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Rehovot ba Negev

Aerial photograph of Rehovot ba Negev after 4th season of excavation III.6.

Aerial photograph after the fourth season (courtesy J. Shershevski)

Approx. North Arrow (in red) added by JW

Tsafrir (1988)


Names
Transliterated Name Source Name
Rehovot ba Negev Hebrew רחובות בנגב
Khirbet Ruheibeh Arabic كهيربيت روهييبيه
Rehoboth Biblical Hebrew רְחוֹבוֹת
Berteiba Greek Βηρθειβα
Beer Tiv or Beer Tova
Bethomolchon Greek βετομολαχον
Beth Malchu
Introduction
Introduction

Rehovot ba Negev is one of the large settlements established in the Negev in the Nabatean period that flourished in Byzantine times ( Yoram Tsafrir and Kenneth G. Holum in Stern et al, 1993). Lying on a branch of the Incense Road, it derives it's modern Hebrew name from an association with a well dug by the patriarch Isaac in Rehoboth (Genesis 26:22). There is, as of yet, no evidence to support this and it's association on geographical grounds is considered unlikely ( Yoram Tsafrir and Kenneth G. Holum in Stern et al, 1993). Although there are no signs of violent destruction via human agency, the town appears to have declined after the Muslim conquest of the Levant and most of its permanent residents had likely left by ~700 CE ( Yoram Tsafrir and Kenneth G. Holum in Stern et al, 1993) or earlier. Nomads took up temporary residence in the deserted town after that leaving temporary installations, campfire ashes, an occasional coin, and a few Kufic inscriptions. ( Yoram Tsafrir and Kenneth G. Holum in Stern et al, 1993). Limited occupation took place in Ottoman times and during the British Mandate.

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) identified what they believed to be three earthquakes between ~500 and ~800 CE causing the majority of observed seismic effects. One or more earthquakes in Turkish-British times may have created additional seismic effects. Rehovot ba-Negev probably has a site effect as it appears to be built on weak ground. Yoram Tsafrir, who excavated the site, described the bedrock beneath one of the apses in the Northern Church as soft and chalky (Tsafrir et al, 1988:40). Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014:84) and Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018:5) mention that one of the revetment walls was built on top of loess. This probably explains some of the extensive damage far from large well known active faults although as pointed out by Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014:84) and Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018:5), it is possible that there is unrecognized seismic hazard in the Negev.

Identification

Rehovot-in-the-Negev (Khirbet Ruheibeh) is one of the large settlements established in the Negev in the Nabatean period that flourished in Byzantine times. The city was built on a fiat hill overlooking the bed of Nahal Shunra (Wadi Ruheibeh), a tributary of Nahal Besor (map reference 108.048). A deep and abundant well was dug in the bed of the brook. Large expanses of the dunes of Haluza (Elusa) and Shunra stretch to the north and south. In the valleys around the city, however, are cultivated loess areas. Rehovot-in-theNegev lies along the ancient route from Palestine to the Sinai desert via Elusa and Nessana.

Rehovot-in-the-Negev has not been positively identified. E. Robinson had considered identifying it with Rehoboth, the well of Isaac(Gen. 26:22), on the basis of the similarity of its Arabic name, but in the end he rejected the identification. It was nonetheless accepted by many scholars and even influenced the choice of a Hebrew name for the place. This identification cannot be confirmed by the finds, nor is it likely on geographical grounds. It is possible that the name of the place is to be sought among the settlements mentioned in the Nessana papyrus no. 79, attributed to the beginning of the seventh century CE. This papyrus lists those bringing gifts to the monastery of Saint Sergius in Nessana and mentions their place of residence. Many of these places are known settlements in the region; several others, however, are yet to be identified. It is not likely that the name of Rehovot, which is located near Nessana, would be missing from this list. Noteworthy among the names are Βηρθειβα (Berteiba), a Hellenized form of the name Beer Tiv, or Beer Tova, and the settlement βετομολαχον (Bethomolchon), a Hellenized form of Beth Malchu. The latter settlement is probably to be identified with Rehovot; like the Greek name that recalls the founder of the Nabatean city of 'Avdat-Oboda- here, too, the name of Malchu or Malichus, the Nabatean king who (according to this opinion) founded the city, is commemorated. This was apparently Malichus I (mid-first century BCE) and not Malichus II (mid-first century CE).

History

The earliest remains discovered so far on the site are sherds from the Roman period (mainly Eastern terra sigillata ware), and painted Nabataean ware characteristic of the first century BCE and the first century CE. These sherds attest to the establishment of the city by the Nabateans. The extent of the Nabatean settlement at Rehovot-in-the-Negev is unknown, nor is it clear whether its inhabitants lived in stone buildings, tents, or huts. The settlement was probably originally a way station on a branch of the Nabatean "incense route" to Gaza. This road ran from Elusa (Haluza), circumventing a large area of sand dunes, via Rehovot to Nessana, and from there, via Wadi el- 'Arish, to Rhinocorura (el-'Arish), in Egypt. It is possible that the 50-m-deep well found at the site and the reservoir in the south of the city were dug by the Nabateans.

After the annexation of the Nabatean areas to the Provincia Arabia (106 CE), the incense route became less important, paralleled by a rise in the prominence of Trajan's Route (Via Traiana) in Transjordan and the branch of it passing through Mampsis in the east. In this period (second to fourth centuries CE), the settlement at Rehovot occupied a limited area. It enjoyed a period of prosperity beginning in the fourth century and reached its peak in the fifth and sixth centuries - the height of Byzantine Christian settlement in the Negev. The city at that time was included in the province of Palaestina Tertia. The inhabitants' main source of livelihood was agriculture, based on cultivating the loess in the beds of the valleys, which were irrigated by floodwater. Many agricultural terraces and fences for animals are found in the city's environs. Of special importance was the road leading to Egypt, which was used during this period mainly by the caravans of pilgrims making the ascent to Mount Sinai.

At the height of its expansion, the city covered an area of about 30 a., with an estimated population of four to five thousand. Its stone buildings were spacious, even though the building density was very high. The buildings were roofed with stone slabs resting on arches, and the courtyard of every house contained a cistern. Many of the lintels on the houses were decorated with geometrical and floral designs. A bathhouse built close to the well was apparently destroyed by the Turks at the beginning of the twentieth century; it was, however, described in detail by A. Musil.

Four churches were built on the site, two within the built-up area and two outside it, south of the well and to its north (area E). The city's population was apparently made up of the descendants of the Nabateans and of the ancient settlers of the Negev, intermingled with newcomers from northern Palestine and members of tribes who arrived here from Arabia and took up permanent residence.

The city began to decline after the Arab conquest of Palestine. Although no signs have been found of a violent destruction, it seems that political changes and the undermining of security led to the city's gradual abandonment. Most of its permanent inhabitants had probably left by 700 CE. Nomads took up temporary residence in the deserted buildings, leaving temporary installations, campfire ashes, an occasional coin, and a few Kufic inscriptions behind them.

Exploration

Rehovot-in-the-Negev was first described by U. J. Seetzen in 1807, and in 1838 Robinson described it in detail. The place was subsequently mentioned in the accounts of several travelers, the most important of whom are E. H. Palmer (1870), A. Musil (1902), and E. Huntington (1909). On the eve of World War I, Rehovot-in-the-Negev was surveyed by C. L. Woolley and T. E. Lawrence; during the war it was examined by T. Wiegand. A complete collection of tombstone inscriptions collected on the site by a number of explorers was published by A. Alt in 1921. The city was later mentioned briefly by various writers. From 1975 to 1979, four seasons of excavations were carried out at the site on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, under the direction of Y. Tsafrir (the first two seasons were co-directed by R. Rosenthal). In 1986, a fifth season was carried out in conjunction with the University of Maryland (College Park) under the direction of Tsafrir and K. G. Holum. In 1978 and 1990, two short seasons were conducted in the northern cemetery by the same excavators and I. Hershkowitz from Tel Aviv University, focusing on the physical-anthropological investigation of the site's population.

Maps, Plans, Sections, and Photos
Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Sections, and Photos

Maps and Aerial Views

  • Fig. 1- Location Map
    Fig. 1

    The ancient caravan routes (thick lines) in the Negev desert, the intensities of the seismic oscillations (according to MSK-64 scale) of past earthquakes in the old cities studied by the authors are shown (scale 1 : 1 500 000)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 1 - Location Map from
    Fig. 1

    Location Map

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Rehovot ba Negev in Google Earth
    Rehovot ba Negev
    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
  • Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il
    Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il

    click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

  • Fig. 4 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 4

    Musil's ground plan of the site

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    of the site from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 6 - Lawrence and Woolley's
    Fig. 6

    Lawrence and Woolley's ground plan of the site.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    ground plan of the site from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 4 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 4

    Musil's ground plan of the site

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    of the site from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 6 - Lawrence and Woolley's
    Fig. 6

    Lawrence and Woolley's ground plan of the site.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    ground plan of the site from Tsafrir et al (1988)

The Northern Church

Normal Size

  • Fig. 3 - Plan of the
    Fig. 3

    Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    Northern Church from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 7 - Plan of the
    Fig. 7

    A ground plan of the northern church

    Giora Solar

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Northern Church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 11 - Plan of the
    Fig. 11

    A schematic plan of walls and loci

    • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
    • 501 — The central apse
    • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
    • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
    • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
    • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
    • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
    • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
    • 508 — The crypt
    • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
    • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
    • 511 — Canceled
    • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
    • 513 — The northern aisle
    • 514 — The nave
    • 515 — The southern aisle
    • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
    • 517 — The staircase tower
    • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
    • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
    • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
    • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
    • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
    • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
    • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
    • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Northern Church with wall numbers and loci from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 10 - isometric
    Fig. 10

    An isometric reconstruction of the northern church

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    reconstruction of the Northern Church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 9 - isometric
    Fig. 9

    An isometric reconstruction of remains found in situ in the northern church including the south wing of the atrium

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    reconstruction of remains found in situ of the northern church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 18 - isometric
    Fig. 18

    An isometric reconstruction of the crypt below the pavement of the church

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    reconstruction of the crypt below the pavement of the Northern Church from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 7 - Plan of the
    Fig. 7

    A ground plan of the northern church

    Giora Solar

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Northern Church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 11 - Plan of the
    Fig. 11

    A schematic plan of walls and loci

    • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
    • 501 — The central apse
    • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
    • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
    • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
    • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
    • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
    • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
    • 508 — The crypt
    • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
    • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
    • 511 — Canceled
    • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
    • 513 — The northern aisle
    • 514 — The nave
    • 515 — The southern aisle
    • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
    • 517 — The staircase tower
    • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
    • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
    • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
    • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
    • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
    • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
    • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
    • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
    • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Northern Church with wall numbers and loci from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 10 - isometric
    Fig. 10

    An isometric reconstruction of the northern church

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    reconstruction of the Northern Church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 9 - isometric
    Fig. 9

    An isometric reconstruction of remains found in situ in the northern church including the south wing of the atrium

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    reconstruction of remains found in situ of the northern church from Tsafrir et al (1988)

The Byzantine bath-house

Normal Size

  • Fig. 5 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 5

    Musil's ground plan of the bath house

    • sections A-B above left
    • C-D above right
    • E-F below

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and sections of the bath-house from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 5 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 5

    Musil's ground plan of the bath house

    • sections A-B above left
    • C-D above right
    • E-F below

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and sections of the bath-house from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Area B (Residential Buildings in the southern quarter)

Normal Size

Magnified

Area C (The Khan)

Normal Size

  • Fig. 3 - Plan of Area C
    Fig. 3

    Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
    Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
    (stable buildings) from Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
  • Fig. 3 - Plan of Area C
    Fig. 3

    A ground plan of the Khan, Area C

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 3 - Plan of Area C
    Fig. 3

    Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
    Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
    (stable buildings) from Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
  • Fig. 3 - Plan of Area C
    Fig. 3

    A ground plan of the Khan, Area C

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Area D (The Central Church)

Normal Size

  • Fig. 4 - Plan of the
    Fig. 4

    Area D; the central church, later phase
    Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
    central church in a later phase in Area D from Tsafrir and Holum (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 4 - Plan of the
    Fig. 4

    Area D; the central church, later phase
    Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
    central church in a later phase in Area D from Tsafrir and Holum (1988)

Sections

The Northern Church

Normal Size

  • Fig. 8 - Section along
    Fig. 8

    A section along the northern church staircase, including elevations of the northern wall of the crypt and the synthronon

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    the northern church staircase from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 12 - Section L.506
    Fig. 12

    The northern edge of the section L.506 in the apse

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in the apse (northern edge) from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 13 - Section L.506
    Fig. 13

    The southern edge of the section L.506 in the apse

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in the apse (southern edge) from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 20 - eastern wall
    Fig. 20

    The eastern wall of the crypt and the cavity for reliquary as found

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    of the crypt and the cavity for reliquary as found from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 21 - southern entrance
    Fig. 21

    The southern entrance into the crypt (L. 503), showing the walls of the corridor, the arch of the southern door and the level of the bema above, looking north.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    into the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 22 - A section of
    Fig. 22

    A section of the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt (L. 504).

