suggests that the deposit is the result of the collapse of the ceiling and walls. In addition, all the rooms of the Storage Complex were covered by a 42–67 cm thick layer of collapsed mudbrick and plaster from either the ceiling or the walls (e.g. Room 2440; Room3306), as also shown micromorphologically. These collapse deposits cover valuables such as wine-containing pithoi, the contents of which could have been siphoned off and removed in the event of a slower abandonment of the site, had that happened (see below).

Folded/faulted floor surfaces and archaeological deposits. The orthostats comprising the western and eastern walls of the main room of the Orthostat Building (Room 2372) are aligned, except for those at the southern end of both walls, near the entrance. These are elevated by 15 cm (Fig 3c). This change in elevation is also apparent in the floor level of the room, which slopes down (proceeding north from the room entrance) by 20 cm in less than half a meter, beginning at the spot where the orthostats change in elevation (Fig 3c). This deformation of the floor just inside the entrance is very unlikely to have been a feature existing prior to the destruction, since it would have made the floor surface irregular and rather unusable. To the north, the floor remains relatively flat, dropping only 2 cm over a distance of 6 m.

The northern wall (W2404), with a threshold originally leading into the back room, is heavily deformed and has collapsed northward into the trench (Fig 3d), which now separates the main room from the back one (Room 2411). Elevation of the orthostats in the latter is 4–5 cmlower than in the main room and gaps of ca. 2 cm appear between these and the stone walls.

In contrast, the plaster floor of the back room, now located on the far side of the trench, is broken up and slopes southward into the trench (Fig 3e). Similarly, within the Northern Storage Complex located just to the west(Fig 4a), the plaster floor also slopes to the south, into the large trench, and exhibits as well a clear fold (Room 3306; Fig 4b and 4c).

Pockmarked floor. Both the earthen and plaster surfaces of the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex exhibit evidence for impact marks from collapsed vessels, construction debris, and objects that have fallen from above.

Localized fire damage. Localized fire damage was not evident in the field, nor was it apparent using the micro geoarchaeological indicators (below).

Broken, in situ vessels. The back room of the Orthostat Building included many pottery sherds that were smashed in situ [26] (Fig 3b). The pithoi in the rooms of the Storage Complex were found lying in position where they fell. All were smashed in place and most were crushed to some degree, though some in Room 2440 retained their shape (Fig 4b; [33, 36]).

Broken, fallen vessels from furniture or upper floor. Although it is unclear whether any vessels had fallen from an upper floor, loom weights were found in several concentrations in Room690, the adjacent Room 740, and Stairwell 694, in collapse layers above the floors. They belonged to at least two looms that were likely located in a second story room [51].

Oriented fallen objects. In Room 2520, approximately twenty pithoi were found, most lying with an east-west orientation. A similar situation was found just to the south in Room 2533, where the bases of most of the thirty pithoi and other vessels found there were facing west. The eight vessels that were found in the small area that was exposed in the southernmost room (Room 2546) roughly adhere to this orientation pattern. Some 22 additional storage jars were recovered from the Northern Storage Complex, most of which were concentrated in the eastern and southern parts of the room.

Macro-indicators—Conclusion. The Potential Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs) presented above support six of the seven primary criteria set by [11] as evidence for potential earthquake identification. These adhere to off-fault effect as defined by [17]. This is in addition to other structural indications, such as tilted and folded walls, which were documented in the field (e.g. Fig 4d).

The Trench

from Lazar et al. (2020:9-10)

Both the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex show signs of having been cut by what was thought at the time of initial excavation (2011–2017) to be a modern-day trench. However, careful reexamination, together with finds from the Northern Storage Complex made during the 2019 season, suggest a very different story. This is a 1–3 m wide feature, which runs diagonally from southwest to northeast for at least 30 m. It is remarkably similar in angle and in strike to the Kabri fault line (Figs 1c and 2). The northern-most wall of the Southern Storage Complex (Wall 2466) collapsed into this feature, remains of which (three courses) were found slanting to the north (Fig 5a). Similar sloping was identified in the northern part of the Orthostat Building, where the threshold leading into the back room fell into the feature and is now lying at a steep south-to-north angle (Fig 4a and 4d).

On the other side of the trench, i.e., to the north, within the Northern Storage Complex, Room3 306 contains mudbrick collapse and a number of vessels that are concentrated in the southeastern part of the room (Fig 5b). The floor slopes to the south, i.e. towards and into the trench. Interestingly, while it cannot be conclusively proven, some of the vessels appear to have rolled to the edge, where they were found on their sides adjacent to one another, with others falling on top of them (Fig 4d). The plaster floor in the back room of the Orthostat Building also slopes to the south, towards the trench, as mentioned above (Fig 3e).

In general, analysis of archaeological finds in the field indicate that the remains to the north of the trench fell or now slope southward into it, while the remains to the south fell or now slope northward into it. These observations indicate that the trench is stratigraphically later than the construction of this part of the palace.

Micro-geoarchaeological indicators

from Lazar et al. (2020:10-12)

Micro-geoarchaeological data were examined by methods of micromorphology and FTIR spectroscopy, the former to study the mode of sediment accumulation on the last floor of the palace while the latter was used to determine whether heat was involved in the palace’s demise. Sediment samples included deposits above the floor belonging to the last phase of the palace, while sun-dried mudbricks preserved in a wall segment served as a control. Samples and their location are presented in Fig 2 and S1 Fig, S1 and S2 Tables.

Micromorphology. The mudbrick controls are composed of sub-rounded to rounded calcite nodules (200–500 μm), chalk rock fragments (>500μm), and small amounts of mollusk shell and bone fragments incorporated within a brown groundmass composed of clay with quartz fine sand and silt. The clay component mainly possesses a speckled b-fabric, i.e., random specks of birefringence (an optical property of the material) in the clay component indicating origin from soil material. The related distribution between the coarse and fine fraction is single spaced porphyric (i.e., the coarse fraction is dispersed randomly and evenly within the fine fraction/groundmass). The overall microstructure is subangular blocky, exhibiting planar voids, vesicles, and channels (Fig 6a and 6b).

Phase III fill over the floors is comprised of the same main components as those identified in the mudbricks, as well as coarse pottery and bone fragments. A main difference in the fine fraction, in comparison to the mudbricks, is higher abundance of calcite, reflected by a mainly crystallitic b-fabric (i.e., birefringence originating from the presence of calcite rather than clay, indicating a mixture of calcitic components within the soil-derived mud brick material). The overall microstructure is subangular blocky. Voids include planes, vesicles, and channels (Fig 6c and 6d).

Specific attention was paid to the contact of the Phase III fill with the floor (Fig 6e and 6f). The floor is composed of pressed chalk clasts of variable sizes with no preferred orientation. The deposit just above the plaster floor is not laminated and does not include rolling pedofeatures or other features typical of water-lain deposits or mud slurry (hyperconcentrated) flows (Fig 6g). There is no compositional or microstructural difference between fill deposits lying directly on the floor (Fig 6g) or further above it (Fig 6d); both appear quite similar to the mud brick and contain fragments from wall plaster (Fig 6b).

The mudbricks are composed of what appears to be local natural deposits, containing a negligible amount of anthropogenic debris, while the fill above the Phase III floor incorporates anthropogenic debris and a higher presence of calcite in both the groundmass and coarse fraction. The composition of the fill thus reflects a mixture of mudbrick material, calcitic (most probably wall) plaster, and anthropogenic debris from human activity during the palace’s last phase.

