Lod/Ramla

Name Tables

**Lod**
Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Lod	Hebrew	לוד
al-Lidd	Arabic	اللد
Lydda	Latin
Colonia Lucia Septimia Severa Diospolis	Latin
Lydda	Ancient Greek	Λύδδα
Diospolis	Ancient Greek	Διόσπολις
Georgiopolis	Late Byzantine and crusader sources

**Ramla**
Transliterated Name	Source	Name
ar-Ramla	Arabic	الرملة
Ramla	Hebrew	רַמְלָה
Ramle	variant spelling
Ramlah	variant spelling
Remle	variant spelling
Rama	variant historical spelling

Introduction

Lod, ~15 km. southeast of Tel Aviv, has a long history of occupation. It is mentioned in the list of Canaanite towns conquered by Thutmose III in the fifteenth century BCE and in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Quran (Jacob Kaplan in Stern et al, 1993). After the Muslim conquest in 636 CE, Lod (then named Lydda) became the capital of Jund Filistin. In 715/716 CE, the capital was moved to the newly formed city of Ramla ~3 km. away. Historically, Ramla has suffered frequent earthquake damage and appears to be susceptible to liquefaction. By extension, Lod should also be susceptible to liquefaction as both locations rest on soft unconsolidated sediments in a flat coastal plain which in times past likely had a relatively shallow water table.

Lod

Identification and History

from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

The ancient mound of Lod is situated near the southern bank of Nahal Ayalon (Wadi el-Kabir) about 15 km (1 mi.) southeast of Tel-Aviv. It is completely covered by modern buildings, except on the northern side, where the edge of the mound was swept away, thus forming a section 2.5 m deep. Lod is first mentioned in the list of Canaanite towns conquered by Thutmose III in the fifteenth century BCE. It appears later only in the genealogical list of the tribe of Benjamin in connection with the wanderings of the Elpaal family and their settlement in the northern Shephelah (I Chr. 8: 12). B. Mazar accordingly considers that the town lay in ruins during most of the Late Bronze and Iron ages and was resettled only in the time of Josiah. Lod is also mentioned in the context of the return of the people from the Babylonian Exile (Ezra 2:33; Neh. 7:37, 11:35). The town is frequently mentioned in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Under the Emperor Septimius Severus, it was granted the status of a city and received the name of Diospolis. After the Arab conquest, its earlier name was restored.

Excavations in 1951 and 1952

from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

From December 1951 to January 1952, J. Kaplan conducted exploratory excavations at the site on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. Three small areas were examined:

area A - the northern edge of the mound
area B - the two sides of a small ravine
area C - a level area north of the above-mentioned ravine

In area A, a trench (10 by 2.5 m) was dug running from the base of the mound toward its upper part. Here, below surface level, part of a circular structure built of rubble was exposed. Beneath the structure, a mud-brick wall had been built on the virgin white sandy soil. These two lower strata were found to be identical with the lowest strata of the mound visible in the section. Altogether, four phases of occupation could be distinguished in the section, all dating to the Early Bronze Age I.

In area B, on the two banks of the small ravine, a dump of gray earth was discovered with pottery from different periods, mainly from the Chalcolithic cultures in Israel: Wadi Rabah, stratum VIII at Jericho, and Ghassulian ware. The pottery of the first two types included sherds of low-neck jars, splay-ended loop handles, and black-burnished ware. Among the Ghassulian sherds were loop handles with triangular section, goblets, and churns.

In area C shallow cavities were found-the remains of pits dug into the white sand-that contained Neolithic pottery. Most of the pottery was characteristic of Jericho IX ware - simple and coarse ware made with a large quantity of straw, plain burnished ware, and decorated pottery with a red-painted chevron pattern, and typical Jericho IX handles, including rough loop handles, cylindrical knob handles, and triangular ledge handles.

Tel Lod

Introduction

from Eli Yannai in Stern et. al. (2008)

Numerous salvage excavations were conducted on Tel Lod during the 1990s. The stratigraphy of the mound differs from area to area, but it appears that, except for a few short gaps, it was occupied from the beginning of the Pottery Neolithic period, through the Bronze and Iron Ages, and intermittently in later periods to the present. The site is located at a distance from major trade routes and was never fortified. The earliest settlement appears to have been situated at the northern part of the mound, alongside the streambed. During the Middle Bronze, Late Bronze, and Iron Ages, the settlement moved about half a kilometer to the south. In the Roman and Byzantine periods, the mound was largely abandoned and settlement concentrated to its south, in the area of today’s Old City of Lod.