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 23 - upper part of
    Fig. 23

    An elevation of the upper part of the northern entrance into the crypt, the bema, the apse and the rear room L. 505, looking south.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    the northern entrance into the crypt, the bema, the apse and the rear room from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 19 - Reconstructed
    Fig. 19

    Reconstructed section of the church and the crypt

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    section of the church and the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Magnified

  • Fig. 8 - Section along
    Fig. 8

    A section along the northern church staircase, including elevations of the northern wall of the crypt and the synthronon

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    the northern church staircase from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 12 - Section L.506
    Fig. 12

    The northern edge of the section L.506 in the apse

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in the apse (northern edge) from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 13 - Section L.506
    Fig. 13

    The southern edge of the section L.506 in the apse

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in the apse (southern edge) from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Photos

Views of the Northern Church

  • Plate III.30 - Aerial
    Plate III.30

    Aerial View of the northern church, looking southeast

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    View of the northern church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.31 - Aerial
    Plate III.31

    Aerial View of the church, looking southwest

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    View of the northern church from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.32 - General
    Plate III.32

    General view of the church from the outside, looking northwest

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    View of the northern church from the outside from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.33 - The church
    Plate III.33

    The church in process of excavation, looking northeast

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in process of excavation from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.34 - General
    Plate III.34

    General view of the church, looking southeast

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    view of the church from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Potential Archaeoseismic Evidence

  • Fig. 10 - Fallen Arches
    Plate III.14

    Fallen Arches and Roofing slabs in room L.206, looking south

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and Roofing slabs in room L.206 from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.38 - Bases
    Plate III.38

    Bases and drums found near the southern apse, looking southeast.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and drums found near the southern apse from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.39 - Bases,
    Plate III.39

    Bases, drums, and capitals near the northern entrance to the crypt, looking southeast.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    drums, and capitals near the northern entrance to the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.41 - column base
    Plate III.41

    A column base and two voussoirs of the fallen arcade; the northern colonnade, looking south.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and two voussoirs of the fallen arcade; the northern colonnade from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.54 - Displaced
    Plate III.54

    The northern end of the partition wall between the bema (left) and the apse (W. 31). Note the raised step and the bulk of hardened chalk that enable the reconstruction of a three-stepped synthronon, looking northeast.

    JW: Note displaced wall (sheared)

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    (sheared) northern end of the partition wall W.31 between the bema and the apse from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.57 - The southern
    Plate III.57

    The southern apse (L. 500), looking east.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    apse (L. 500) from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 22 - A section of
    Fig. 22

    A section of the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt (L. 504).

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.80 - Accumulation
    Plate III.80

    Accumulation of architectural parts in the crypt

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    of architectural parts in the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.81 - chancel
    Plate III.81

    Parts of a chancel post and a chancel screen of the bema, which fell from the northern entrance into the crypt (L. 504).

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    post and screen of the bema which fell into the N entrance to the crypt from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.87 - Roofing
    Plate III.87

    Roofing slabs in room L.505, looking northwest.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    slabs in room L.505 from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.104 - window
    Plate III.104

    A window in the northeastern corner of the staircase [in the staircase tower (L.517)], looking north from the tower outside.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    in the northeastern corner of the staircase in the staircase tower (L.517) from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.111 - secondary
    Plate III.111

    A secondary wall built upon the stylobate of the atrium (see stylobate and column base in left part of photograph), looking west.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    wall built upon the stylobate of the atrium from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.112 - secondary
    Plate III.112

    The secondary wall built upon the stylobate of the atrium, looking north.

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    wall built upon the stylobate of the atrium from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate III.119 - Voussoirs
    Plate III.119

    Voussoirs and roofing slabs in the debris of the chapel, looking southwest

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and roofing slabs in the debris of the chapel from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Plate 21.B - fallen
    Plate 21.B

    Area C: central room of stable, L.306, looking south. Note fallen roofing arches

    Tsafrir & Holum (1988)
    roofing arches in L.306 of Area C (the Khan) from Tsafrir & Holum (1988)

Water Reservoir

  • Fig. 18 - Water Reservoir
    Fig. 18

    Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    at Rehovot ba Negev from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 4 - Water Reservoir
    Fig. 4

    Rehovot: a panoramic view of the reservoir

    Rubin (1988)
    at Rehovot ba Negev from Rubin (1988)

Chronology
Chronology of the Northern Church

Tsafrir et al (1988: 26) excavated the Northern Church (aka the Pilgrim Church) of Rehovot ba Negev and came to the following conclusions regarding its initial construction:

A clear terminus ante quem for the building of the church is given by a burial inscription (Ins. 2) dated to the month Apellaios 383, which falls, according to the era of the Provincia Arabia, in November - December 488 C.E. The church probably was erected in the second half of the fifth century. ... . Although it is clear that several parts of the complex were built later than the main hall, such as the northern chapel, there is no doubt that the entire complex was constructed within the same few years.
Later on they noted that a date of approximately 460 - 470 for the building activity therefore seems reasonable, although the calculation remains hypothetical. After initial construction, additional architectural elements were added; foremost among them a revetment or support wall which is described and discussed below by Tsafrir (1988: 27).
The most important architectural addition was the talus, or sloping revetment, that was built around the walls of the church from the outside to prevent their collapse. Such revetments were common in the Negev. They supported the walls of churches as well as of private houses. They are found, for example, around the walls of St. Catherine's monastery in Sinai. At Rehovot such walls may have been erected following an earthquake, but more probably it was necessary to reinforce them just because of poor quality masonry.

"Late Roman Earthquake" - ~500 - ~600 CE

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) note that the "Late Roman Earthquake" could represent more than one earthquake. It is presumed to have struck after construction of the northern Church in ~460 - 470 CE and led to repair of various structures including construction of revetment walls. They listed seismic effects as follows:

  • tilted and shifted walls, surrounded by revetment walls (figs. 7. 8. 12. 19–21)
  • columns supported by walls (fig. 22)
  • deformation of arches and roofs (fig. 10)
  • rooms filled with earth in order to prevent the collapse of roofs (fig. 10)
  • features of later repair and rebuilding
  • secondary use of building elements
See the seismic effects section for photos and discussion.

"The Byzantine Shock" - 7th century CE

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) suggest that this earthquake destroyed Rehovot ba Negev and led to its abandonment. They date it to the end of Byzantine sovereignty. They listed seismic effects as follows:

  • tilted and shifted walls (figs. 4–7. 13)
  • stone rotations (fig. 16)
  • pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular wall (fig. 14)
  • opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls (figs. 5. 6. 15)
  • throughgoing joints (figs. 5. 14. 17)
  • a crack cutting the water reservoir (fig. 18)
  • collapse of the strong layer that covered the water reservoir (fig. 18)
See the seismic effects section for photos and discussion.

"Post Abandonment Quake" - 7th - 8th century CE

This earthquake is presumed to have struck after the presumed abandonment of the Rehovot ba-Negev. Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) suggest that the second phase of destruction occurred in the 9th century CE but this appears to be a typographic error as Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) cite a paper by Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999b) on Avdat/Oboda for this date and the latest earthquake mentioned in Korzhenkov and Mazor (1999b) is 7th century CE. Tsafrir et al, (1988:9) assess that this destruction can likely be dated to the 8th century possibly the early 8th century CE at the latest.

Turkish/British Earthquake(s) - 19th-20th centuries CE

Plans and Photos

Plans and Photos

  • Fig. 5 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 5

    Musil's ground plan of the bath house

    • sections A-B above left
    • C-D above right
    • E-F below

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and sections of the bath-house from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 5 - Musil's ground plan
    Fig. 5

    Musil's ground plan of the bath house

    • sections A-B above left
    • C-D above right
    • E-F below

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    and sections of the bath-house from Tsafrir et al (1988) (magnified)
  • Plate III.28 - The rebuilt
    III.28

    The Byzantine bath house as photographed by Musil

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    Byzantine bath-house from Tsafrir et al (1988)
  • Fig. 10 - Destroyed British
    Fig. 10

    Destroyed well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    well-house from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Plate III.9 - The British
    III.9

    The well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house

    Tsafrir et al (1988)
    well-house from Tsafrir et al (1988)

Discussion

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) report that Tsafrir et al (1988) date destruction of a rebuilt Byzantine bath house (Plate III.28) to Turkish (i.e. Ottoman) times but I can't find any reference to dating or destruction of the rebuilt Byzantine bath house in Tsafrir et al (1988). It is only mentioned as having been examined in previous studies of the site. Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) report to have have traced the impact of an earthquake at Turkish-British constructions in the Bedouin village of Khalasa built on or adjacent to ruins of ancient Haluza, noting that the deformations cover a large area and suggest that the earthquake which affected the Khalasa village would have also left traces in buildings of the same age at Rehovot-ba-Negev. Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) note that the well-house built during the British mandate was also significantly destroyed.

Seismic Effects
"Late Roman Earthquake" - ~500 - ~600 CE

Seismic Effect Location Figure(s) Comments
Tilted wall Southern Wall of Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 7

A northward tilt of the original southern wall (field station 10). Note the open space between the mentioned wall and the perpendicular adjacent wall of a small room and the shifting of the upper part of the preserved revetment wall, also northward

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) is tilted northward (fig. 7). The trend of the wall is 202°, and the maximum tilt angle is 77°. Because of this tilt one can observe an open space between the southern wall and the adjacent perpendicular one - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall's tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tilted wall Northern Wall of Northern Church - Station 12
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 8

A southward tilt of the whole wall of the Northern Church

  1. view toward east
  2. view towards ESE from above

The angle of tilt is increasing up along the wall (a "skyscraper" effect)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The whole northern wall of the Church (field station 12 in fig. 3) has a significant tilt to the south (figs. 8 a. b) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced walls             Southern Wall of Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 12

Rehovot-ba-Negev, northward tilting and shifting of the southern wall of the Northern Church

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
there is also shifting (10–15 cm) of the upper row of the stones [of the southern wall of the northern church] in the same direction [northward] (fig. 12). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Deformed wall supported by a revetment wall Northern Wall of of the big courtyard (i.e. the atrium) of the Northern Church - Station 6
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 19

A deformed northern wall is supported by a revetment wall (field station 6). A strong deformation of the original wall is seen by wide openings between stones and a tilted block at the central part of the Figure

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Sloping support walls have been found in the North and South Churches and in private buildings. The core of the revetment is a combination of small rough stones and earth, with a layer of larger roughly-dressed stones on the outside. The revetment is cemented by grey mortar, consisting of chalk and ashes. The revetment wall is laid on the virgin loess. The wall reaches 1.80 m in height and is 90 cm wide at the base. The whole northern wall of the big courtyard (field station 6 in fig. 3) of the North Church is surrounded by the revetment wall (fig. 19), its half was demolished at present time. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Deformed wall supported by a revetment wall Northern Wall of Northern Church - Station 7
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 20

Continuation of the revetment wall (field station 7)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The revetment wall continues around the northern room (field station 7 in fig. 3) of the main premises of the North Church (fig. 20) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
revetment walls NE corner of the Northern Church - Station 8
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 21