FTIR. Results of infrared analysis show that sediment samples from the Phase III fill deposits and from the mudbrick controls produced very similar spectra (S2 Fig and S1 Table), dominated by calcite and clay. Quartz, identified by the main absorbance band at 1080 cm^-1 (which is at times obscured by the main absorbance band of clay) and a doublet at 778 and 798 cm^-1 [20], is present in low quantities. Carbonated hydroxyl apatite is present in minor amounts in several fill deposit samples, probably originating from bone fragments and/or decayed organic matter.

None of the sediment samples collected from the fill deposits above the palace’s Phase III storage room plaster floors show any indication of clay minerals being exposed to temperatures equal to or above 500˚C, following [49] and [52]. Lack of evidence for high temperatures is also demonstrated through the ν₂/ν₄ ratios of calcite, showing that this mineral is geogenic (following [50]). Both calcite and clay results indicate that fire-induced destruction is highly unlikely.

Discussion

from Lazar et al. (2020:12-15)

A comprehensive examination of the Tel Kabri MB II palace was carried out in order to shed light on the reason(s) for its demise during what appears to be a very prosperous period in its history. These are discussed below, in light of additional factors that could have led to the abandonment of the site.

Pollen records from the southern Levant indicate a relatively wet period between 1750 and 1550 BCE [53, 54], correlated to a period of high lake levels in the Dead Sea [55]. This agrees with climatic conditions in central Europe during this time (e.g. [56]). Therefore, it seems that there was no extreme environmental crisis, or vast fluctuations in the climate during the MB II, at the time of abandonment.

Economic decline also seems not to have been a factor. On the contrary, a significant renovation program was implemented in the palace during its last constructional phase (site strati graphic Phase III), just a short time before its end, showing that considerable means were still available at the time [32, 51].

Another indicator of wealth towards the palace’s end was uncovered in the large storage rooms, which contained pithoi that were filled with at least 4000 liters of wine when the palace was destroyed [33]. That quantity of wine would have had an estimated value of 625 silver shekels, a very high sum in a society where a worker’s salary was one shekel per month and a sheep cost 1.5 shekels [33].

Furthermore, the palace seems to have had several traits that strengthened its environmental resilience: zooarchaeological finds are consistent with a diverse and non-specializing animal economy using different ecological niches within the nearby territories without creating excessive environmental stress ([57] and references therein). The use of fuel for commodities consumed by the palace was also evaluated. A study of the plaster floors [58] concluded that most of their volume was prepared from pulverized chalk, while only a few localities included very thin (less than 1 cm) superimposed lime plaster surfaces. Similarly, the pithoi used in the wine storage rooms were shown to be fired at low temperatures not exceeding 600˚C, in contrast to findings from other Bronze Age palatial workshops [59]. Taken together, both studies indicate that demands on local wood fuel supplies were not excessive, as pyrotechnology was conducted on a rather fuel-conservative scale. Kabri seems to have been maintaining a sustainable relationship with its environment.

Finally, it seems to us that the destruction of Kabri is unlikely to have been caused by violent human activity. There are no visible signs of conflagration, no weapons such as arrows like those uncovered in the destruction layer of Ugarit (ca. 1190 BCE–[60, 61]) that would indicate a battle, nor any unburied bodies related to combat. No hoards that would indicate preparation for a siege or an organized abandonment have been found, nor mass graves that indicate pandemic fatalities. Additionally, the MB II is a peaceful period in terms of Egyptian military activity. The demise of Kabri occurs during the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt and thus postdates the earlier Middle Kingdom incursions into Canaan, such as that of Khu-Sebek, which took place during the days of Senusret III in the 19th century BCE. At the same time, the abandonment of the site predates the renewals of Egyptian campaigns during the 18th dynasty, beginning with Ahmose, ca. 1540–1530 BCE [62]. Furthermore, there seems to be an overall decrease in the level of intra- and inter-group violence in Canaanite society, which is reflected in a dramatic decrease in the number of warrior tombs as well as weapons in burials from MBI to MBII [63].

The results of the above-mentioned studies strongly suggest that scenarios of gradual climatic, environmental, or economic collapse, or a violent conquest, are unlikely causes for the demise of the Kabri palace. One of the main questions related to the type of destruction that befell the palace is whether floor deposits were buried quickly or gradually; the former would imply intentional collapse caused by humans or an earthquake, while the latter would be indicative of gradual disintegration following an abandonment of the palace.

Results of the micromorphological study show that the fill above the Phase III floor is a mixture of construction materials and anthropogenic debris with a massive chaotic structure. While evidence for bioturbation is present (e.g., channel voids), it is unlikely that it would have completely obliterated evidence for mud slurries, as these are found in other archaeological deposits from various periods across Israel despite bioturbation. Overall, absence of evidence for water-lain or mud slurry deposits indicates that construction materials did not accumulate slowly and sequentially, as would be expected following prolonged abandonment [64–66]. In addition, the excellent state of bone preservation (especially the amount of collagen preserved within the bones) also supports the scenario of a rapid collapse and burial [59].

In our opinion, the results of the microarchaeological study present compelling evidence that the collapse of the palace was not gradual. The chaotic arrangement of post Phase III floor deposits, together with lack of mud slurry deposits, implies a rapid collapse rather than the slow accumulation of degraded mudbrick material from standing walls or ceilings of an abandoned structure. This would also explain the jars in Room 2440 that were found lying on their side but which retained their shape without being crushed, which would happen if they were initially filled with sediment from the collapsing walls/ceiling and then fell over.

The rapid collapse and quick burial without conflagration, combined with the geological setting of Tel Kabri, raises the possibility that one or more earthquakes could have destroyed the walls and the roof of the palace without setting it on fire. Our reexamination of archaeological data presented above has revealed off-fault stratigraphic and structural elements, PEAEs [11], that point to damage resulting from at least one seismic event (i.e., an earthquake). These include broken and/or tilted and warped floors, wall plaster buildup, and fallen and broken objects that sometimes have similar spatial orientation. Perhaps the most telltale sign is the presence of the large trench that cuts across the palace. It is cut in turn by an unexcavated Iron Age pit (Fig 2) located west of the northern room of the Orthostat Building and east of the southeast corner of the Northern Storage Complex, which provides a terminus ante quem. Therefore, the trench cannot be a modern-day feature, as initially thought, but must instead be pre-Iron Age.

Since it was discovered during the 2019 excavations that the trench was filled with debris solely from the final phase of the palace (Phase III), we propose that it may represent a ground rupture resulting from earthquake activity. We note also that the trench runs parallel to a number of prominent, and otherwise unexplained, features in the palace. These include the folded floors of Room 2440 and associated displaced walls (e.g., Fig 4c and 4d) as well as the offsets and displacements recognized in the Orthostat Building (Room 2372, Fig 2). Moreover, both the trench and the features mentioned here all run parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault. Future excavations across the trench may add further data as to the nature and timing of this feature.

Having assessed the other possibilities as being substantially less likely, the mounting evidence as presented above leads us to suggest that at least one earthquake substantially damaged the site towards the end of the MB II, at around 1700 BCE. Data indicate that the damage to the palace, and the (rapid) collapse of at least parts of it, occurred prior to the subsequent abandonment of the site by the inhabitants. After several centuries of successful occupation and in a period that appears to have otherwise been quite prosperous, it must have been a very severe quake that not only damaged the palace, but also somehow destroyed the ability to actually continue living at the site. While Tel Kabri is not situated along or near the main plate boundary (the Dead Sea fault), it is nonetheless located along the trace of a potentially active fault (the Kabri fault) and in the vicinity of many others. Thus, it is certainly possible that an earthquake could have destabilized an already susceptible area with very high groundwater (as evident by the four springs in the area) and anomalously high potential ground motion amplification, such as at Tel Kabri.