Excavations at Tel Lod were conducted in 1995 on behalf of Tel Aviv University by H. Khalaily and A. Gopher, and later on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority: in 1996 by E. Yannai and R. Badich, in 1997 by E. van den Brink, and most extensively in 2000 by E. Yannai and O. Marder

Ramla

Identification

from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

According to scholars, the name Ramla derives from the Arabic word raml, meaning "sand," probably referring to the sand dunes on which the city was built, about 4 km (2.5 mi.) south of Lod and 15 km (9 mi.) southeast of Tel Aviv (map reference 138.148). Ramla was founded in the early eighth century (712-715 CE) by the Umayyad caliph Suleiman ibn 'Abdel-Malik (brother of Walid I), the former governor of Jund Filistin (the District of Palestine). It is the only city in Palestine founded by Arabs. Ramla was first made the capital of the newly created province Filistin, which included the regions of Judea and Samaria. According to accounts by Arab geographers, Ramla was built from the ruins of nearby Lod. This destruction was not only expressed in the preferred status granted to Ramla, but also in the reuse in its construction of building materials from the ruins of Lod. To promote its growth, part of the population of Lod was also moved to Ramla.

With the city's founding, many installations and buildings, such as cisterns, a drain channel, the House of Dyers, and the mosque, were erected. Most of the Umayyad city is now covered by later construction. Only in the Umayyad mosque, called the White Mosque (which was later renovated, probably in the Ayyubid period), were several remains of that period preserved. Its minaret, which was rebuilt in the Mameluke period, is the most prominent structure of medieval Ramla.

Excavations at the White Mosque in 1949

from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

Excavations at the White Mosque were conducted by J. Kaplan in 1949 on behalf of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. The excavations attempted to ascertain which buildings, both above ground and subterranean, belonged to the original mosque enclosure. It was revealed that the mosque enclosure was built in the form of a quadrangle (93 by 84 m), with its walls oriented to the cardinal points. It included the following structures: the mosque itself; two porticoes along the quadrangle's east and west walls; the north wall; the minaret; an unidentified building in the center of the area; and three subterranean cisterns.

Excavations in 1965

from Myriam Rosen-Ayalon in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

Of the various excavations carried out in different areas of Ramla, the major undertaking was conducted in October 1965 by M. Rosen-Ayalon and A. Eitan, on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. This excavation was concentrated in the southwestern part of the town; however, several trial soundings on a smaller scale were dug simultaneously in an effort to broaden the general picture.

Excavations between 1990 and 2003

from Gideon Avni and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et. al. (2008)

In the wake of development and construction projects, 79 salvage excavations and soundings were conducted in various parts of the city of Ramla in 1990–2003. While most of the excavations were probes at building sites or under modern streets, a number of large-scale excavations were also carried out in areas north and west of the Old City and north and south of the White Mosque. Several excavations were also conducted around the Ramla bypass road northeast of the Old City and in the western suburbs of the modern city. The aqueduct that carried water to the city from the springs at Tel Gezer was also examined in salvage excavations. Although they were conducted in non-contiguous areas, the many excavations make it possible to arrive at a tentative reconstruction of Ramla in the Early Islamic, Mameluke, and Ottoman periods. In addition to the excavations, an architectural survey of the buildings from the Middle Ages and the Ottoman period was conducted by A. D. Petersen in the center of the city.

The Ramla Aqueduct

from Amir Gorzalczzany in Stern et. al. (2008)

The Umayyad aqueduct to Ramla is referred to as Qanat Bint el-Kafir (“The Heretic Daughter’s Aqueduct”) on the map of the British Survey of Palestine of 1882; the source of this name is unknown. In 1950, R. Gophna and J. Kaplan mapped a section of the aqueduct at Moshav Ptah ya. In 1998–2001, A. Gorzalczany and Y. Zelinger conducted salvage excavations along its course and exposed large sections of it.

Most of the course of the c. 10-km-long aqueduct can be reconstructed, but its water source and point of entry to Ramla have not yet been ascertained. Its source should probably be identified with the group of springs located in the vicinity of Abu Shusha, near Gezer. From there it runs northwest, entering Ramla from the south or southwest.