Revetment wall at the NE corner

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At the NE corner of the North Church, one can observe the continuation of an encircling revetment wall (field station 8 in fig. 3). At this corner the wall is destroyed (fig. 21), with the stones collapsing northwards on an original wall. The encircling revetment wall is of good quality. The destruction event (an earthquake), which deformed the original wall, occurred before the decline of the Byzantine Empire. There was then another seismic event which led to the destruction of the revetment wall itself. The last event was probably an end of ›civilized‹ life here. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Columns supported by walls Northern Church - possibly in the Atrium
Fig. 7

A ground plan of the northern church

Giora Solar

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 10

An isometric reconstruction of the northern church

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 9

An isometric reconstruction of remains found in situ in the northern church including the south wing of the atrium

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 22

Rehovot-ba-Negev, Northern Church. An ancient column within a wall that was built in order to protect it from possible future destruction

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Columns at ancient and modern buildings cause the redistribution of the static load of the whole building construction, and serve as art decoration of the internal and external parts of the building. When a researcher finds a column supported by a later wall, he can be sure that the column was severely deformed, making the supporting wall necessary. Such an example can be found in the North Church (fig. 22). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Deformation of arches and roofs Room L.207 in Area B
Fig. 2

A ground plan for Area B

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 1

Plan of Area B
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 11

Collapse of the arch in room L.207, which has been filled with earth before its complete collapse

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
the walls were not completely destroyed during the first shock that occurred in Late Roman times. The arches and roofs probably withstood the shock too, though many of them were significantly damaged (fig. 11). This is probably the reason why ancient people filled some of the rooms with earth in order to protect them from complete collapse. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Features of later repair and rebuilding ? in the Northern Church
Window in NE corner of Staircase Tower (L.517) in the Northern Church
Fig. 7

A ground plan of the northern church

Giora Solar

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 10

An isometric reconstruction of the northern church

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 9

An isometric reconstruction of remains found in situ in the northern church including the south wing of the atrium

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Plate III.104

A window in the northeastern corner of the staircase [in the staircase tower (L.517)], looking north from the tower outside.

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Tsafrir et al. (1998:210) wrote that when the revetment wall was built around the church it closed the entrance to one room. A new threshold was installed which was about 60 cm above the former floor level. No remains of steps inside the room were found. This means that after the first earthquake the floor was covered by debris, which was not cleaned, but leveled, requiring a new threshold.

Another example of the later adjustment of a damaged building was noted at the Staircase Tower. At its NE corner there was a large (75 cm × 80 cm) window, which was later adopted as a secondary entrance from the atrium: long blocks used as steps were found from both sides of the window. Apparently the "normal" entrance was damaged during the first earthquake and went out of use, so the people started to use the better preserved window as an entrance. Sherds, fragments of glass, and metal weights, found in the Stair-case Tower, are additional evidence of earthquake damage. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Secondary use of building elements Room L522 in the Northern Church
Rooms L.512 and L.521 in the Chapel of the Northern Church
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
Secondary use of stones from damaged and destroyed walls is a common feature at the cities that experienced strong earthquakes. For example, a large fragment of a water basin was found in an Early Arab secondary wall at the east end of the porch (Room L 522). Another secondary wall was discovered at the eastern porch of the atrium behind the stylobate and preserved it at a height of two-three rows, which blocked the atrium from the west.

Some screen fragments of imported marble of the common Early Byzantine type were also used to replace broken pavement slabs in rooms L 512 and 521 of the North Church’s chapel (Tsafrir et al., 1998:210), probably by Arab squatters who dwelled in the chapel after the church was abandoned. The blocking of the door of the narthex and Arabic inscriptions written on plaster support this conclusion. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

"The Byzantine Shock" - 7th century CE

Seismic Effect Location Figures Comments
Tilted Wall           Southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church - Station 3
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 4

A tilt southward of the southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church (field station 3). The degree of the tilting is increasing with the distance from the abutted perpendicular wall. This phenomenon is the result of maximum freedom of oscillation at the central part of the wall

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
the southern wall of the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3) tilted southwards (fig. 4). The wall trend is 108º; declination azimuth is 198º; and the angle is up to 75º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
tilted and collapsed (?) wall Western wall at the SW end of the western yard of the Northern Church - Stations 3 & 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Another example can be seen at the same premises (field station 3) where one can observe the same damage pattern in the western wall: the wall trend is 13º, tilted to 81º and collapsed westward – toward azimuth 283º. Only a few fragments are preserved of the western wall, and only one stone high. The [western] wall continues northward. Here it has a tilt and a westward collapse analogous to the SW corner of the western yard in the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). The trend of the azimuth of the wall is 18º; it is tilted at an angle up to 72º; and the declination azimuth is 287º; this is also the direction of the wall collapse (fig. 5). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tilted Wall Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 5
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward until it meets the opposite wall of the northern premises (field station 5 in fig. 3). It is tilted WNW at a maximum angle of 21º (fig. 6); the trend of the wall is 31º, and the declination azimuth is 301º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

    ... The same pattern can be observed in the same [western] wall, continuing northward (field station 5 in fig. 3). Here the western wall of the church tilted westward and there is a gap between it and the perpendicular wall (fig. 6).     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tilted Wall Southern wall of the Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 7

A northward tilt of the original southern wall (field station 10). Note the open space between the mentioned wall and the perpendicular adjacent wall of a small room and the shifting of the upper part of the preserved revetment wall, also northward

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) is tilted northward (fig. 7).The trend of the wall is 202º, and the maximum tilt angle is 77º. Because of this tilt one can observe an open space between the southern wall and the adjacent perpendicular one. The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall’s tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. Stones of the perpendicular eastern wall are cracked in the small room marked on the plan. Nevertheless, this wall is better preserved (it is much higher) than the main southern wall of the North Church. This indicates that the seismic shocks during both earthquakes acted perpendicular to the main Church wall: it had freedom of oscillation and was significantly destroyed. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced Masonry Blocks upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters
Fig. 13

A horizontal 15 cm shift eastward of the upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
a 15 cm shift eastward of two stones in the upper part of an arch column (fig. 13) in one of the excavated quarters of the ancient city. The arch above collapsed during the Byzantine shocks. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Rotated Stone Eastern wall of the Northern Church - Station 9
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 16

Clockwise rotation of a stone in an eastern wall (field station 9)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The rotation of wall fragments around a vertical axis is a common phenomenon during strong earthquakes. Foundation stones are pulled out and rotated, indicating dynamic beating in the process of sharp horizontal oscillations of the whole wall (and not only its upper part). A seismic ground motion is the only mechanism that can cause rotation of building elements. A large number of observed rotations, and the obvious directional systematics, support this conclusion. An example of rotation (fig. 16) can be observed outside the eastern wall of the North Church (field station 9 in fig. 3). Here one stone in the upper preserved row was rotated clockwise. The general trend of the wall is 24º; and the trend of the rotated block is 26º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular wall Area C (The Khan)
Fig. 3

Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 14

Deformation of two perpendicular walls at the Caravansary, the "feeding" wall pushed the perpendicular one. The later wall is significantly tilted. The "feeding" wall is also deformed: there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of walls by a connected perpendicular wall has been identified as one of the seismic damage patterns at Mamshit – one of the ancient towns of the Negev desert, east of Rehovot-ba-Negev. ... A similar picture can be observed at the stables of the Caravansary (fig. 14). Here the ›feeding‹ wall pushed a perpendicular one. Both walls are significantly deformed, tilted (declination angle 22º) and crossed by joints. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward. Here it has a tilt and a westward collapse analogous to the SW corner of the western yard in the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). The trend of the azimuth of the wall is 18º; it is tilted at an angle up to 72º; and the declination azimuth is 287º; this is also the direction of the wall collapse (fig. 5). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

    ... Another example of such an opening can be observed at the SW corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a gap between the southern wall (trend 115º) and the perpendicular western wall, tilted westward (fig. 5).     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tilted Wall - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 5
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward until it meets the opposite wall of the northern premises (field station 5 in fig. 3). It is tilted WNW at a maximum angle of 21º (fig. 6); the trend of the wall is 31º, and the declination azimuth is 301º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tilted Wall - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 3
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 15

Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls at the SE premises (field station 3)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

Such a phenomenon can be seen (fig. 15) at the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3), where one can observe an opening of 20 cm between the northern wall (trend 115º) and the western one (trend 13º). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... Another throughgoing joint can be observed at the western corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a joint cutting three stones in a wall trending of 114º (fig. 5). The length of the throughgoing fissure is 48 cm.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Area C (The Khan)
Fig. 3

Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 14

Deformation of two perpendicular walls at the Caravansary, the "feeding" wall pushed the perpendicular one. The later wall is significantly tilted. The "feeding" wall is also deformed: there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Wall to the right of the southern entrance into the Northern Church - Station 1
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 17

Rehovot-ba-Negev, joints at the wall at the southern entrance into the Northern Church (field station 1) cut through three stones

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... At Rehovot-ba-Negev, the wall standing to the right of the southern entrance into the North Church (field station 1 in fig. 3) is crossed by numerous joints (fig. 17). One of them crosses through three stones. The trend of the deformed wall is 20º, and the length of the joint is 83 cm.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • joints at the wall at the southern entrance into the Northern Church (field station 1) cut through three stones - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Displaced Wall SE wall of the water reservoir
Water Reservoir at Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
Fig. 18

Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... A through-the-wall crack was observed at the Rehovot-ba-Negev water reservoir. The whole wall is cut by this rupture (fig. 18), resembling a ›pure‹ seismic rupture with a horizontal displacement (left-lateral shift) on the first ten centimeters. However, this rupture does not continue in either the adjacent ancient building constructions, or in the relief features. Additional study, and palaeoseismological trenching of the rupture is necessary. The described rupture could be the reason for the disappearance of the water resource in the town, and its subsequent abandonment.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • In Rehovot the reservoir was in the southern fringe of the town, partly cut into the chalky rock and partly built up by a massive stone wall with cement and plaster (Fig. 4). The reservoir was oval in shape, about 22 m long, 352 m2 in area, with a volume of at least 1000 m3. The northern side of the reservoir which was cut into the rock was partly covered by a natural rock-shelf projecting over about one-third of the reservoir. There are no remains of artificial supports of any kind of roof over the rest of the reservoir. The southern side, facing the slope, was a thick massive wall built with well cut and dressed stones. There are remains of the pink-red hydraulic plaster proving that the reservoir was built or at least in use during the Byzantine period. Water was collected in a shallow conduit running around the southern side of the town, collecting water from the outer fringe of the town and leading it to the reservoir. There were some other, shorter conduits that drained water from the streets to the north and north-east of the reservoir and led into it - Rubin (1988:235-236)
Vault Collapse - Ceiling collapse Water reservoir
Water Reservoir at Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
Fig. 18

Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 4

Rehovot: a panoramic view of the reservoir

Rubin (1988)
  • collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • In Rehovot the reservoir was in the southern fringe of the town, partly cut into the chalky rock and partly built up by a massive stone wall with cement and plaster (Fig. 4). The reservoir was oval in shape, about 22 m long, 352 m2 in area, with a volume of at least 1000 m3. The northern side of the reservoir which was cut into the rock was partly covered by a natural rock-shelf projecting over about one-third of the reservoir. There are no remains of artificial supports of any kind of roof over the rest of the reservoir. The southern side, facing the slope, was a thick massive wall built with well cut and dressed stones. There are remains of the pink-red hydraulic plaster proving that the reservoir was built or at least in use during the Byzantine period. Water was collected in a shallow conduit running around the southern side of the town, collecting water from the outer fringe of the town and leading it to the reservoir. There were some other, shorter conduits that drained water from the streets to the north and north-east of the reservoir and led into it - Rubin (1988:235-236)

"Post Abandonment Quake" - 7th - 8th century CE

Effect Location Image(s) Description
Arch and Roof Collapse Room L.206 in Southern Quarter (Area B)
Fig. 1

Plan of Area B
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
III.14

Fallen Arches and roofing slabs in room L.206 looking south

JW: This is in Residential Buildings in the Southern Quarter (Area B)

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Because the finds did not include any characteristic forms of the 8th century Tsafrir et al (1988:9) date roof collapse in a room in the southern quarter (Area B) to the early 8th century CE at the latest.
Vault Collapse              The Crypt of the Northern Church
Fig. 18

An isometric reconstruction of the crypt below the pavement of the church

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
III.80

Accumulation of the architectural parts in the crypt

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 22

A section of the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt (L. 504).