The question then arises as to what could have caused the inhabitants’ decision not to continue to occupy the site? An earthquake could have interrupted the flow of water from the local springs, similar to what has been suggested for the site of Pella, Jordan [67], coincidentally (or not) around the same time. If so, then the abandonment of the site by the inhabitants of Kabri may have been the result of the combined effect of damage to buildings and to their water supply. While the former could be repaired, the latter could be terminal.

Even if the water supply were not affected, such physical damage to buildings and structures from an earthquake could also have caused further harm to subsistence, essential infrastructures, and social cohesion. This, in turn, could have led to a loss of legitimacy of governmental institutions in the eyes of the people (e.g. [68]). Compounding of earthquakes with other natural and anthropogenic calamities was familiar to the people of the ancient Near East [69]. The effect is best described in the cuneiform text SMN 3180 from Nuzi (14th century BCE), containing a list of omens describing the calamities that will occur if an earthquake hits during different months of the year. Some omens predict famine, pestilence, and destruction of settlements and land, while other calamities are connected with collapse of social order, e.g., revolt against the king, invasion, the loss of power of the ruler, or loss of the palace. For example, in the omen for the month of Tebet, it is written: "If the earth quakes in Tebet, the palace and the land will go to ruin” [70, 71]. The connection to loss of social cohesion can also be seen in the first millennium BCE Akkadian commentaries, predicting a rebellion as a result of an earthquake [72]. Thought speculative, it is not inconceivable that the physical damage apparently caused by the earthquake at Kabri, particularly in the form of the very visible trench in the earth that now crossed the palace from side to side, may have been regarded as a sign of divine displeasure with the rulership and populace, also deterring them from rebuilding.

In sum, the results of micro-geoarchaeological indicators used in this study point to a society that was aware of its surroundings and operated in a sustainable way with respect to the environment, as evident by the economic use of fuel expressed by firing of pottery at relatively low temperatures [59] and the small volumes of pyrogenic lime plaster [58]. This is supported by studies that showed that the population at the time focused on low volume, high value local produce, such as spiced wine and low intensity livestock production typical of mixed agriculture [33, 57]. In addition, micro-geoarchaeological indicators presented in the current study show that the palace was probably not destroyed by fire, nor was it left to slow, natural decay. Collapse of mudbrick walls along with wall and roof plaster was quick.

Conclusions

from Lazar et al. (2020:12-15)

The above sections presented both micro-geoarchaeological data and macro field observations to assess the possible reasons for damage to the MB II palace at Tel Kabri ca. 3700 years ago and the subsequent abandonment of the site for centuries.

The integrated approach used in this study allowed us to take into account macroscopic indicators for earthquake damage and collapse in architectural features and artifacts (PEAEs) as well as micro-geoarchaeological indicators for the rapid mode of deposit accumulation without evidence for fire. Furthermore, by examining previous studies, we argued that other possible scenarios for the demise of MB II Kabri, such as economic collapse, are far less likely than a hypothesis that the site was severely damaged by an earthquake, which led to its abandonment soon thereafter. In closing, we would suggest that the integrated multi-scalar methodological approach presented here can be applied at other archaeological sites, where it can serve to test and/or strengthen cases of possible earthquake damage and destruction.