The aqueduct consists of a foundation of fieldstones bonded with cement and two parallel walls of dressed limestone masonry. The walls (40–50 cm wide) are plastered on their inner and outer faces and overlaid with another layer of fieldstones mixed with gray cement. The overall width of the aqueduct is about 1.5 m. Its channel is covered with flat limestone slabs averaging 30 by 80 cm and 12–15 cm thick, laid widthwise. The inside of the aqueduct was covered with an approximately 1-cm-thick layer of light red plaster composed of quartz, sherds, and shells applied to a base of sherds. Another layer of plaster was applied above this, somewhat altering the cross-section of the channel (specus), which varies along its length. In the eastern part of the aqueduct its width was distorted by the movement and inward collapse of the supporting walls and this section is at present completely blocked. Soundings made in the middle of the aqueduct revealed that it was dug into the virgin hamra soil. The aqueduct descends to a depth of c. 0.7 m and is set on a slightly wider foundation (1.50 m) made of small stones bonded in gray mortar, reaching a depth of 0.7 m below the base of the channel.

In the middle of the excavated segment of the aqueduct is a cylindrical shaped manhole, 1.30 m in diameter and preserved to a height of 0.50 m above the level of the cover stones. The superstructure is hollow and has a hexagonal internal horizontal cross-section (0.70 m in diameter). The manhole was built above a square opening set between the cover stones and is large enough for a person to enter. A similar manhole was exposed 45 m to the west, but its superstructure had collapsed. No cover stones were found in situ in the westernmost part of the exposed segment, probably having been robbed in antiquity.

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, and Photos

Maps

Fig. 2 - Ramla City Limits

Fig. 2

Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations

courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified

Taxel (2013)

from Taxel (2013)

Aerial Views

Annotated Google Satellite View

Annotated Google Satellite View of Lod/Ramla

Used with permission from BibleWalks.com

of Lod/Ramla from BibleWalks.com
Lod/Ramla in Google Earth

Lod/Ramla in Google Earth

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
Lod/Ramla on govmap.gov.il

Lod/Ramla on govmap.gov.il

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
Fig. 5.3 Aerial View of White

Figure 5.3

Ramla: the White Mosque and excavations south of it, seen from the air looking south

(© IAA)

Petersen and Pringle (2021)

Mosque and environs from Petersen and Pringle (2021)

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 2 - Site Map from

Figure 2

The excavated areas

Gorzalczany (2009b)

Gorzalczany (2009b)

Magnified

Fig. 2 - Site Map from

Figure 2

The excavated areas

Gorzalczany (2009b)

Gorzalczany (2009b)

Area Plans

White Mosque and Area B-3

Normal Size

Fig. 5.4 Plan of Area B-3

Figure 5.4

Ramla: plan of excavated area (B3) south of the White Mosque

(© IAA)

Petersen and Pringle (2021)

and White Mosque from Petersen and Pringle (2021)

Magnified

Fig. 5.4 Plan of Area B-3

Figure 5.4

Ramla: plan of excavated area (B3) south of the White Mosque

(© IAA)

Petersen and Pringle (2021)

and White Mosque from Petersen and Pringle (2021)

Area A

Normal Size

Plan 1 - eastern squares

Plan 1

Area A, eastern squares

Kletter (2005)

of Area A from Kletter (2005)

Magnified

Plan 1 - eastern squares

Plan 1

Area A, eastern squares

Kletter (2005)

of Area A from Kletter (2005)

Photos

Fig. 6 - Smashed Jars

Fig. 6

Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 9 - Smashed Jars

Figure 9

Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

from Gorzalczany (2009b)
Fig. 10 - Faulted strata

Figure 10

The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

from Gorzalczany (2009b)
Fig. 3 - Faulted Strata

Fig. 3

Vertical section displaying superimposed layers of sand and hamra,abruptly broken by a vertical rupture

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 4 - Sunken Floor

Fig. 4

Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

and Column base from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 5 - Sunken Strata

Fig. 5

Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

at the antilia type water well from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 2 - Collapsed Wall

Fig. 2

Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

with aligned courses from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 6 - Tilted Wall

Fig. 6

Square E1, detail of W2, looking east.

JW: Two phases are evident in this photo. The lower courses are from Phase II, the earliest phase. The single top row of crude stones are from Phase I, the later phase.