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Tsafrir et al (1988:50) found that the vault of the crypt in the Northern Church collapsed and the staircases into the crypt and the crypt itself were filled with debris. The concentration of drums, capitals and other architectural elements, and the fragments of burial inscriptions that were found in the crypt cannot be seen as the culmination of a natural process of decay (III. 80). Five capitals were found, for instance, in the lower part of the debris, above the floor (Tsafrir et al, 1988). Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) suggest that this was due to a seismic event and suggest two main stages of destruction in the Northern Church - first when the church columns collapsed in the 7th century event and then a second time when the vault of the crypt collapsed and the staircases filled with debris.
Arch and Roof Collapse and Debris Room L 505 (?) of the Northern Church
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
III.87

Roofing slabs in room L. 505, looking northwest

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Further evidence of two phases of destruction was found, according to Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014), in Room L 509 of the Northern Church where roof slabs were found atop a layer of debris that was presumed to have been created by the earlier 7th century CE earthquake however Tsafrir et al (1988:66) attribute debris and roof collapse in L.509 to decay that occurred over a long period of time. It is possible that Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) meant Room L 505 of the Northern Church which was completely filled with earth and stones (Tsafrir et al, 1988:62) and was covered by a layer of roof slabs (Plate III.87). Tsafrir et al (1988) did not attribute destruction or debris in Room L 505 to a cause. Found in the debris of Room L 505 was an Umayyad coin minted at Ramla dated between 716 and 750 CE (Tsafrir et al, 1988:61). Sherds and glass from the floor level or close to it are common Byzantine types (Tsafrir et al, 1988:62).

Turkish/British Earthquake(s) - 19th-20th centuries CE

Seismic Effect Location Figures Comments
Tilted and Collapsed Wall      an unexcavated quarter
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At Rehovot-ba-Negev several measurements reveal the systematic failure of the walls in unexcavated quarters in certain directions: walls trending ~ 140º have fallen about 50º, and walls trending ~ 50º have collapsed ~ 140º (fig. 9) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Collapsed Walls Well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house
Fig. 4

Musil's ground plan of the site

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 6

Lawrence and Woolley's ground plan of the site.

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 10

Destroyed well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The well-house, which was built during the British Mandate, is significantly destroyed (fig. 10) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Detailed table of all Seismic Effects

Damage Type Location Figure Comments
Tilted Walls Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
4
Fig. 4

A tilt southward of the southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church (field station 3). The degree of the tilting is increasing with the distance from the abutted perpendicular wall. This phenomenon is the result of maximum freedom of oscillation at the central part of the wall

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
5
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
6
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
7
Fig. 7

A northward tilt of the original southern wall (field station 10). Note the open space between the mentioned wall and the perpendicular adjacent wall of a small room and the shifting of the upper part of the preserved revetment wall, also northward

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
8
Fig. 8

A southward tilt of the whole wall of the Northern Church

a: view toward east

b: view towards ESE from above.

The angle of tilt is increasing up along the wall (a "skyscraper" effect)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At Rehovot-ba-Negev, the southern wall of the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3) tilted southwards (fig. 4). The wall trend is 108°; declination azimuth is 198°; and the angle is up to 75°. Another example can be seen at the same premises (field station 3) where one can observe the same damage pattern in the western wall: the wall trend is 13°, tilted to 81° and collapsed westward — toward azimuth 283°. Only a few fragments are preserved of the western wall, and only one stone high. The wall continues northward. Here it has a tilt and a westward collapse analogous to the SW corner of the western yard in the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). The trend of the azimuth of the wall is 18°; it is tilted at an angle up to 72°; and the declination azimuth is 287°; this is also the direction of the wall collapse (fig. 5). The wall continues northward until it meets the opposite wall of the northern premises (field station 5 in fig. 3). It is tilted WNW at a maximum angle of 21° (fig. 6); the trend of the wall is 31°, and the declination azimuth is 301°.

The southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) is tilted northward (fig. 7).The trend of the wall is 202°, and the maximum tilt angle is 77°. Because of this tilt one can observe an open space between the southern wall and the adjacent perpendicular one.

The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall's tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. Stones of the perpendicular eastern wall are cracked in the small room marked on the plan. Nevertheless, this wall is better preserved (it is much higher) than the main southern wall of the North Church. This indicates that the seismic shocks during both earthquakes acted perpendicular to the main Church wall: it had freedom of oscillation and was significantly destroyed. The small eastern wall, oriented parallel to the effect of the seismic movements, withstood the seismic oscillations better, although many of its stones were significantly damaged. The whole northern wall of the Church (field station 12 in fig. 3) has a significant tilt to the south (figs. 8 a. b).
Collapsed Walls un-excavated quarter
well-house		 9
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
10
Fig. 10

Destroyed well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At Rehovot-ba-Negev several measurements reveal the systematic failure of the walls in unexcavated quarters in certain directions: walls trending — 140° have fallen about 50°, and walls trending — 50° have collapsed — 140° (fig. 9).
The well-house, which was built during the British Mandate, is significantly destroyed (fig. 10). This could be the effect of 20th century earthquakes, which caused building deformations all over Palestine and modern Israel.
Deformed Arches and Roofs Residential Building in S quarter Area B Room L.207 11
Fig. 11

Collapse of the arch in room L.207, which has been filled with earth before its complete collapse

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
As mentioned above, the walls were not completely destroyed during the first shock that occurred in Late Roman times. The arches and roofs probably withstood the shock too, though many of them were significantly damaged (fig. 11). This is probably the reason why ancient people filled some of the rooms with earth in order to protect them from complete collapse.
Shifted Wall Fragments Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
excavated quarters of the ancient city 		12
Fig. 12

Rehovot-ba-Negev, northward tilting and shifting of the southern wall of the Northern Church

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
13
Fig. 13

A horizontal 15 cm shift eastward of the upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Above we wrote that the southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) tilts northward (fig. 7); however, there is also shifting (10-15 cm) of the upper row of the stones in the same direction (fig. 12).
Another example of the same phenomenon is a 15 cm shift eastward of two stones in the upper part of an arch column (fig. 13) in one of the excavated quarters of the ancient city. The arch above collapsed during the Byzantine shocks.
Walls Deformed as a Result of Pushing by an Adjacent Perpendicular Wall Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Stables of the Caravansary 		14
Fig. 14

Deformation of two perpendicular walls at the Caravansary, the "feeding" wall pushed the perpendicular one. The later wall is significantly tilted. The "feeding" wall is also deformed: there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of walls by a connected perpendicular wall has been identified as one of the seismic damage patterns at Mamshit - one of the ancient towns of the Negev desert, east of Rehovot-ba-Negev. At Rehovot-ba-Negev we find such an example at the SW corner of the large premises of the North Church (field station 2 in fig. 3), where three stones at the upper part of the wall have been moved, probably due to the push of an adjacent perpendicular wall. The trend of the deformed wall is 110°. The stones were shifted SSW (200°) at a distance of 12 cm. The perpendicular pushing wall has a trend of 24°. Another example can be observed at the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3). There the northern wall (trend 115°) pushed the perpendicular western wall (trend 13°) westward.
A similar picture can be observed at the stables of the Caravansary (fig. 14). Here the "feeding" wall pushed a perpendicular one. Both walls are significantly deformed, tilted (declination angle 22°) and crossed by joints.
Opening between Adjacent Perpendicular Walls Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
15
Fig. 15

Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls at the SE premises (field station 3)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
5
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
6
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.
Such a phenomenon can be seen (fig. 15) at the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3), where one can observe an opening of 20 cm between the northern wall (trend 115°) and the western one (trend 13°). Another example of such an opening can be observed at the SW corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a gap between the southern wall (trend 115°) and the perpendicular western wall, tilted westward (fig. 5). The same pattern can be observed in the same wall, continuing northward (field station 5 in fig. 3). Here the western wall of the church tilted westward and there is a gap between it and the perpendicular wall (fig. 6).
Rotations of Wall Fragments Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
16
Fig. 16

Clockwise rotation of a stone in an eastern wall (field station 9)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The rotation of wall fragments around a vertical axis is a common phenomenon during strong earthquakes. Foundation stones are pulled out and rotated, indicating dynamic beating in the process of sharp horizontal oscillations of the whole wall (and not only its upper part). A seismic ground motion is the only mechanism that can cause rotation of building elements. A large number of observed rotations, and the obvious directional systematics, support this conclusion. An example of rotation (fig. 16) can be observed outside the eastern wall of the North Church (field station 9 in fig. 3). Here one stone in the upper preserved row was rotated clockwise. The general trend of the wall is 24°; and the trend of the rotated block is 26°.
Wall Crossing Fissures (Joints) Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
17
Fig. 17

Rehovot-ba-Negev, joints at the wall at the southern entrance into the Northern Church (field station 1) cut through three stones

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

5
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such through-going fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

At Rehovot-ba-Negev, the wall standing to the right of the southern entrance into the North Church (field station 1 in fig. 3) is crossed by numerous joints (fig. 17). One of them crosses through three stones. The trend of the deformed wall is 20°, and the length of the joint is 83 cm. Another through-going joint can be observed at the western corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a joint cutting three stones in a wall trending of 114° (fig. 5). The length of the through-going fissure is 48 cm.
A Crack Crossing through the Wall at the Water Reservoir Water Reservoir 18
Fig. 18

Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
A through-the-wall crack was observed at the Rehovot-ba-Negev water reservoir. The whole wall is cut by this rupture (fig. 18), resembling a "pure" seismic rupture with a horizontal displacement (left-lateral shift) on the first ten centimeters. However, this rupture does not continue in either the adjacent ancient building constructions, or in the relief features. Additional study, and palaeoseismological trenching of the rupture is necessary. The described rupture could be the reason for the disappearance of the water resource in the town, and its subsequent abandonment.
revetment Walls Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
19
Fig. 19

A deformed northern wall is supported by a revetment wall (field station 6). A strong deformation of the original wall is seen by wide openings between stones and a tilted block at the central part of the Figure

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
20
Fig. 20

Continuation of the revetment wall (field station 7)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
21
Fig. 21

Revetment wall at the NE corner

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Sloping support walls have been found in the North and South Churches and in private buildings. The core of the revetment is a combination of small rough stones and earth, with a layer of larger roughly-dressed stones on the outside. The revetment is cemented by grey mortar, consisting of chalk and ashes. The revetment wall is laid on the virgin loess. The wall reaches 1.80 m in height and is 90 cm wide at the base. The whole northern wall of the big courtyard (field station 6 in fig. 3) of the North Church is surrounded by the revetment wall (fig. 19), its half was demolished at present time. The revetment wall continues around the northern room (field station 7 in fig. 3) of the main premises of the North Church (fig. 20). At the NE corner of the North Church, one can observe the continuation of an encircling revetment wall (field station 8 in fig. 3). At this corner the wall is destroyed (fig. 21), with the stones collapsing northwards on an original wall. The encircling revetment wall is of good quality. The destruction event (an earthquake), which deformed the original wall, occurred before the decline of the Byzantine Empire. There was then another seismic event which led to the destruction of the revetment wall itself. The last event was probably an end of "civilized" life here.
The outside part of the eastern wall is also surrounded by the revetment wall (field station 9 in fig. 3), which is now almost entirely destroyed. The same pattern can be observed at the central southern jamb of the North Church (field station 10). All the three walls composing the jamb are surrounded by revetment walls that are also partly destroyed. The revetment walls at Rehovot-ba-Negev were built during the Byzantine period. Such walls are very common at the Negev cities, e. g. ancient Avdat, Mamshit and Shivta
Columns Supported by Walls Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
22
Fig. 22