Phase III Earthquake - Middle Bronze IIB - ~1700 BCE

Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3b - Back Room 2411 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3b The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d - Main Room 2372 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b - Room 2440 (aka SSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5a - Room 3306 (aka NSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 5a Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Compact layer of rubble burying valuables suggesting sudden collapse. The entire floors of the main and back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively; Fig 3a) were covered by a ca. 30 cm thick layer, composed of sizeable pieces of plaster and mudbrick (Fig 3b). This suggests that the deposit is the result of the collapse of the ceiling and walls. In addition, all the rooms of the Storage Complex were covered by a 42–67 cm thick layer of collapsed mudbrick and plaster from either the ceiling or the walls (e.g. Room 2440; Room 3306), as also shown micromorphologically. These collapse deposits cover valuables such as wine-containing pithoi, the contents of which could have been siphoned off and removed in the event of a slower abandonment of the site, had that happened (see below). - Lazar et al. (2020:6)
Tilted Walls Warped or Folded Walls Displaced Walls	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 4d Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 of the Storage Complex Figure 4d The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d Main Room of the Orthostat Building showing unbroken warped cross-walls and tilted and collapsed walls Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020)	Lazar et al. (2020:9) mention the presence of tilted and folded walls, which were documented in the field (e.g. Fig 4d) In Table 1, Lazar et al. (2020:5) notes that Tilted Walls were present as a threshold leading into back room of Orthostat building [and] tilted into trench and the Wall of [the] Northern Storage Complex [being] tilted into trench In Table 1, Lazar et al. (2020:5) notes that Displaced walls were present in the Orthostat Building and the Northern and Southern Storage Complexes as displaced orthostats and offset and/or wavy walls
Folded/Faulted Floor Surfaces (Fractures, Folds, and Popups on regular pavements)	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3c Displaced floor in Room 2372 of Orthostat Building Figure 3c The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Step or displacement in the floor of the Orthostat Building, just inside the entrance. One of the offset orthostats is visible at the top of the image. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d - northern wall (W2404) in Main Room 2372 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3e - Broken and sloping plaster floor in the backroom (2411) of the Orthostat Building Figure 3e The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b Room 2440 Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4c Room 2440 Figure 4c The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 after being cleared of the pithoi. Lazar et al. (2020)	Folded/faulted floor surfaces and archaeological deposits. The orthostats comprising the western and eastern walls of the main room of the Orthostat Building (Room 2372) are aligned, except for those at the southern end of both walls, near the entrance. These are elevated by 15 cm (Fig 3c). This change in elevation is also apparent in the floor level of the room, which slopes down (proceeding north from the room entrance) by 20 cm in less than half a meter, beginning at the spot where the orthostats change in elevation (Fig 3c). This deformation of the floor just inside the entrance is very unlikely to have been a feature existing prior to the destruction, since it would have made the floor surface irregular and rather unusable. To the north, the floor remains relatively flat, dropping only 2 cm over a distance of 6 m. The northern wall (W2404), with a threshold originally leading into the back room, is heavily deformed and has collapsed northward into the trench (Fig 3d), which now separates the main room from the back one (Room 2411). Elevation of the orthostats in the latter is 4–5 cm lower than in the main room and gaps of ca. 2 cm appear between these and the stone walls. In contrast, the plaster floor of the back room, now located on the far side of the trench, is broken up and slopes southward into the trench (Fig 3e). Similarly, within the Northern Storage Complex located just to the west(Fig 4a), the plaster floor also slopes to the south, into the large trench, and exhibits as well a clear fold (Room 3306; Fig 4b and 4c). - Lazar et al. (2020:6-7)
Pockmarked Floor (Impact Block Marks)	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a Rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)		Pockmarked floor. Both the earthen and plaster surfaces of the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex exhibit evidence for impact marks from collapsed vessels, construction debris, and objects that have fallen from above. - Lazar et al. (2020:7)
Smashed Pottery	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a Rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3b - Back Room 2411 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3b The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b - Room 2440 (aka SSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020)	Broken, in situ vessels. The back room of the Orthostat Building included many pottery sherds that were smashed in situ [26] (Fig 3b). The pithoi in the rooms of the Storage Complex were found lying in position where they fell. All were smashed in place and most were crushed to some degree, though some in Room 2440 retained their shape (Fig 4b; [33, 36]). - Lazar et al. (2020:7)
Fallen Objects and Fallen Pottery	Fig. 2 Rooms 690 and 740 and Stairwell 694 Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 5b Broken Pottery and Collapse in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex Figure 5b Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Broken, fallen vessels from furniture or upper floor. Although it is unclear whether any vessels had fallen from an upper floor, loom weights were found in several concentrations in Room 690, the adjacent Room 740, and Stairwell 694, in collapse layers above the floors. They belonged to at least two looms that were likely located in a second story room [51]. - Lazar et al. (2020:7) In Figure 5b, Lazar et al. (2020) showed a photo of Room 3306 in the Northern Storage Complex which showed collapse into the trench which included pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench
Oriented Fallen Objects	Fig. 2 Rooms 2520, 2533, and 2546 Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020)		Oriented fallen objects. In Room 2520, approximately twenty pithoi were found, most lying with an east-west orientation. A similar situation was found just to the south in Room 2533, where the bases of most of the thirty pithoi and other vessels found there were facing west. The eight vessels that were found in the small area that was exposed in the southernmost room (Room 2546) roughly adhere to this orientation pattern. Some 22 additional storage jars were recovered from the Northern Storage Complex, most of which were concentrated in the eastern and southern parts of the room. - Lazar et al. (2020:9)
Trench Formation (fault scarp)	Fig. 1b Fault map of the Galilee Area Figure 1b Compiled map of faults in the Galilee area. Thin black lines indicate faults that appear on the 1:200000 geological map Colored lines mark Quaternary faults : Red — evidence of Quaternary activity Yellow — marginal faults and main branches Purple —> 6km segments associated with recent activity Blue dashed — inferred/subsurface Thick black — Main strike-slip segments of the Dead Sea fault (DSF). Blue square marks location of geological map shown in Fig 1c. SoG—SeaofGalilee CF—Carmel fault KF—Kabri fault Red circle marks the location of Acco yellow circle marks the ancient city of Hazor. Black Lines Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998]). Colored Lines Reprinted from [23] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [2018]). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 1c Geological map of the area around the mound of Tel Kabri Figure 1c Geological map of the area showing the mound of Tel Kabri and its associated potentially active tectonic fault. Colored lines mark different interpretations for the Kabri fault: black line after [22] green line after [24] red line after [25] Blue dots mark the location of the four springs located in the vicinity of Tel Kabri. Light blue rectangle marks the location of the study area shown in Fig 2. (Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998]) Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3e - Broken and sloping plaster floor in the backroom (2411) of the Orthostat Building Figure 3e The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4d Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 of the Storage Complex Figure 4d The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5a - Room 3306 (aka NSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 5a Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5b Broken Pottery and Collapse in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex Figure 5b Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Both the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex show signs of having been cut by what was thought at the time of initial excavation (2011–2017) to be a modern-day trench. However, careful reexamination, together with finds from the Northern Storage Complex made during the 2019 season, suggest a very different story. This is a 1–3 m wide feature, which runs diagonally from southwest to northeast for at least 30 m. It is remarkably similar in angle and in strike to the Kabri fault line (Figs 1c and 2). The northern-most wall of the Southern Storage Complex (Wall 2466) collapsed into this feature, remains of which (three courses) were found slanting to the north (Fig 5a). Similar sloping was identified in the northern part of the Orthostat Building, where the threshold leading into the back room fell into the feature and is now lying at a steep south-to-north angle (Fig 4a and 4d). On the other side of the trench, i.e., to the north, within the Northern Storage Complex, Room3 306 contains mudbrick collapse and a number of vessels that are concentrated in the southeastern part of the room (Fig 5b). The floor slopes to the south, i.e. towards and into the trench. Interestingly, while it cannot be conclusively proven, some of the vessels appear to have rolled to the edge, where they were found on their sides adjacent to one another, with others falling on top of them (Fig 4d). The plaster floor in the back room of the Orthostat Building also slopes to the south, towards the trench, as mentioned above (Fig 3e). In general, analysis of archaeological finds in the field indicate that the remains to the north of the trench fell or now slope southward into it, while the remains to the south fell or now slope northward into it. These observations indicate that the trench is stratigraphically later than the construction of this part of the palace. - Lazar et al. (2020:9-10) ... Perhaps the most telltale sign is the presence of the large trench that cuts across the palace. It is cut in turn by an unexcavated Iron Age pit (Fig 2) located west of the northern room of the Orthostat Building and east of the southeast corner of the Northern Storage Complex, which provides a terminus ante quem. Therefore, the trench cannot be a modern-day feature, as initially thought, but must instead be pre-Iron Age. Since it was discovered during the 2019 excavations that the trench was filled with debris solely from the final phase of the palace (Phase III), we propose that it may represent a ground rupture resulting from earthquake activity. We note also that the trench runs parallel to a number of prominent, and otherwise unexplained, features in the palace. These include the folded floors of Room 2440 and associated displaced walls (e.g., Fig 4c and 4d) as well as the offsets and displacements recognized in the Orthostat Building (Room 2372, Fig 2). Moreover, both the trench and the features mentioned here all run parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault. Future excavations across the trench may add further data as to the nature and timing of this feature. - Lazar et al. (2020:14)
Debris	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. S1a Field photograph demonstrating sampling of bulk sediments from Wall W2450 and its surrounding Figure S1a Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (a) Wall W2450 and its surrounding. The blue tags indicate bulk sample positions. mud bricks in the wall white plaster lining the wall fill deposits next to the wall associated with several pithoi on the floor next to the wall. Note the white-speckled nature of the fill deposits, due to abundant plaster fragments Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. S1b Field photograph demonstrating sampling of block samples in Room 2520 Figure S1b Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (b) Field photograph exemplifying sampling of block samples in Room 2520. Phase III floor ceramic walls of a storage jar lying on the floor and sectioned in situ fill deposit Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 6c Thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor Figure 6c Results of micromorphology analysis. (c) Scan of thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor (sample KAB-B2 in S2 Table). The red particles are pottery sherds. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6d Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in 6 (c) Figure 6d Results of micromorphology analysis.floor (d) Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in (c). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6e Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it Figure 6e Results of micromorphology analysis. (e) Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6f Thin section of the contact shown in 6 (e) Figure 6f Results of micromorphology analysis. (f) Scan of thin section of the contact shown in (e) (sample KAB-2603.13 in S2 Table). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6g Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in 6 (f) Figure 6g Results of micromorphology analysis. (g) Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in (f). Lazar et al. (2020)	Phase III fill over the floors is comprised of the same main components as those identified in the mudbricks, as well as coarse pottery and bone fragments. A main difference in the fine fraction, in comparison to the mudbricks, is higher abundance of calcite, reflected by a mainly crystallitic b-fabric (i.e., birefringence originating from the presence of calcite rather than clay, indicating a mixture of calcitic components within the soil-derived mud brick material). The overall microstructure is subangular blocky. Voids include planes, vesicles, and channels (Fig 6c and 6d). Specific attention was paid to the contact of the Phase III fill with the floor (Fig 6e and 6f). The floor is composed of pressed chalk clasts of variable sizes with no preferred orientation. The deposit just above the plaster floor is not laminated and does not include rolling pedofeatures or other features typical of water-lain deposits or mud slurry (hyperconcentrated) flows (Fig 6g). There is no compositional or microstructural difference between fill deposits lying directly on the floor (Fig 6g) or further above it (Fig 6d); both appear quite similar to the mud brick and contain fragments from wall plaster (Fig 6b). - Lazar et al. (2020:11-12) Results of the micromorphological study show that the fill above the Phase III floor is a mixture of construction materials and anthropogenic debris with a massive chaotic structure. While evidence for bioturbation is present (e.g., channel voids), it is unlikely that it would have completely obliterated evidence for mud slurries, as these are found in other archaeological deposits from various periods across Israel despite bioturbation. Overall, absence of evidence for water-lain or mud slurry deposits indicates that construction materials did not accumulate slowly and sequentially, as would be expected following prolonged abandonment [64–66]. In addition, the excellent state of bone preservation (especially the amount of collagen preserved within the bones) also supports the scenario of a rapid collapse and burial [59]. In our opinion, the results of the microarchaeological study present compelling evidence that the collapse of the palace was not gradual. The chaotic arrangement of post Phase III floor deposits, together with lack of mud slurry deposits, implies a rapid collapse rather than the slow accumulation of degraded mudbrick material from standing walls or ceilings of an abandoned structure. This would also explain the jars in Room 2440 that were found lying on their side but which retained their shape without being crushed, which would happen if they were initially filled with sediment from the collapsing walls/ceiling and then fell over. - Lazar et al. (2020:13-14)

Potential (off-fault) Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs)

Potential Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Potential earthquake archaeological effects (PEAEs) on Minoan remains. Adapted from Rodríguez-Pascua et al. (2011) and Macdonald (2001), completed by Warren (1991), Knappett and Cunningham (2003), and Rucker and Niemi (2010). See text for further explanation.