Kletter (2005)

from Kletter (2005)

Stratigraphy

Areas J2 and K1

from Gorzalczany (2009b)

Stratum	Period	Age	Comments
0	Modern		Remains of a military installation
I		11th cent. CE
II	Fatimid	9th-10th cent. CE
IIIa	Abbasid	8th-9th cent. CE	Industrial installations
IIIb	Byzantine/Umayyad	7th-8th cent. CE	Industrial installations
IV	Byzantine	4th-5th cent. CE	Pottery kilns
V	Roman	1st cent. BCE - 4th cent. CE
VI	Persian/Hellenistic	4th-5th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VI	Persian/Hellenistic	4th-5th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VII	Late Bronze	15th-13th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VIII	Middle Bronze	20th-15th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
IX	Prehistoric		Area A

White Mosque at Ramla

from Table 1 of Rosen-Ayalon (2006)

Phase	Features	Period	Comments
1	Eastern wing, including part of covered prayer hall; exedra; entrance gate; mihrab?; minaret?	Umayyad (first half of eighth century)	According to multiple textual sources, the White Mosque at Ramla was first built in the second decade of the 8th century CE (Rosen-Ayalon, 2006)
2	Extension of eastern wall; northern wall; subterranean pools	Abbasid (second half of eighth century)
3	Renovation of prayer hall; possibly western wing	Ayyubid (twelfth century)
4	Minaret	Mamluk (fourteenth century)

8th century CE Earthquake

Areas J2 and K1

Plans and Photos

Fig. 2 - Site Map from

Figure 2

The excavated areas

Gorzalczany (2009b)

Gorzalczany (2009b)
Fig. 6 - Smashed Jars

Fig. 6

Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 9 - Smashed Jars

Figure 9

Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

from Gorzalczany (2009b)
Fig. 10 - Faulted strata

Figure 10

The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

from Gorzalczany (2009b)
Fig. 3 - Faulted Strata

Fig. 3

Vertical section displaying superimposed layers of sand and hamra,abruptly broken by a vertical rupture

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 4 - Sunken Floor

Fig. 4

Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

and Column base from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 5 - Sunken Strata

Fig. 5

Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

at the antilia type water well from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
Fig. 2 - Collapsed Wall

Fig. 2

Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

with aligned courses from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

Discussion

Gorzalczany (2009b) described 8th century CE earthquake evidence as follows:

Evidence of a major earthquake was discerned in Areas J2 and K1 (see Fig. 2 - site map); it included cracks along the walls of installations, large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed, floors that had dropped and walls that curved in unexpected directions. Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. It seems that the residents of the town were concerned with the quick restoration of the settlement’s activity. Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6

Fig. 6

Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. The room was leveled and quickly refurbished in an attempt to regain its capacity for industrial manufacture as soon as possible. The renovation of the room included the construction of new walls, with which jars dating to the second half of the eighth century CE were associated and preserved intact (Fig. 9

Figure 9

Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

). It therefore seems that we have here a small, rare chronological window, which enables us to date the earthquake.

Indisputable proof of the earthquake occurrence was found in the balks of Area K1, where a fault in the layers of sand and hamra, which were split due to a fissure, stands out prominently (Fig. 10

Figure 10

The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

). One side of the layers in the section was lower than the other side. The fissure continued along several excavation squares and it caused a plaster floor and a column base that stood above it to sink 1.5 m [Fig. 4

Fig. 4

Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. Such vertical movement of layers could only be caused by a powerful seismic event. An opposite fracture was discerned elsewhere on the site, where the movement was not only vertical but also horizontal, causing the layers to climb one atop the other [Fig. 5

Fig. 5

Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. It appears then that archaeological evidence of an earthquake, which occurred close to Ramla in the middle of the eighth century CE, can be pointed to for the first time. The dating is firmly based on the pottery and it is feasible that this is the famous earthquake of the year 749 CE.

Thus, we have earthquake evidence which is precisely dated and well described. The 1.5 meter sinking of the column base (Fig. 4

) strongly suggests that this site experienced liquefaction. In fact, Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the column base and associated plaster floor which collectively sank 1.5 m [Fig. 4] were underlain by neatly superimposed layers of sand and hamra which constituted an artificial fill. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) found evidence that this artificial fill was placed in a foundation trench which was dug to set up an antilia type water well (Avitsur 1976: 60-63; Ayalon 2000) which abutted the plaster floor and columns. The presence of an antilia type water well indicates a shallow water table and a shallow water table, uncompacted fill, and alternating layers of strata with differing permeabilities is a veritable recipe for liquefaction during seismic events. Liquefaction, which is driven by temporal increases in pore pressure that cannot dissipate can be enhanced if pore pressures in the more permeable sandy layers cannot dissipate because they are surrounded and sealed by less permeable layers. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the entire antilia installation - the pit and the lifting superstructure device together with the layers of fill and the occupation layer abutting them - collapsed and sank several meters. Damage to surrounding areas indicates that the pit (Fig. 5) constituted the central axis of the fall and the sand layers around the antilia [that appeared] broken in a stepped formation (Fig. 5) encompassed the pit.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) added an observation of building stones of walls that had collapsed in a clear, `orderly' pattern found in situ (Fig. 2

Fig. 2

Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

). Such an orderly fall pattern can be a diagnostic effect of failure due to an earthquake. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that no fault traces were found underneath the affected areas and no faults were indicated on geologic maps suggesting that the observed archeoseismic damage was due to shaking away from the epicenter of the causitive earthquake.