Rehovot-ba-Negev, Northern Church. An ancient column within a wall that was built in order to protect it from possible future destruction

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Columns at ancient and modern buildings cause the redistribution of the static load of the whole building construction, and serve as art decoration of the internal and external parts of the building. When a researcher finds a column supported by a later wall, he can be sure that the column was severely deformed, making the supporting wall necessary. Such an example can be found in the North Church (fig. 22).
Features of Later Repair and Rebuilding Northern Church
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Tsafrir et al. wrote that when the revetment wall was built around the church it closed the entrance to one room. A new threshold was installed which was about 60 cm above the former floor level. No remains of steps inside the room were found. This means that after the first earthquake the floor was covered by debris, which was not cleaned, but leveled, requiring a new threshold.
Another example of the later adjustment of a damaged building was noted at the Staircase Tower. At its NE corner there was a large (75 cm x 80 cm) window, which was later adopted as a secondary entrance from the atrium: long blocks used as steps were found from both sides of the window. Apparently the "normal" entrance was damaged during the first earthquake and went out of use, so the people started to use the better preserved window as an entrance. Sherds, fragments of glass, and metal weights, found in the Staircase Tower, are additional evidence of earthquake damage.
Secondary Use of Stones from Destroyed Walls Room L 522
Northern Church's chapel
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Secondary use of stones from damaged and destroyed walls is a common feature at the cities that experienced strong earthquakes. For example, a large fragment of a water basin was found in an Early Arab secondary wall at the east end of the porch (Room L 522). Another secondary wall was discovered at the eastern porch of the atrium behind the stylobate and preserved it at a height of two-three rows, which blocked the atrium from the west.
Some screen fragments of imported marble of the common Early Byzantine type were also used to replace broken pavement slabs in rooms L 512 and 521 of the Northern Church’s chapel, probably by Arab squatters who dwelled in the chapel after the church was abandoned. The blocking of the door of the narthex and Arabic inscriptions written on plaster support this conclusion.

Deformation Maps
"Late Roman Earthquake" - ~500 - ~600 CE

Deformation Map

modified by JW from Fig. 3 of Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) (left) and Fig. 1 of Tsafrir & Holum (1988) (right)

"The Byzantine Shock" - 7th century CE

Deformation Map

modified by JW from Fig. 3 of Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) (left) and GovMapIL (right)

"Post Abandonment Quake" - 7th - 8th century CE

Deformation Map

modified by JW from Fig. 11 of Tsafrir et al (1988) (left) and Fig. 1 of Tsafrir & Holum (1988) (right)

Intensity Estimates
"Late Roman Earthquake" - ~500 - ~600 CE

Intensity Estimate using the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Seismic Effect Location Figure(s) Comments Intensity
Tilted wall Southern Wall of Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 7

A northward tilt of the original southern wall (field station 10). Note the open space between the mentioned wall and the perpendicular adjacent wall of a small room and the shifting of the upper part of the preserved revetment wall, also northward

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) is tilted northward (fig. 7). The trend of the wall is 202°, and the maximum tilt angle is 77°. Because of this tilt one can observe an open space between the southern wall and the adjacent perpendicular one - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall's tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VI+
Tilted wall Northern Wall of Northern Church - Station 12
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 8

A southward tilt of the whole wall of the Northern Church

  1. view toward east
  2. view towards ESE from above

The angle of tilt is increasing up along the wall (a "skyscraper" effect)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The whole northern wall of the Church (field station 12 in fig. 3) has a significant tilt to the south (figs. 8 a. b) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+
Displaced walls             Southern Wall of Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 12

Rehovot-ba-Negev, northward tilting and shifting of the southern wall of the Northern Church

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
there is also shifting (10–15 cm) of the upper row of the stones [of the southern wall of the northern church] in the same direction [northward] (fig. 12). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VII+
Folded Wall - Deformed wall supported by a revetment wall Northern Wall of of the big courtyard (i.e. the atrium) of the Northern Church - Station 6
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 19

A deformed northern wall is supported by a revetment wall (field station 6). A strong deformation of the original wall is seen by wide openings between stones and a tilted block at the central part of the Figure

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Sloping support walls have been found in the North and South Churches and in private buildings. The core of the revetment is a combination of small rough stones and earth, with a layer of larger roughly-dressed stones on the outside. The revetment is cemented by grey mortar, consisting of chalk and ashes. The revetment wall is laid on the virgin loess. The wall reaches 1.80 m in height and is 90 cm wide at the base. The whole northern wall of the big courtyard (field station 6 in fig. 3) of the North Church is surrounded by the revetment wall (fig. 19), its half was demolished at present time. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VII+
Folded Wall - Deformed wall supported by a revetment wall Northern Wall of Northern Church - Station 7
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 20

Continuation of the revetment wall (field station 7)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The revetment wall continues around the northern room (field station 7 in fig. 3) of the main premises of the North Church (fig. 20) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VII+
revetment walls indicating displaced and folded walls NE corner of the Northern Church - Station 8
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 21

revetment wall at the NE corner

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At the NE corner of the North Church, one can observe the continuation of an encircling revetment wall (field station 8 in fig. 3). At this corner the wall is destroyed (fig. 21), with the stones collapsing northwards on an original wall. The encircling revetment wall is of good quality. The destruction event (an earthquake), which deformed the original wall, occurred before the decline of the Byzantine Empire. There was then another seismic event which led to the destruction of the revetment wall itself. The last event was probably an end of ›civilized‹ life here. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VII+
Deformation of arches and roofs Room L.207 in Area B
Fig. 2

A ground plan for Area B

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 1

Plan of Area B
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 11

Collapse of the arch in room L.207, which has been filled with earth before its complete collapse

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
the walls were not completely destroyed during the first shock that occurred in Late Roman times. The arches and roofs probably withstood the shock too, though many of them were significantly damaged (fig. 11). This is probably the reason why ancient people filled some of the rooms with earth in order to protect them from complete collapse. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Intensity Estimate from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 9 - Tilted and
    Fig. 9

    Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    and collapsed walls in the unexcavated quater from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 23 - Schematic
    Fig. 23

    The scheme shows directions of tilts and collapses in Rehovot-ba-Negev at unexcavated quarters. SE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward NE, while NE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward SW. In order to produce such damage patterns it was necessary to involve seismic shocks coming from the east

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    drawing of directions of tilt and collapse in the unexcavated quarters from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 1 - Map of intensity estimates
    Fig. 1

    The ancient caravan routes (thick lines) in the Negev desert, the intensities of the seismic oscillations (according to MSK-64 scale) of past earthquakes in the old cities studied by the authors are shown (scale 1 : 1 500 000)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    in the Negev from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) estimated the same Intensity (VIII–IX) for 4 seismic events ("Late Roman Earthquake", "The Byzantine Shock", "Post Abandonment Quake", and Turkish/British Earthquake(s)) and the same direction of the epicenter (ESE).
There are few measurements of tilted and fallen walls, small remnants of which are still projected above the surface (fig. 9). Generally these walls tilted or collapsed toward ESE (fig. 23).

The degree of destruction at all the studied cities of the Negev desert (Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit, Rehovot-ba-Negev and Shivta) is similar (fig. 1). In order to produce such deformations, the local seismic intensity would have had to be I > VIII. In our previous papers we came to the conclusion that most of these deformations were caused by the local faults which dissect the Negev, and not the Dead Sea Transform. If it would be the case of the Dead Sea Transform, the degree of deformations would decreased from Mamshit in the east (maximum) to Rehovot-ba-Negev in the west. However, the degree of seismic deformation is not damping westward.

Recent geological research has revealed the existence of a strike-slip fault, the Saadon fault next to the site of Saadon, and close to Rehovot-ba-Negev. A dry river Nahal Saadon follows the strike of the fault and is incised into the chalk layers of the uplifted geological block. The fault strikes N65 degrees W, dipping steeply to the northeast, and is between 0.5–1.0 km of long, with a vertical displacement of 2–3 m43. This fault, as well as other adjacent faults (Sde-Boker, Nafha, Ramon, Paran faults), could be the source of the seismic oscillations which destroyed Rehovot ba-Negev as well as other adjacent ancient desert cities.

Thus our archaeoseismological study of the ruins at ancient Rehovot-ba-Negev has revealed numerous features of seismic destructions, which testify to at least four earthquakes that affected the ancient town. The seismic intensities of these ancient seismic events were in the range of I = VIII–IX. This data confirms similar results in the adjacent ancient cities of the Negev desert – Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit and Shivta.
Footnotes

43 Greenbaum N. and Ben-David R., 2001, Geological and Geomorphological Mapping in the Shivta-Rogem Site Area, Basic Data Report 3 (Jerusalem 2001)

"The Byzantine Shock" - 7th century CE

Intensity Estimate using the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Seismic Effect Location Figures Comments Intensity
Tilted Wall           Southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church - Station 3
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 4

A tilt southward of the southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church (field station 3). The degree of the tilting is increasing with the distance from the abutted perpendicular wall. This phenomenon is the result of maximum freedom of oscillation at the central part of the wall

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
the southern wall of the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3) tilted southwards (fig. 4). The wall trend is 108º; declination azimuth is 198º; and the angle is up to 75º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+
tilted and collapsed (?) wall Western wall at the SW end of the western yard of the Northern Church - Stations 3 & 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Another example can be seen at the same premises (field station 3) where one can observe the same damage pattern in the western wall: the wall trend is 13º, tilted to 81º and collapsed westward – toward azimuth 283º. Only a few fragments are preserved of the western wall, and only one stone high. The [western] wall continues northward. Here it has a tilt and a westward collapse analogous to the SW corner of the western yard in the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). The trend of the azimuth of the wall is 18º; it is tilted at an angle up to 72º; and the declination azimuth is 287º; this is also the direction of the wall collapse (fig. 5). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+ or VIII+ (?)
Tilted Wall Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 5
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward until it meets the opposite wall of the northern premises (field station 5 in fig. 3). It is tilted WNW at a maximum angle of 21º (fig. 6); the trend of the wall is 31º, and the declination azimuth is 301º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

    ... The same pattern can be observed in the same [western] wall, continuing northward (field station 5 in fig. 3). Here the western wall of the church tilted westward and there is a gap between it and the perpendicular wall (fig. 6).     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VI+
Tilted Wall Southern wall of the Northern Church - Station 10
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 7

A northward tilt of the original southern wall (field station 10). Note the open space between the mentioned wall and the perpendicular adjacent wall of a small room and the shifting of the upper part of the preserved revetment wall, also northward

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The southern wall of the North Church (field station 10 in fig. 3) is tilted northward (fig. 7).The trend of the wall is 202º, and the maximum tilt angle is 77º. Because of this tilt one can observe an open space between the southern wall and the adjacent perpendicular one. The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall’s tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. Stones of the perpendicular eastern wall are cracked in the small room marked on the plan. Nevertheless, this wall is better preserved (it is much higher) than the main southern wall of the North Church. This indicates that the seismic shocks during both earthquakes acted perpendicular to the main Church wall: it had freedom of oscillation and was significantly destroyed. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+
Displaced Masonry Blocks upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters
Fig. 13

A horizontal 15 cm shift eastward of the upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
a 15 cm shift eastward of two stones in the upper part of an arch column (fig. 13) in one of the excavated quarters of the ancient city. The arch above collapsed during the Byzantine shocks. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VIII+
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Rotated Stone Eastern wall of the Northern Church - Station 9
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 16

Clockwise rotation of a stone in an eastern wall (field station 9)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The rotation of wall fragments around a vertical axis is a common phenomenon during strong earthquakes. Foundation stones are pulled out and rotated, indicating dynamic beating in the process of sharp horizontal oscillations of the whole wall (and not only its upper part). A seismic ground motion is the only mechanism that can cause rotation of building elements. A large number of observed rotations, and the obvious directional systematics, support this conclusion. An example of rotation (fig. 16) can be observed outside the eastern wall of the North Church (field station 9 in fig. 3). Here one stone in the upper preserved row was rotated clockwise. The general trend of the wall is 24º; and the trend of the rotated block is 26º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VIII+
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular wall Area C (The Khan)
Fig. 3

Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 14

Deformation of two perpendicular walls at the Caravansary, the "feeding" wall pushed the perpendicular one. The later wall is significantly tilted. The "feeding" wall is also deformed: there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of walls by a connected perpendicular wall has been identified as one of the seismic damage patterns at Mamshit – one of the ancient towns of the Negev desert, east of Rehovot-ba-Negev. ... A similar picture can be observed at the stables of the Caravansary (fig. 14). Here the ›feeding‹ wall pushed a perpendicular one. Both walls are significantly deformed, tilted (declination angle 22º) and crossed by joints. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VIII+
Displaced Masonry Blocks - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward. Here it has a tilt and a westward collapse analogous to the SW corner of the western yard in the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). The trend of the azimuth of the wall is 18º; it is tilted at an angle up to 72º; and the declination azimuth is 287º; this is also the direction of the wall collapse (fig. 5). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

    ... Another example of such an opening can be observed at the SW corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a gap between the southern wall (trend 115º) and the perpendicular western wall, tilted westward (fig. 5).     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VIII+
Tilted Wall - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 5
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 6

Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Tilt of the western wall toward WNW at field station 5. There is an opening between the tilted wall and the perpendicular one - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • The [western] wall continues northward until it meets the opposite wall of the northern premises (field station 5 in fig. 3). It is tilted WNW at a maximum angle of 21º (fig. 6); the trend of the wall is 31º, and the declination azimuth is 301º. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VI+
Tilted Wall - Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 3
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 15

Opening between two adjacent perpendicular walls at the SE premises (field station 3)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The pushing of a wall by an adjacent perpendicular one is quite common. The pushed wall is usually tilted or/and collapsed. Between this tilted wall and the perpendicular one (the pusher) an open space is often formed. This could also be due to the especial vulnerability of corners to large seismic shocks, because wave-parallel and wave-orthogonal walls oscillate at different amplitudes and frequencies. Ordinary old buildings often lack coupling elements between adjacent walls, and long-lasting strong seismic oscillation often causes gaps (or long open cracks) which may lead to the failure of corners.

Such a phenomenon can be seen (fig. 15) at the SE premises of the North Church (field station 3 in fig. 3), where one can observe an opening of 20 cm between the northern wall (trend 115º) and the western one (trend 13º). - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)		 VI+
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Western wall of the Northern Church - Station 4
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 5

An 18º-tilt and a collapse of the western wall westward at the SW corner of the western yard (field station 4). Opening between two perpendicular walls is shown by a double arrow, and a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... Another throughgoing joint can be observed at the western corner of the large yard of the North Church (field station 4 in fig. 3). Here there is a joint cutting three stones in a wall trending of 114º (fig. 5). The length of the throughgoing fissure is 48 cm.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • a through-going fissure (joint) cuts three adjacent stones in succession (shown by three white arrows) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VI+ (Note: Korzhenkov estimates much higher Intensity for this - ~IX)
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Area C (The Khan)
Fig. 3

Plan of Area C; the stable buildings
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
Fig. 14

Deformation of two perpendicular walls at the Caravansary, the "feeding" wall pushed the perpendicular one. The later wall is significantly tilted. The "feeding" wall is also deformed: there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
there are some openings in its upper part and joints (shown by arrows) crossing two stones are in the wall’s lower part - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+ (Note: Korzhenkov estimates much higher Intensity for this - ~IX)
Penetrative fractures in masonry blocks - through-going joints Wall to the right of the southern entrance into the Northern Church - Station 1
Fig. 3

Plan of the Northern Church (north arrow added by JW)

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 17

Rehovot-ba-Negev, joints at the wall at the southern entrance into the Northern Church (field station 1) cut through three stones

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... At Rehovot-ba-Negev, the wall standing to the right of the southern entrance into the North Church (field station 1 in fig. 3) is crossed by numerous joints (fig. 17). One of them crosses through three stones. The trend of the deformed wall is 20º, and the length of the joint is 83 cm.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • joints at the wall at the southern entrance into the Northern Church (field station 1) cut through three stones - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
 VI+ (Note: Korzhenkov estimates much higher Intensity for this - ~IX)
Displaced Wall SE wall of the water reservoir
Water Reservoir at Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
Fig. 18

Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Many researchers mentioned that deformation of through-the-wall fissures at archaeological sites were caused by ancient earthquakes. Indeed, fissures crossing adjacent stones are the strongest evidence of the seismic origin of these deformations. Such throughgoing fissures are only formed as a result of high intensity earthquakes, as high energy is necessary to overcome the stress shadow of free surfaces at the stone margins, i. e., the free space between adjacent stones.

    ... A through-the-wall crack was observed at the Rehovot-ba-Negev water reservoir. The whole wall is cut by this rupture (fig. 18), resembling a ›pure‹ seismic rupture with a horizontal displacement (left-lateral shift) on the first ten centimeters. However, this rupture does not continue in either the adjacent ancient building constructions, or in the relief features. Additional study, and palaeoseismological trenching of the rupture is necessary. The described rupture could be the reason for the disappearance of the water resource in the town, and its subsequent abandonment.     - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • In Rehovot the reservoir was in the southern fringe of the town, partly cut into the chalky rock and partly built up by a massive stone wall with cement and plaster (Fig. 4). The reservoir was oval in shape, about 22 m long, 352 m2 in area, with a volume of at least 1000 m3. The northern side of the reservoir which was cut into the rock was partly covered by a natural rock-shelf projecting over about one-third of the reservoir. There are no remains of artificial supports of any kind of roof over the rest of the reservoir. The southern side, facing the slope, was a thick massive wall built with well cut and dressed stones. There are remains of the pink-red hydraulic plaster proving that the reservoir was built or at least in use during the Byzantine period. Water was collected in a shallow conduit running around the southern side of the town, collecting water from the outer fringe of the town and leading it to the reservoir. There were some other, shorter conduits that drained water from the streets to the north and north-east of the reservoir and led into it - Rubin (1988:235-236)
 VII+
Vault Collapse - Ceiling collapse Water reservoir
Water Reservoir at Rehovot ba Negev on govmap.gov.il

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
Fig. 18

Rehovot-ba-Negev, seismogenic (?) rupture at the SE wall of the water reservoir. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. Also note the collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
Fig. 4

Rehovot: a panoramic view of the reservoir

Rubin (1988)
  • collapse of a significant part of the armored layer which partly covered the reservoir from SW. The reservoir was partly cut out of the bedrock and is partly brick-built. - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • In Rehovot the reservoir was in the southern fringe of the town, partly cut into the chalky rock and partly built up by a massive stone wall with cement and plaster (Fig. 4). The reservoir was oval in shape, about 22 m long, 352 m2 in area, with a volume of at least 1000 m3. The northern side of the reservoir which was cut into the rock was partly covered by a natural rock-shelf projecting over about one-third of the reservoir. There are no remains of artificial supports of any kind of roof over the rest of the reservoir. The southern side, facing the slope, was a thick massive wall built with well cut and dressed stones. There are remains of the pink-red hydraulic plaster proving that the reservoir was built or at least in use during the Byzantine period. Water was collected in a shallow conduit running around the southern side of the town, collecting water from the outer fringe of the town and leading it to the reservoir. There were some other, shorter conduits that drained water from the streets to the north and north-east of the reservoir and led into it - Rubin (1988:235-236)
 VIII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Intensity Estimate from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 9 - Tilted and
    Fig. 9

    Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    and collapsed walls in the unexcavated quater from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 23 - Schematic
    Fig. 23

    The scheme shows directions of tilts and collapses in Rehovot-ba-Negev at unexcavated quarters. SE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward NE, while NE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward SW. In order to produce such damage patterns it was necessary to involve seismic shocks coming from the east

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    drawing of directions of tilt and collapse in the unexcavated quarters from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 1 - Map of intensity estimates
    Fig. 1

    The ancient caravan routes (thick lines) in the Negev desert, the intensities of the seismic oscillations (according to MSK-64 scale) of past earthquakes in the old cities studied by the authors are shown (scale 1 : 1 500 000)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    in the Negev from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) estimated the same Intensity (VIII–IX) for 4 seismic events ("Late Roman Earthquake", "The Byzantine Shock", "Post Abandonment Quake", and Turkish/British Earthquake(s)) and the same direction of the epicenter (ESE).
There are few measurements of tilted and fallen walls, small remnants of which are still projected above the surface (fig. 9). Generally these walls tilted or collapsed toward ESE (fig. 23).

The degree of destruction at all the studied cities of the Negev desert (Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit, Rehovot-ba-Negev and Shivta) is similar (fig. 1). In order to produce such deformations, the local seismic intensity would have had to be I > VIII. In our previous papers we came to the conclusion that most of these deformations were caused by the local faults which dissect the Negev, and not the Dead Sea Transform. If it would be the case of the Dead Sea Transform, the degree of deformations would decreased from Mamshit in the east (maximum) to Rehovot-ba-Negev in the west. However, the degree of seismic deformation is not damping westward.

Recent geological research has revealed the existence of a strike-slip fault, the Saadon fault next to the site of Saadon, and close to Rehovot-ba-Negev. A dry river Nahal Saadon follows the strike of the fault and is incised into the chalk layers of the uplifted geological block. The fault strikes N65 degrees W, dipping steeply to the northeast, and is between 0.5–1.0 km of long, with a vertical displacement of 2–3 m43. This fault, as well as other adjacent faults (Sde-Boker, Nafha, Ramon, Paran faults), could be the source of the seismic oscillations which destroyed Rehovot ba-Negev as well as other adjacent ancient desert cities.

Thus our archaeoseismological study of the ruins at ancient Rehovot-ba-Negev has revealed numerous features of seismic destructions, which testify to at least four earthquakes that affected the ancient town. The seismic intensities of these ancient seismic events were in the range of I = VIII–IX. This data confirms similar results in the adjacent ancient cities of the Negev desert – Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit and Shivta.
Footnotes

43 Greenbaum N. and Ben-David R., 2001, Geological and Geomorphological Mapping in the Shivta-Rogem Site Area, Basic Data Report 3 (Jerusalem 2001)

Intensity Estimate from Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018)

Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) presented two methods to calculate Peak Ground Velocity (PGV). These values were then converted to Intensity via Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). This leads to Intensity estimates between 7.5 and 10 which can be further constrained to 8-10 as the lower value does not adequately reflect the extent of damage. Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) estimated Intensities between 8.5 and 9.5. Although the calculations were not performed for any specific earthquake, these Intensities likely represent either "The Byzantine Shock" (7th century CE) and/or the "Post Abandonment Quake" (7th - 8th century CE) as the methods require, for the most part, un-repaired seismic effects. See the Calculators section of this page to reproduce these Intensity estimates.

"Post Abandonment Quake" - 7th - 8th century CE

Intensity Estimate using the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Effect Location Image(s) Description Intensity
Arch and Roof Collapse Room L.206 in Southern Quarter (Area B)
Fig. 1

Plan of Area B
Tsafrir and Holum (1988)
III.14

Fallen Arches and roofing slabs in room L.206 looking south

JW: This is in Residential Buildings in the Southern Quarter (Area B)

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Because the finds did not include any characteristic forms of the 8th century Tsafrir et al (1988:9) date roof collapse in a room in the southern quarter (Area B) to the early 8th century CE at the latest. VI+
Vault Collapse              The Crypt of the Northern Church
Fig. 18

An isometric reconstruction of the crypt below the pavement of the church

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
III.80

Accumulation of the architectural parts in the crypt

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 22

A section of the accumulation of debris in the northern entrance into the crypt (L. 504).