Jusseret et al. (2013)

of Jusseret et al. (2013)
from Lazar et al. (2020)

Table 1

Potential (off-fault) Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs)

(after [11]) and corresponding findings in Kabri

Lazar et al. (2020)

Phase III Earthquake - Middle Bronze IIB - ~1700 BCE

Modified by JW from Figure 2 from Lazar et al. (2020)

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Figure 2 from Lazar et al. (2020)

Phase III Earthquake - Middle Bronze IIB - ~1700 BCE

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3b - Back Room 2411 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3b The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d - Main Room 2372 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b - Room 2440 (aka SSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5a - Room 3306 (aka NSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 5a Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Compact layer of rubble burying valuables suggesting sudden collapse. The entire floors of the main and back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively; Fig 3a) were covered by a ca. 30 cm thick layer, composed of sizeable pieces of plaster and mudbrick (Fig 3b). This suggests that the deposit is the result of the collapse of the ceiling and walls. In addition, all the rooms of the Storage Complex were covered by a 42–67 cm thick layer of collapsed mudbrick and plaster from either the ceiling or the walls (e.g. Room 2440; Room 3306), as also shown micromorphologically. These collapse deposits cover valuables such as wine-containing pithoi, the contents of which could have been siphoned off and removed in the event of a slower abandonment of the site, had that happened (see below). - Lazar et al. (2020:6)	VIII+
Tilted Walls Warped or Folded Walls Displaced Walls	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 4d Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 of the Storage Complex Figure 4d The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d Main Room of the Orthostat Building showing unbroken warped cross-walls and tilted and collapsed walls Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020)	Lazar et al. (2020:9) mention the presence of tilted and folded walls, which were documented in the field (e.g. Fig 4d) In Table 1, Lazar et al. (2020:5) notes that Tilted Walls were present as a threshold leading into back room of Orthostat building [and] tilted into trench and the Wall of [the] Northern Storage Complex [being] tilted into trench In Table 1, Lazar et al. (2020:5) notes that Displaced walls were present in the Orthostat Building and the Northern and Southern Storage Complexes as displaced orthostats and offset and/or wavy walls	VI+ VII+ VII+
Folded/Faulted Floor Surfaces (Fractures, Folds, and Popups on regular pavements)	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3c Displaced floor in Room 2372 of Orthostat Building Figure 3c The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Step or displacement in the floor of the Orthostat Building, just inside the entrance. One of the offset orthostats is visible at the top of the image. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3d - northern wall (W2404) in Main Room 2372 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3d The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The Main Room looking south and showing unbroken warped cross-walls; i.e., with a rise visible in the height of the walls. At the bottom of the image, wall 2404 and the threshold leading into the back room are visibly collapsed and tilting into the trench. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3e - Broken and sloping plaster floor in the backroom (2411) of the Orthostat Building Figure 3e The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b Room 2440 Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4c Room 2440 Figure 4c The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 after being cleared of the pithoi. Lazar et al. (2020)	Folded/faulted floor surfaces and archaeological deposits. The orthostats comprising the western and eastern walls of the main room of the Orthostat Building (Room 2372) are aligned, except for those at the southern end of both walls, near the entrance. These are elevated by 15 cm (Fig 3c). This change in elevation is also apparent in the floor level of the room, which slopes down (proceeding north from the room entrance) by 20 cm in less than half a meter, beginning at the spot where the orthostats change in elevation (Fig 3c). This deformation of the floor just inside the entrance is very unlikely to have been a feature existing prior to the destruction, since it would have made the floor surface irregular and rather unusable. To the north, the floor remains relatively flat, dropping only 2 cm over a distance of 6 m. The northern wall (W2404), with a threshold originally leading into the back room, is heavily deformed and has collapsed northward into the trench (Fig 3d), which now separates the main room from the back one (Room 2411). Elevation of the orthostats in the latter is 4–5 cm lower than in the main room and gaps of ca. 2 cm appear between these and the stone walls. In contrast, the plaster floor of the back room, now located on the far side of the trench, is broken up and slopes southward into the trench (Fig 3e). Similarly, within the Northern Storage Complex located just to the west(Fig 4a), the plaster floor also slopes to the south, into the large trench, and exhibits as well a clear fold (Room 3306; Fig 4b and 4c). - Lazar et al. (2020:6-7)	VI+
Pockmarked Floor (Impact Block Marks)	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a Rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)		Pockmarked floor. Both the earthen and plaster surfaces of the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex exhibit evidence for impact marks from collapsed vessels, construction debris, and objects that have fallen from above. - Lazar et al. (2020:7)	V+
Smashed Pottery	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing orthostat building and storage complex outlined by dotted black lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a Rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3b - Back Room 2411 of the Orthostat Building Figure 3b The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. The backroom (2411) covered in collapsed mudbrick and plaster. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4b - Room 2440 (aka SSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 4b The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Room 2440 showing ~48 pithoi found in situ. Note the warping in the eastern wall of the room (W2441 Fig 2). Lazar et al. (2020)	Broken, in situ vessels. The back room of the Orthostat Building included many pottery sherds that were smashed in situ [26] (Fig 3b). The pithoi in the rooms of the Storage Complex were found lying in position where they fell. All were smashed in place and most were crushed to some degree, though some in Room 2440 retained their shape (Fig 4b; [33, 36]). - Lazar et al. (2020:7)	VII+
Fallen Objects and Fallen Pottery	Fig. 2 Rooms 690 and 740 and Stairwell 694 Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 5b Broken Pottery and Collapse in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex Figure 5b Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Broken, fallen vessels from furniture or upper floor. Although it is unclear whether any vessels had fallen from an upper floor, loom weights were found in several concentrations in Room 690, the adjacent Room 740, and Stairwell 694, in collapse layers above the floors. They belonged to at least two looms that were likely located in a second story room [51]. - Lazar et al. (2020:7) In Figure 5b, Lazar et al. (2020) showed a photo of Room 3306 in the Northern Storage Complex which showed collapse into the trench which included pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench	V+
Oriented Fallen Objects	Fig. 2 Rooms 2520, 2533, and 2546 Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020)		Oriented fallen objects. In Room 2520, approximately twenty pithoi were found, most lying with an east-west orientation. A similar situation was found just to the south in Room 2533, where the bases of most of the thirty pithoi and other vessels found there were facing west. The eight vessels that were found in the small area that was exposed in the southernmost room (Room 2546) roughly adhere to this orientation pattern. Some 22 additional storage jars were recovered from the Northern Storage Complex, most of which were concentrated in the eastern and southern parts of the room. - Lazar et al. (2020:9)	V+
Trench Formation (fault scarp)	Fig. 1b Fault map of the Galilee Area Figure 1b Compiled map of faults in the Galilee area. Thin black lines indicate faults that appear on the 1:200000 geological map Colored lines mark Quaternary faults : Red — evidence of Quaternary activity Yellow — marginal faults and main branches Purple —> 6km segments associated with recent activity Blue dashed — inferred/subsurface Thick black — Main strike-slip segments of the Dead Sea fault (DSF). Blue square marks location of geological map shown in Fig 1c. SoG—SeaofGalilee CF—Carmel fault KF—Kabri fault Red circle marks the location of Acco yellow circle marks the ancient city of Hazor. Black Lines Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998]). Colored Lines Reprinted from [23] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [2018]). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 1c Geological map of the area around the mound of Tel Kabri Figure 1c Geological map of the area showing the mound of Tel Kabri and its associated potentially active tectonic fault. Colored lines mark different interpretations for the Kabri fault: black line after [22] green line after [24] red line after [25] Blue dots mark the location of the four springs located in the vicinity of Tel Kabri. Light blue rectangle marks the location of the study area shown in Fig 2. (Reprinted from [22] under a CC BY license, with permission from [Geological Survey of Israel], original copyright [1998]) Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 3a - Main and Back rooms of the Orthostat Building (Rooms 2372 and 2411 respectively) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 3a The Orthostat Building. Each black or white segment on the scale-sticks represents 10 cm. Aerial view showing the Main Room (MR), Back Room (BR), and Trench (F), which is denoted by dashed red lines. Notice that the southern side of the trench is partially obscured by a large stone block, whose flat upper side would have once served as a threshold leading into the back room, but which has now collapsed into the trench. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 3e - Broken and sloping plaster floor in the backroom (2411) of the Orthostat Building Figure 3e The backroom cleared of all rubble shown in Fig 3b, showing the broken and sloping plaster floor. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4d Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 of the Storage Complex Figure 4d The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Displaced wall W2443 in Room 2440 marked by blue dashed box on Fig 2. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5a - Room 3306 (aka NSC) in the Storage Complex Figure 5a Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 5b Broken Pottery and Collapse in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex Figure 5b Field photos of collapse into the trench. Photo from above in Room 3306 of the Northern Storage Complex. Left side of the image shows the trench. Right side of image shows pithoi that appear to have rolled southwards towards the trench and the collapse of the plaster floor into this feature. Arrow points to north. Each section of the scale-sticks corresponds to 10 cm. Lazar et al. (2020)	Both the Orthostat Building and the Storage Complex show signs of having been cut by what was thought at the time of initial excavation (2011–2017) to be a modern-day trench. However, careful reexamination, together with finds from the Northern Storage Complex made during the 2019 season, suggest a very different story. This is a 1–3 m wide feature, which runs diagonally from southwest to northeast for at least 30 m. It is remarkably similar in angle and in strike to the Kabri fault line (Figs 1c and 2). The northern-most wall of the Southern Storage Complex (Wall 2466) collapsed into this feature, remains of which (three courses) were found slanting to the north (Fig 5a). Similar sloping was identified in the northern part of the Orthostat Building, where the threshold leading into the back room fell into the feature and is now lying at a steep south-to-north angle (Fig 4a and 4d). On the other side of the trench, i.e., to the north, within the Northern Storage Complex, Room3 306 contains mudbrick collapse and a number of vessels that are concentrated in the southeastern part of the room (Fig 5b). The floor slopes to the south, i.e. towards and into the trench. Interestingly, while it cannot be conclusively proven, some of the vessels appear to have rolled to the edge, where they were found on their sides adjacent to one another, with others falling on top of them (Fig 4d). The plaster floor in the back room of the Orthostat Building also slopes to the south, towards the trench, as mentioned above (Fig 3e). In general, analysis of archaeological finds in the field indicate that the remains to the north of the trench fell or now slope southward into it, while the remains to the south fell or now slope northward into it. These observations indicate that the trench is stratigraphically later than the construction of this part of the palace. - Lazar et al. (2020:9-10) ... Perhaps the most telltale sign is the presence of the large trench that cuts across the palace. It is cut in turn by an unexcavated Iron Age pit (Fig 2) located west of the northern room of the Orthostat Building and east of the southeast corner of the Northern Storage Complex, which provides a terminus ante quem. Therefore, the trench cannot be a modern-day feature, as initially thought, but must instead be pre-Iron Age. Since it was discovered during the 2019 excavations that the trench was filled with debris solely from the final phase of the palace (Phase III), we propose that it may represent a ground rupture resulting from earthquake activity. We note also that the trench runs parallel to a number of prominent, and otherwise unexplained, features in the palace. These include the folded floors of Room 2440 and associated displaced walls (e.g., Fig 4c and 4d) as well as the offsets and displacements recognized in the Orthostat Building (Room 2372, Fig 2). Moreover, both the trench and the features mentioned here all run parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault. Future excavations across the trench may add further data as to the nature and timing of this feature. - Lazar et al. (2020:14)	VII+
Debris (Collapsed Walls)	Fig. 2 Phase III plan showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 2 Plan of Phase III at Tel Kabri. Text starting with R indicates room numbers mentioned in text W indicates wall locus numbers Red circle indicates the location of an Iron Age pit red dashed line is the trace of the trench mentioned in the text Green numbers beginning with L indicate loci where sediment samples were collected for micromorphology and FTIR analysis green lines show the location of excavation profiles sampled Blue arrows point to the warped floor in Room 2440 and offset walls of the Orthostat Building, which are aligned and parallel to the trace of the Kabri fault and to the trench Note that structures located just south of the trench are misaligned with respect to the general trend of palace walls, with their northwestern corners rotated towards this feature (dark green arrows). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Red and blue stars indicate the location of images presented in S1 Fig. Dashed black rectangles show location of Fig 3 (the Orthostat Building) and Fig 4a (the Southern and Northern Wine Storage Complexes) dashed blue rectangle marks the location of Fig 4d. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 4a all the rooms of the Storage Complex (e.g. Room 2440 aka SSC; Room 3306 aka NSC) showing trench outlined by dotted red lines Figure 4a The wine cellar (Room 2440 in the Southern Storage Complex). Aerial view showing the Southern Storage Complex (SSC), the Northern Storage Complex (NSC; blue dashed box) and the Trench (T; also denoted by the dashed red lines). Green star marks the approximate location of Fig 5a. Yellow star marks the approximate location of Fig 5b. Photo: Griffin Aerial Imaging. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. S1a Field photograph demonstrating sampling of bulk sediments from Wall W2450 and its surrounding Figure S1a Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (a) Wall W2450 and its surrounding. The blue tags indicate bulk sample positions. mud bricks in the wall white plaster lining the wall fill deposits next to the wall associated with several pithoi on the floor next to the wall. Note the white-speckled nature of the fill deposits, due to abundant plaster fragments Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. S1b Field photograph demonstrating sampling of block samples in Room 2520 Figure S1b Field photographs demonstrating field sampling of bulk sediments. (b) Field photograph exemplifying sampling of block samples in Room 2520. Phase III floor ceramic walls of a storage jar lying on the floor and sectioned in situ fill deposit Lazar et al. (2020)	Fig. 6c Thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor Figure 6c Results of micromorphology analysis. (c) Scan of thin section of the fill deposit (5–11 cm) above the palaces’ Phase III floor (sample KAB-B2 in S2 Table). The red particles are pottery sherds. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6d Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in 6 (c) Figure 6d Results of micromorphology analysis.floor (d) Microphotograph showing the general appearance of the fill deposit shown in (c). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6e Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it Figure 6e Results of micromorphology analysis. (e) Field photo showing the Phase III plaster floor of Room 2553 and the fill deposit covering it. Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6f Thin section of the contact shown in 6 (e) Figure 6f Results of micromorphology analysis. (f) Scan of thin section of the contact shown in (e) (sample KAB-2603.13 in S2 Table). Lazar et al. (2020) Fig. 6g Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in 6 (f) Figure 6g Results of micromorphology analysis. (g) Microphotograph showing the contact between the floor and sediment lying directly on it shown in (f). Lazar et al. (2020)	Phase III fill over the floors is comprised of the same main components as those identified in the mudbricks, as well as coarse pottery and bone fragments. A main difference in the fine fraction, in comparison to the mudbricks, is higher abundance of calcite, reflected by a mainly crystallitic b-fabric (i.e., birefringence originating from the presence of calcite rather than clay, indicating a mixture of calcitic components within the soil-derived mud brick material). The overall microstructure is subangular blocky. Voids include planes, vesicles, and channels (Fig 6c and 6d). Specific attention was paid to the contact of the Phase III fill with the floor (Fig 6e and 6f). The floor is composed of pressed chalk clasts of variable sizes with no preferred orientation. The deposit just above the plaster floor is not laminated and does not include rolling pedofeatures or other features typical of water-lain deposits or mud slurry (hyperconcentrated) flows (Fig 6g). There is no compositional or microstructural difference between fill deposits lying directly on the floor (Fig 6g) or further above it (Fig 6d); both appear quite similar to the mud brick and contain fragments from wall plaster (Fig 6b). - Lazar et al. (2020:11-12) Results of the micromorphological study show that the fill above the Phase III floor is a mixture of construction materials and anthropogenic debris with a massive chaotic structure. While evidence for bioturbation is present (e.g., channel voids), it is unlikely that it would have completely obliterated evidence for mud slurries, as these are found in other archaeological deposits from various periods across Israel despite bioturbation. Overall, absence of evidence for water-lain or mud slurry deposits indicates that construction materials did not accumulate slowly and sequentially, as would be expected following prolonged abandonment [64–66]. In addition, the excellent state of bone preservation (especially the amount of collagen preserved within the bones) also supports the scenario of a rapid collapse and burial [59]. In our opinion, the results of the microarchaeological study present compelling evidence that the collapse of the palace was not gradual. The chaotic arrangement of post Phase III floor deposits, together with lack of mud slurry deposits, implies a rapid collapse rather than the slow accumulation of degraded mudbrick material from standing walls or ceilings of an abandoned structure. This would also explain the jars in Room 2440 that were found lying on their side but which retained their shape without being crushed, which would happen if they were initially filled with sediment from the collapsing walls/ceiling and then fell over. - Lazar et al. (2020:13-14)	VIII+