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Tsafrir et al (1988:50) found that the vault of the crypt in the Northern Church collapsed and the staircases into the crypt and the crypt itself were filled with debris. The concentration of drums, capitals and other architectural elements, and the fragments of burial inscriptions that were found in the crypt cannot be seen as the culmination of a natural process of decay (III. 80). Five capitals were found, for instance, in the lower part of the debris, above the floor (Tsafrir et al, 1988). Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) suggest that this was due to a seismic event and suggest two main stages of destruction in the Northern Church - first when the church columns collapsed in the 7th century event and then a second time when the vault of the crypt collapsed and the staircases filled with debris. VIII+
Arch and Roof Collapse and Debris Room L 505 (?) of the Northern Church
Fig. 11

A schematic plan of walls and loci

  • 500 — The southern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 501 — The central apse
  • 502 — The bema in front of the central apse
  • 503 — The southern staircase to the crypt
  • 504 — The northern staircase to the crypt
  • 505 — The room behind the southern apse
  • 506 — A section in the central apse down to bedrock
  • 507 — The northern apse and the part of the chancel in front of it
  • 508 — The crypt
  • 509 — A side room flanking the southern aisle
  • 510 — The room behind the northern apse
  • 511 — Canceled
  • 512 — The eastern (main) part of the northern chapel
  • 513 — The northern aisle
  • 514 — The nave
  • 515 — The southern aisle
  • 516 — The area outside the southern gate of the atrium
  • 517 — The staircase tower
  • 518 — The southern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 519 — The southern gate of the atrium and the area in front of it
  • 520 — A tomb in the northern aisle
  • 521 — The western part of the northern chapel
  • 522 — The northern part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 523 — The southeastern corner of the inner court of the atrium
  • 524 — The cistern in the atrium and the objects that were piled outside of it when it was previously cleaned
  • 525 — The central part of the eastern wing of the atrium
  • 531 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 538 — A tomb in the southern aisle
  • 539 — A tomb in the southern aisle


Tsafrir et al (1988)
III.87

Roofing slabs in room L. 505, looking northwest

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Further evidence of two phases of destruction was found, according to Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014), in Room L 509 of the Northern Church where roof slabs were found atop a layer of debris that was presumed to have been created by the earlier 7th century CE earthquake however Tsafrir et al (1988:66) attribute debris and roof collapse in L.509 to decay that occurred over a long period of time. It is possible that Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) meant Room L 505 of the Northern Church which was completely filled with earth and stones (Tsafrir et al, 1988:62) and was covered by a layer of roof slabs (Plate III.87). Tsafrir et al (1988) did not attribute destruction or debris in Room L 505 to a cause. Found in the debris of Room L 505 was an Umayyad coin minted at Ramla dated between 716 and 750 CE (Tsafrir et al, 1988:61). Sherds and glass from the floor level or close to it are common Byzantine types (Tsafrir et al, 1988:62). VI+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Intensity Estimate from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 9 - Tilted and
    Fig. 9

    Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    and collapsed walls in the unexcavated quater from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 23 - Schematic
    Fig. 23

    The scheme shows directions of tilts and collapses in Rehovot-ba-Negev at unexcavated quarters. SE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward NE, while NE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward SW. In order to produce such damage patterns it was necessary to involve seismic shocks coming from the east

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    drawing of directions of tilt and collapse in the unexcavated quarters from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 1 - Map of intensity estimates
    Fig. 1

    The ancient caravan routes (thick lines) in the Negev desert, the intensities of the seismic oscillations (according to MSK-64 scale) of past earthquakes in the old cities studied by the authors are shown (scale 1 : 1 500 000)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    in the Negev from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) estimated the same Intensity (VIII–IX) for 4 seismic events ("Late Roman Earthquake", "The Byzantine Shock", "Post Abandonment Quake", and Turkish/British Earthquake(s)) and the same direction of the epicenter (ESE).
There are few measurements of tilted and fallen walls, small remnants of which are still projected above the surface (fig. 9). Generally these walls tilted or collapsed toward ESE (fig. 23).

The degree of destruction at all the studied cities of the Negev desert (Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit, Rehovot-ba-Negev and Shivta) is similar (fig. 1). In order to produce such deformations, the local seismic intensity would have had to be I > VIII. In our previous papers we came to the conclusion that most of these deformations were caused by the local faults which dissect the Negev, and not the Dead Sea Transform. If it would be the case of the Dead Sea Transform, the degree of deformations would decreased from Mamshit in the east (maximum) to Rehovot-ba-Negev in the west. However, the degree of seismic deformation is not damping westward.

Recent geological research has revealed the existence of a strike-slip fault, the Saadon fault next to the site of Saadon, and close to Rehovot-ba-Negev. A dry river Nahal Saadon follows the strike of the fault and is incised into the chalk layers of the uplifted geological block. The fault strikes N65 degrees W, dipping steeply to the northeast, and is between 0.5–1.0 km of long, with a vertical displacement of 2–3 m43. This fault, as well as other adjacent faults (Sde-Boker, Nafha, Ramon, Paran faults), could be the source of the seismic oscillations which destroyed Rehovot ba-Negev as well as other adjacent ancient desert cities.

Thus our archaeoseismological study of the ruins at ancient Rehovot-ba-Negev has revealed numerous features of seismic destructions, which testify to at least four earthquakes that affected the ancient town. The seismic intensities of these ancient seismic events were in the range of I = VIII–IX. This data confirms similar results in the adjacent ancient cities of the Negev desert – Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit and Shivta.
Footnotes

43 Greenbaum N. and Ben-David R., 2001, Geological and Geomorphological Mapping in the Shivta-Rogem Site Area, Basic Data Report 3 (Jerusalem 2001)

Intensity Estimate from Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018)

Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) presented two methods to calculate Peak Ground Velocity (PGV). These values were then converted to Intensity via Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999). This leads to Intensity estimates between 7.5 and 10 which can be further constrained to 8-10 as the lower value does not adequately reflect the extent of damage. Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) estimated Intensities between 8.5 and 9.5. Although the calculations were not performed for any specific earthquake, these Intensities likely represent either "The Byzantine Shock" (7th century CE) and/or the "Post Abandonment Quake" (7th - 8th century CE) as the methods require, for the most part, un-repaired seismic effects. See the Calculators section of this page to reproduce these Intensity estimates.

Turkish/British Earthquake(s) - 19th-20th centuries CE

Intensity Estimate using the Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) Chart

Seismic Effect Location Figures Comments Intensity
Tilted and Collapsed Wall      an unexcavated quarter
Fig. 9

Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
At Rehovot-ba-Negev several measurements reveal the systematic failure of the walls in unexcavated quarters in certain directions: walls trending ~ 140º have fallen about 50º, and walls trending ~ 50º have collapsed ~ 140º (fig. 9) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VI+ and VIII+
Collapsed Walls Well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house
Fig. 4

Musil's ground plan of the site

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 6

Lawrence and Woolley's ground plan of the site.

Tsafrir et al (1988)
Fig. 10

Destroyed well-house, built under the British Mandate, above the ruins of the Byzantine bath house

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
The well-house, which was built during the British Mandate, is significantly destroyed (fig. 10) - Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) VIII+
The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Intensity Estimate from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 9 - Tilted and
    Fig. 9

    Tilt and collapse of one of the walls at an unexcavated quarter

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    and collapsed walls in the unexcavated quater from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 23 - Schematic
    Fig. 23

    The scheme shows directions of tilts and collapses in Rehovot-ba-Negev at unexcavated quarters. SE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward NE, while NE-oriented walls are tilted and collapsed toward SW. In order to produce such damage patterns it was necessary to involve seismic shocks coming from the east

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    drawing of directions of tilt and collapse in the unexcavated quarters from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 1 - Map of intensity estimates
    Fig. 1

    The ancient caravan routes (thick lines) in the Negev desert, the intensities of the seismic oscillations (according to MSK-64 scale) of past earthquakes in the old cities studied by the authors are shown (scale 1 : 1 500 000)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    in the Negev from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) estimated the same Intensity (VIII–IX) for 4 seismic events ("Late Roman Earthquake", "The Byzantine Shock", "Post Abandonment Quake", and Turkish/British Earthquake(s)) and the same direction of the epicenter (ESE).
There are few measurements of tilted and fallen walls, small remnants of which are still projected above the surface (fig. 9). Generally these walls tilted or collapsed toward ESE (fig. 23).

The degree of destruction at all the studied cities of the Negev desert (Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit, Rehovot-ba-Negev and Shivta) is similar (fig. 1). In order to produce such deformations, the local seismic intensity would have had to be I > VIII. In our previous papers we came to the conclusion that most of these deformations were caused by the local faults which dissect the Negev, and not the Dead Sea Transform. If it would be the case of the Dead Sea Transform, the degree of deformations would decreased from Mamshit in the east (maximum) to Rehovot-ba-Negev in the west. However, the degree of seismic deformation is not damping westward.

Recent geological research has revealed the existence of a strike-slip fault, the Saadon fault next to the site of Saadon, and close to Rehovot-ba-Negev. A dry river Nahal Saadon follows the strike of the fault and is incised into the chalk layers of the uplifted geological block. The fault strikes N65 degrees W, dipping steeply to the northeast, and is between 0.5–1.0 km of long, with a vertical displacement of 2–3 m43. This fault, as well as other adjacent faults (Sde-Boker, Nafha, Ramon, Paran faults), could be the source of the seismic oscillations which destroyed Rehovot ba-Negev as well as other adjacent ancient desert cities.

Thus our archaeoseismological study of the ruins at ancient Rehovot-ba-Negev has revealed numerous features of seismic destructions, which testify to at least four earthquakes that affected the ancient town. The seismic intensities of these ancient seismic events were in the range of I = VIII–IX. This data confirms similar results in the adjacent ancient cities of the Negev desert – Avdat, Haluza, Mamshit and Shivta.
Footnotes

43 Greenbaum N. and Ben-David R., 2001, Geological and Geomorphological Mapping in the Shivta-Rogem Site Area, Basic Data Report 3 (Jerusalem 2001)

Site Effect

A site effect has not been considered in generating Intensity estimates however Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014:84) and Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018:5) both mention revetment walls built atop loess. Tsafrir et al (1988:40) describes bedrock under the apse in the Northern Church as soft and chalky. All of these suggest a site effect as at least some of the town was built on weak soil. This somewhat mitigates the conclusions Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014) and Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) that the high levels of Intensities suggested by seismic effects at Rehovot ba-Negev indicate that a a fault rupture in the Arava could not have been responsible for so much damage so far away. They say 100 km. away but I measure 75 km. at it's closest point. In considering the fairly extensive seismic damage that occurred in the Negev in the past, site effects should be considered in addition to the possibility that localized faults such a blind thrust may have been responsible for past earthquakes. Avdat/Oboda, for example, appears to be subject to a ridge effect.

Calculators
Calculators

Introduction

Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) presented two ways to estimate Peak Ground Velocity (PGV) - the Tilt Method (JW's name) and the PGV estimation method (PGVEM). Conversion from PGV to Intensity is made using Equation 2 of Wald et al (1999) (only valid for I between V and IX).

Tilt Method Calculator

Variable Input Units Notes
degrees Critical Tilt Angle (11°-20°)1
m Wall Thickness (1 for a Church, 0.5 for a House)
Variable Output - not considering a Site Effect Units Notes
m/s Peak Ground Velocity
unitless Intensity
Footnotes

1 Critical Tilt Angle (α) is the angle at which Wall will fall over. A value of 11.3 degrees was estimated from wall height and thickness estimates provided by Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) and the calculator below:

Structure Height (m) Thickness (m) Tilt Angle - α
Church
House

PGV Estimation Method Calculator

Variable Input Units Notes
unitless Coefficient of friction (0.8 - 1.0)
cm. Displacement of masonry (10 - 15 cm.)
Variable Output - not considering a Site Effect Units Notes
m/s Peak Ground Velocity
unitless Intensity

Calculator Explanations

Tilt Method

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 11 - Wall models
    Fig. 11

    A sketch map showing the destruction of
    1. an ideal rigid wall

    2. a more realistic wall composed of blocks of stones separated by joints
    Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018)
    from Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018)
  • Fig. 4 - Tilted wall
    Fig. 4

    A tilt southward of the southern wall at the SE premises of the Northern Church (field station 3). The degree of the tilting is increasing with the distance from the abutted perpendicular wall. This phenomenon is the result of maximum freedom of oscillation at the central part of the wall

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

This method requires as input the Critical Tilt angle (α) of a wall in order for it to collapse. If the tilt is large enough, the projection of the wall's center of gravity will be located outside its base (see Fig. 11) and the wall will fall over. In order to estimate α, we need to come up with some wall dimensions - specifically Height and Thickness. For Rehovot ba-Negev, Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) estimated the following input values for Height and Thickness:
Structure Height (m) Thickness (m) Tilt Angle - α
Church
House

Both cases lead to α between 11° and 12°. However, this tilt angle is for a rigid wall. If the wall is composed of blocks which are mortared together, as the seismic forces cause the wall to tilt, the top of the wall may start to bend and fail. If the top of the wall is destructed, the lower part of the wall will have a different effective geometry and require a larger tilt to fall over - perhaps between 15° and 20°. In fact, Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) note that this has been observed in Rehovot ba-Negev where tilt angles in the lower parts of wall can reach 15° and 20°. An example of such a phenomenon can be seen in Figure 4 of Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014). Thus, α can be constrained to between 11° and 20°. The other input variable is wall height H which is specified above as 5 meters for a church and 2.5 meters for a house. This leads to PGV values between 0.4 and 0.8 m/s for a church and 0.3 - 0.6 m/s for a house.

PGV Estimation Method

Figures

Figures

  • Fig. 13 - Shifted stones
    Fig. 13

    A horizontal 15 cm shift eastward of the upper part of an arch column in one of the excavated quarters

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
  • Fig. 16 - Shifted and rotated
    Fig. 16

    Clockwise rotation of a stone in an eastern wall (field station 9)

    Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)
    stone from Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014)

Discussion

The PGV Estimation Method also requires two inputs - the coefficient of friction (k) of the sliding masonry block and the observed displacement of the block. Rodkin and Korzhenkov (2018) estimated that k varied from 0.8 - 1.0 and displacement went as high as 10 - 15 cm. (the larger values are more important in their method). An example of the larger observed shift of ~15 cm. can be seen in Figure of 13 of Korzhenkov and Mazor (2014). Another example can be seen in Figure 16 . Although the PGV Estimation Method is their preferred method, there were apparently a limited number of displacement measurements in Rehovot ba-Negev. Thus, they included the Tilt method to help constrain reasonable PGV values. Inputting their suggested range of k values and displacement values leads to PGV values between 1.3 and 1.7 m/s - higher than what one obtains with the Tilt Method.

Notes and Further Reading
References

Articles and Books

Korzhenkov, A. M. and E. Mazor (2014). "Archaeoseismological damage patterns at the ancient ruins at Rehovot-ba-Negev, Israel." Archaeologischer Anzeiger: 75–92-75–92.

Nagar, Yossi (1999) The Anthropology of Rehovot-in-the-Negev Population as an Example of a Large Byzantine Settlement in the Negev Thesis - Abstract and Conclusions - some in English - some in Hebrew

Rodkin, M. V. and A. M. Korzhenkov (2018). "Estimation of maximum mass velocity from macroseismic data: A new method and application to archeoseismological data." Geodesy and Geodynamics.

Rubin, R. (1988). Water conservation methods in Israel’s Negev desert in late antiquity. Journal of Historical Geography, 14(3), 229–244.

Tsafrir, Y. (1977) Rehovot (Kh. Ruheiba) in Chronique archeologique Revue Biblique 84 (July 1977) pp. 422-426

Tsafrir, Y. (1981) "A Pilgrims' Church in Rehovot in the Negev," in: A. Biran (ed.), Temples and High Places in Biblical Times (Jerusalem 1981), pp. 162-163.

Tsafrir, Y., & Holum, K. G. (1988). Reḥovot-in-the-Negev Preliminary Report, 1986. Israel Exploration Journal, 38(3), 117–127.

Excavation Reports

Tsafrir, Y. (1988). "EXCAVATIONS AT REHOVOT-IN-THE-NEGEV: Volume I: The Northern Church." Qedem 25: III-209. - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Tsafrir, Y. (1988). "EXCAVATIONS AT REHOVOT-IN-THE-NEGEV: Volume I: The Northern Church." Qedem 25: III-209. - at JSTOR

Websites

Rehovot in-the-Negev (North Church) - Monastery at Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Drone flyover of Rehovot ba Negev at BibleWalks.com youtube channel

Bibliography from Stern et al (1993 v 4)

Main publication

Y. Tsafrir et al., Excavations at Rehovot-in-the-Negev 1, The Northern Church (Qedem 25), Jerusalem 1988

Other Studies

Musil, Arabia Petraea 2, Edom, 78-83; Robinson, Biblical Researches, 196-197

E. H. Palmer, The Desert of Exodus, Cambridge 1871, 384

E. Huntington, Palestine and its Transformation, Boston 1911, 121

Woolley-Lawrence, PEFA 6, 114-116

T Wiegand, Sinai, Berlin 1920, 58-59

E. K. Vogel, EI12 (1975), I *-17*

Y. Tsafrir (and R. Rosenthal), Archeologia 110 (1977), 71

id., RB 84 (1977), 422-427

id., Temples and High Places in Biblical Times, Jerusalem 1981, 162-163

id., Recherches Archeologiques en Israd, 200-205

id. (and K. G. Holum), ESI6 (1987-1988), 89-91

id., IEJ 38 (1988), 117-127

id. (et al.), Qedem 25 (Reviews), BAlAS 8 (1988-1989), 65-68. ~ AJA 95 (1991), 186-188

id., Christian Archaeology in the Holy Land: New Discoveries (V. C. Corbo Fest.), Jerusalem 1990, 535-544; R. Cohen, BASOR 236 (1979), 61-79

A. Negev, MdB 19 (1981), 44

D. Chen, LA 35 (1985), 291-296.

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

Main publication

Y. Nagar, The Anthropology of Rehovot-in-the-Negev Population as an Example of a Large Byzantine Settlement in the Negev (Ph.D. diss.), Tel Aviv 1999 (Eng. abstract).

Studies

C. M. Dauphin, PEQ 124 (1992), 75–77 (Review)

Y. D. Nevo, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 52 (1989), 18–23

M. Sharon, IEJ 43 (1993), 50–59, 252

Y. Tsafrir, Ancient Churches Revealed (ed. Y. Tsafrir), Jerusalem 1993, 294–302

id., BA 56 (1993), 142–143

id., BAR 19/5 (1993), 26–39

id. (& K. G. Holum), ESI 12 (1993), 106–107

N. Duval, Churches Built in Ancient Times: Recent Studies in Early Christian Archaeology (Society of Antiquaries Occasional Papers 16

ed. K. S. Painter), London 1994, 150–212

P. Figueras, Aram 6 (1994), 279–293

R. Rubin, ZDPV 112 (1996), 49–60

id., Journal of Historical Geography 23 (1997), 267–283

id., Mediterranean Historical Review 1998, 56–74

L. Di Segni, Dated Greek Inscriptions from Palestine from the Roman and Byzantine Periods (Ph.D. diss.), 1–2, Jerusalem 1997

D. E. Groh, OEANE, 4, New York 1997, 420

H. Goldfus, Tombs and Burials in Churches and Monasteries of Byzantine Palestine (324–628 A.D.), 1–2 (Ph.D. diss.), Ann Arbor, MI 1998, 56–69

Le Sinai durant l’antiquité et le Moyen Âge: 4000 ans d’histoire pour un désert (Actes du Colloque “Sinaï”, UNESCO, 19–21.9.1997 (eds. D. Valbelle & C. Bonnet), Paris 1998, 119–126

J. Magness, The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine, Winona Lake, IN 2003, 191–194

Y. Nagar & I. Hershkovitz, Human Evolution 19 (2004), 145–156.

Bibliography from Meyers et. al. (1997)

Gutwein, Kenneth C. Third Palestine: A Regional Study in Byzantine Urbanisation. Washington, D.C., 1981 .

Shcreshevski, Joseph. "Urban Settlements in the Negev in the Byzantine Period." Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1986 . In Hebrew with English summary.

Tsafrir, Yoram, and Kennedi G. Holum. "Rehovot—1986. " Excavations and Surveys in Israel, 1987/88 (1987-1988) : 89-91 .

Tsafrir, Yoram, and Kenneth G. Holum. "Rehovot-in-the-Negev: Preliminary Report, 1986. " Israel Exploration Journal 3 8 (1988) : 117 - 127 .

Tsafrir, Yoram, et al. Excavations al Rehovot-in-the-Negev, vol. 1, The Northern Church. Qedem, vol. 25 . Jerusalem, 1988 .

Tsafrir, Yoram. "On the Pre-Planning of Ancient Churches and Synagogues: A Test Case—The Northern Church at Rehovot in the Negev. " In Christian Archaeology in the Holy Land, New Discoveries: Essays in Honour of Virgilio C. Corbo, edited by Giovanni Claudio

Bottini et al., pp . 535-544 . Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio Maior, 36 . Jerusalem, 1990 .

Tsafrir, Yoram. "The Early Byzantine Town of Rehovot-in-the-Negev and Its Churches. " In Ancient Churches Revealed, edited by Yoram Tsafrir, pp . 294-302 . Jerusalem, 1993 .

Tsafrir, Yoram, and Kenneth G. Holum. "Rehovot-in-the-Negev. " In The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, edited by Ephraim Stern, vol. 4 , pp . 1274-1277 . Jerusalem and New York, 1993 .

Notes - a discussion by Khorzhenkov and Mazor (2014) on Earthquakes and Retaining Walls at Rehovot ba Negev

Khorzhenkov and Mazor (2014: 84) identified what they believed were three (or more) earthquakes which had expressions in the walls of the northern church. The first two earthquakes struck after construction of the church around 465 CE and before the site was abandoned by its Christian inhabitants around 640 CE (when the Byzantine Empire permanently lost power in the area and could no longer support these peripheral outposts). A later earthquake struck during the Early Arab period - after ~640 CE.

The existence of revetment walls, supporting the southern wall of the Church from the south, indicates that the southern wall’s tilt occurred during the first of the Late Roman earthquakes. It seems that the southern wall began to tilt northward inside the building during the Early Arab earthquakes; additional evidence for this is the shift northwards of the upper part of the revetment wall. Stones of the perpendicular eastern wall are cracked in the small room marked on the plan. Nevertheless, this wall is better preserved (it is much higher) than the main southern wall of the North Church. This indicates that the seismic shocks during both earthquakes acted perpendicular to the main Church wall: it had freedom of oscillation and was significantly destroyed. The small eastern wall, oriented parallel to the effect of the seismic movements, withstood the seismic oscillations better, although many of its stones were significantly damaged. The whole northern wall of the Church (field station 12 in fig. 3) has a significant tilt to the south (figs. 8 a. b).
Khorzhenkov and Mazor (2014:84) discussed the two late Byzantine quakes (between 465 CE and 640 CE) further
The destruction event (an earthquake), which deformed the original wall, occurred before the decline of the Byzantine Empire. There was then another seismic event which led to the destruction of the revetment wall itself. The last event was probably an end of ›civilized‹ life here.

Description of the Water Reservoir at Rehovot ba Negev

In Rehovot the reservoir was in the southern fringe of the town, partly cut into the chalky rock and partly built up by a massive stone wall with cement and plaster (Fig. 4). The reservoir was oval in shape, about 22 m long, 352 m2 in area, with a volume of at least 1000 m3. The northern side of the reservoir which was cut into the rock was partly covered by a natural rock-shelf projecting over about one-third of the reservoir. There are no remains of artificial supports of any kind of roof over the rest of the reservoir. The southern side, facing the slope, was a thick massive wall built with well cut and dressed stones. There are remains of the pink-red hydraulic plaster proving that the reservoir was built or at least in use during the Byzantine period. Water was collected in a shallow conduit running around the southern side of the town, collecting water from the outer fringe of the town and leading it to the reservoir. There were some other, shorter conduits that drained water from the streets to the north and north-east of the reservoir and led into it20
Footnotes

20 The reservoir was surveyed by me. About Rehovot in general, see Tsafrir, Y. (1977) Rehovot (Kh. Ruheiba) in Chronique archeologique Revue Biblique 84 (July 1977) pp. 422-426

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