Although the archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), the presence of apparent on site faulting in the form of a "trench" and displaced (mostly uplifted?) floors, all with an approximate E-W orientation, suggests a higher local intensity - perhaps IX (9) or higher.

References

Articles and Books

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Gvirtzman Z., Zaslavsky, Y. (2009) Map of zones with potentially high ground motion amplification . Geophysical Institute of Israel Report GSI/15/2009; 2009 [cited 2020 May 10]. - link supplied by Lazar et al. (2020) does not work

Hoflmayer, F, Yasur-Landau, A, Cline, EH, Dee, MW, Lorentzen, B, Riehl, S. (2012) New radiocarbon dates from Tel Kabri support a high Middle Bronze Age chronology . Radiocarbon. 2016; 58: 599–613.

Horowitz, A. (2002) Chapter 2: The natural environment in Tel Kabri: The 1986–1993 Excavations Seasons . In: Kempinski, A, editor. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology; 2002. pp. 7–14.

Jusseret, S. ,Langohr, C, Sintubin, M. (2013) Tracking earthquake archaeological evidence in Late Minoan IIIB (~1300–1200 B.C.) Crete (Greece): a proof of concept . Seismol Soc Am Bull. 2013; 103: 3026–3043. - open access at typeset.io

Jusseret, S. ,Langohr, C, Sintubin, M. (2013) Tracking earthquake archaeological evidence in Late Minoan IIIB (~1300–1200 B.C.) Crete (Greece): a proof of concept. Seismol Soc Am Bull. 2013; 103: 3026–3043. - access to pre-print at academia.edu

Lazar M, Cline EH, Nickelsberg R, Shahack-Gross R, Yasur-Landau A (2020) Earthquake damage as a catalyst to abandonment of a Middle Bronze Age settlement: Tel Kabri, Israel . PLOS ONE 15(9): e0239079

Smithline, Howard (2007) Tel Kabri Final Report Hadashot Arkheologiyot Vol. 119 Year 2007

Yasur-Landau, A, Cline, EH, Goshen, N, Marom, N, Samet, I. (2012) An MBII Orthostat building at Tel Kabri, Israel . Bull Am Schools Orient Res. 2012; 367: 1–29.

Yasur-Landau, A., Cline, EH, Goshen, N. (2014) Initial results of the stratigraphy and chronology of the Tel Kabri Middle Bronze Age palace . Ag Lev. 2014; 24: 355–364.

Yasur-Landau, A, Cline, EH, Koh, AJ, Ben-Shlomo, D, Marom, N, Ratzlaff, A, et al. (2015) Rethinking Canaanite palaces? The palatial economy of Tel Kabri during the Middle Bronze Age . J Field Archaeol. 2015; 40:607–625.

Yasur-Landau, A, Cline, EH, Koh, AJ, Ratzlaff, A, Goshen, N, Susnow, M, et al. (2018) The wine storage complexes at the Middle Bronze II palace of Tel Kabri: Results of the 2013 and 2015 seasons . Am J Archaeol. 2018; 122: 309–338.

Excavation Reports

Kempinski, A., 2002, Tel Kabri. The 1986–1993 Excavations. Edited by N. Scheftelowitz and R. Oren. Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

Websites

Tel Kabri website

Tel Kabri at biblicalarchaeology.org

Tel Kabri Project from National Geographic - archived on the Wayback Machine

Site Reports from Wikipedia

from wikipedia

Below are the site reports that could be located for the archaeological work at Tel Kabri. They have been arranged chronologically, with internet links where available, for reference.

The reports for the 1957–1958, 1975–1976, 1999, and 2004 excavations were all published in journals, some in English and some in Hebrew. It was not until the Tel Kabri Expedition of Tel Aviv University under Kempinski that stand-alone excavation reports for Tel Kabri were published, and then Kempinski made sure to publish a report for each year – a practice that has continued with the ongoing excavations by the Tel Kabri Archaeological Project of The George Washington University and the University of Haifa. Reports for the 1969 survey could not be located.

1956 Survey

Stekelis, M., 1958, On the obsidian core found at Kibbutz Kabri. Eretz Israel 5: 35-37 (Hebrew)

Stekelis, M., 1958, An obsidian core found at Kibbutz Kabri. Eretz Israel 5: 85* (English summary of the above.)

1957–1958 salvage excavation

Prausnitz, M. W., 1969, The excavations at Kabri. Eretz Israel 9: 122–129 (Hebrew)

Prausnitz, M. W., 1959, "Kabri". Israel Exploration Journal 9: 268–269. (English summary of the 1957–1958 excavations.)

1975–1976 salvage excavation

Prausnitz, M. W., Kempinski, A., 1977, Kabri, 1976. Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 27, p. 165–166.

The Tel Kabri Expedition: 1986–1993

Final Report

Kempinski, A., 2002, Tel Kabri. The 1986–1993 Excavations. Edited by N. Scheftelowitz and R. Oren. Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

Preliminary reports

Note that all preliminary reports by Kempinski's expedition are in English and Hebrew with the Hebrew sections summarised in the English section. Please note that the English sections use a different page numbering system where the pages are starred. this is to eliminate confusion from having a page 1 at the start of each cover.

Kempinski, A. (1987). Excavations at Kabri, 1: Preliminary Report of the 1986 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A. (1988). Excavations at Kabri, 2: Preliminary Report of the 1987 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A. (1989). Excavations at Kabri, 3: Preliminary Report of the 1988 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A.; Niemeier, W. D. (1990). Excavations at Kabri, 4: Preliminary Report of the 1989 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A.; Niemeier, W. D. (1991). Excavations at Kabri, 5: Preliminary Report of the 1990 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A.; Niemeier, W. D. (1992). Excavations at Kabri, 6: Preliminary Report of the 1991 Season. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Kempinski, A.; Niemeier, W. D. (1994). Excavations at Kabri, 7–8: Preliminary Report of the 1992–1993 Seasons. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.

1999 salvage excavation

Results of a Salvage Excavation at Tel Kabri

2004 salvage excavation

Tel Kabri Final Report

Tel Kabri Final Report

The Tel Kabri Archaeological Project: 2005–ongoing

The Tel Kabri Archaeological Project has published preliminary reports for each season of excavation online. As of 2015, there is no collected site report.

2017 Salvage Excavation

In 2017 a salvage excavation was conducted at a site 200 meters south of Tel Kabri in response for planned agricultural activity. A considerable number of pottery shards were found in the excavation squares dated to Middle Bronze II.[124]

Bibliography from Stern et. al. (1993 v.2)

A. Biran, CNI 10/1-2 (1959). 26-27

M. W. Prausnitz, IEJ9 (1959), 268-269

id .. RB67 (1960), 390-391; id., From Hunter to Farmer and Trader, Jerusalem 1970, 160-168

M. W. Prausnitz and A. Kempinski, IEJ27 (1977), 165-166

R. Ami ran, ibid. 26 (1976), 157-162

A. Kempinski and E. Miron, ibid. 37 (1987), 175-177

id., ESI6 (1987-1988), 71-72

7-8 (1988-1989), 104-106

A. Kempinski and W.-D. Niemeier, ibid. 9 (1989-1990), 94-95

id., IEJ 41 (1991), 188-194

A. Kempinski and J. Naveh, TA 18 (1991), 244- 247

Weippert 1988 (Ortsregister)

E. Stern andY. Gorin, ESI 9 (1989-1990), 96-97

Excavations at Kabri: Preliminary Report of 1989 Season (eds. A. Kempinski and W.-O. Niemeier). Tel Aviv 1991

S. R. Wolff, AJA 95 (1991), 501, 505-506.

Bibliography from Stern et. al. (2008)

Main Publications

Excavations at Kabri: Preliminary Reports of 1987–1991; 1992–1993 Seasons (Preliminary Reports 5–8; eds. A. Kempinski & W. -D. Niemeier), Tel Aviv 1992–1994

A. Kempinski, Tel Kabri: The 1986–1993 Excavation Seasons (The Emery & Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology

Tel Aviv University, Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Monograph Series 20

eds. N. Scheftelowitz & R. Oren), Tel Aviv 2002

ibid. (Reviews) BASOR 336 (2005), 75–77. — IEJ 55 (2005), 120–121

N. Scheftelowitz, Tombs and Burial Offerings: Tel Kabri as a Case Study to the Mortuary Practices in Northern Israel in the Middle Bronze Age II (M.A. thesis), Tel Aviv 2004 (Eng. abstract)

Studies

W. -D. Niemeier, Aegaeum 7 (1991), 189–201

18 (1998), 69–98 (with B. Niemeier)

id., AJA 97 (1993), 332–333

99 (1995), 304–305

id., Recent Excavations in Israel, A View to the West: Reports of Kabri, Nami, Miqne-Ekron, Dor and Ashkelon (Archaeological Institute of America Colloquia and Conference Papers 1

ed. S. Gitin), Dubuque, IA 1995, 1–16

id., BASOR 322 (2001), 11–32

id., TA 29 (2002), 328–331

A. Kempinski, Michmanim 5 (1991), 36*–37*

id. (& W. -D. Niemeier), ESI 10 (1991), 76–77; 13 (1993), 14–15

14 (1994), 16–19

id., Ägypten und Levante 3 (1992), 69–73

id., EI 23 (1992), 149*

25 (1996), 97*

id., (& W. -D. Niemeier), IEJ 42 (1992), 260–265

43 (1993), 181–184, 256–259

id., Aspects of Art and Iconography: Anatolia and its Neighbors (Nimet Ozgüc Fest.

eds. M. J. Mellink et al.), Ankara 1993, 333–338

id., AJA 98 (1994), 487–488, 494–495

id., MdB 89 (1994), 38

id., The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspective (University Museum Monograph 96 and Symposium Series 8

ed. E. D. Oren), Philadelphia 1997, 327–334

I. Finkelstein, TA 19 (1992), 201–220

A. M. Maeir (& Y. Garfinkel), Levant 24 (1992), 218–223

id., PEQ 132 (2000), 37–58

S. J. Garfinkle, Archaeology 46/6 (1993), 18

E. H. Cline, AJA 98 (1994), 331–332

N. Getzov, ‘Atiqot 27 (1994), 211

id., ESI 113 (2001), 6*–7*

L. Nigro, Ricerche sull’architettura palaziale della Palestina nelle eta del bronzo e del ferro (Contributi e materiali di archeologia orientale 5), Roma 1995

H. Pastor Borgñon, Aula Orientalis 13 (1995), 211–216

B. Brimer & R. Amiran, ‘Atiqot 30 (1996), 121–122

E. J. Stern & Y. Gorin-Rosen, ibid. 33 (1997), 7*–8*

A. Zertal, Michmanim 9 (1996), 73–82

W. G. Dever, OEANE, 3, New York 1997, 261

P. Young Forsyth, Thera in the Bronze Age (American University Studies 9: History 187), New York 1997

J. C. Waldbaum & J. Magness, AJA 101 (1997), 23–40

Wasser im Heiligen Land: Biblische Zeugnisse und Archäologische Forschungen (Schriftenreihe der Frontinus Gesellschaft Suppl 3

ed. W. Dierx), Mainz am Rhein 2001, 141–142

A. Caubet, Aegaeum 18 (1998), 105–113

B. & W. -D. Niemeier, The Wall Paintings from Thera. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, 30.8.–4.9. 1997 (ed. S. Sherratt), 2, Athens 1998, 763–802

P. Militello, Simposio Italiano di Studi Egei (L. B. Brea & G. Pugliese Carratelli Fest., Roma 18–20.2.1998), Roma 1999, 91–108

M. Bietak & K. Kopetzky, Synchronisation, Wien 2000, 112–113

Y. Goren & S. Zuckermann, Ceramics and Change, Sheffield 2000, 165–182

M. Peilstöcker, ICAANE, 1, Roma 2000, 1335

S. Rutgaizer, ESI 111 (2000), 9*

Y. Garfinkel, Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighboring Lands, Chicago, IL 2001, 143–159

D. Shalem, ibid., 7*–8*

S. L. Cohen, Canaanites, Chronologies, and Connections, Winona Lake, IN 2002 (index)

M. Negbi & O. Negbi, Beer-Sheva 15 (2002), 325–340

N. Schreiber, The Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age (Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 13), Leiden 2003, 202–204

H. Smithline, ESI 116 (2004), 4*–6*

Artifax 20/4 (2005), 4.

Wikipedia pages

Tel Kabri

from wikipedia - click link to open page in a separate tab

Al-Kabri

from wikipedia - click link to open page in a separate tab

Kabri, Israel

from wikipedia - click link to open page in a separate tab