The White Mosque at Ramla

Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the second building phase was a reaction to seismic damage to the first phase from a mid 8th century CE earthquake - noting that although not all the excavators discovered signs of destruction compatible with an earthquake, some indeed relate to this possibility. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) described the physical archaeoseismic evidence as inconclusive.

The evidence is inconclusive, since a significant proportion of the finds was found in disturbed stratigraphy. In other words, even if there had been significant damage, this may not have been evident in excavation. However, even minimal disturbance — not of the magnitude caused by the eleventh-century earthquake — may have been sufficient to warrant the renovations.

By comparing architectural elements (e.g. pointed arches) of the 3 subterranean cisterns of the Phase 2 mosque enclosure with architectural elements (e.g. pointed arches) of a subterranean cistern known as 'the pools of Saint Helena' or the 'Aneziya', Rosen-Ayalon (2006:74) concluded that Phase 2 mosque construction took place around 788/789 CE as construction of 'the pools of Saint Helena' is dated by inscription to A.H. 172 (788/789 CE).

11th century CE Earthquake

Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the third building phase occurred after the structure was damaged in the earthquake of 1033 CE. She suggested that third phase construction was carried out in 1190 CE and should be attributed to Salah al-Din. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) mentions that traveller Nasir i-Khosero [] visited Palestine one decade after the earthquake [of 1033 CE] and grieved for the city of Ramla which was devastated in the early eleventh-century earthquake. On page 64 a passage in a French translation of Sefer Nema by Nasir i-Khosero we can read:

The area of the great mosque is three hundred paces by two hundred. An inscription, placed above the soffèh (bench), relates that on Moharrem 15, 425 ( December 11, 1033), a violent earthquake overthrew a large number of buildings but none of the inhabitants were injured.

It should be noted that textual accounts also state that Ramla suffered damage during the earthquake of 1068 CE. The Crusaders arrived in 1099 CE and occupied Ramla after which a number of battles were fought in the area which could/would have delayed mosque renovations.

Early to Middle Islamic Tilted Wall

Plans and Photos

Plan 1 - eastern squares

Plan 1

Area A, eastern squares

Kletter (2005)

of Area A from Kletter (2005)
Fig. 6 - Tilted Wall

Fig. 6

Square E1, detail of W2, looking east.

JW: Two phases are evident in this photo. The lower courses are from Phase II, the earliest phase. The single top row of crude stones are from Phase I, the later phase.

Kletter (2005)

from Kletter (2005)

Discussion

Kletter (2005:57-60) observed a tilted wall (W2) in an early Islamic structure in Square E1 of Area A situated within 'Opher Park below newly constructed ‘Opher School in Ramla. Kletter (2005:60) noted that the tilt may have been due to an earthquake although the true cause for this feature is unknown. Two phases were identified in the tilted wall (W2) and both phases (II and I) are tilted. The site appears to have been difficult to date. Kletter (2005:95) noted that the site seems to have been abandoned at the end of Phase I, although no traces of fire or violent destruction were detected. Kletter (2005:95) dates the abandonment to some time within the eleventh century CE as no find can unequivocally be dated to a later period.

8th century CE Earthquake

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Cracks along the walls of installations Collapsed walls - large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction Dropped floors (subsidence) Folded walls Rebuilding	Areas J2 and K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	Evidence of a major earthquake was discerned in Areas J2 and K1 (see Fig. 2 - site map); it included cracks along the walls of installations, large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed, floors that had dropped and walls that curved in unexpected directions. Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. It seems that the residents of the town were concerned with the quick restoration of the settlement’s activity. Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. The room was leveled and quickly refurbished in an attempt to regain its capacity for industrial manufacture as soon as possible. The renovation of the room included the construction of new walls - Gorzalczany (2009b)
Broken Pottery found in fallen position	Warehouse in Area J1-3 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 9 Figure 9 Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground. Gorzalczany (2009b)	Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. - Gorzalczany (2009b)
Collapsed Walls	Area K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed ... Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. - Gorzalczany (2009b) Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) observed building stones of walls that had collapsed in a clear, `orderly' pattern found in situ (Fig. 2)
Fault Scarps Subsidence Liquefaction	Area K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 10 Figure 10 The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake. Gorzalczany (2009b) Fig. 3 Vertical section displaying superimposed layers of sand and hamra,abruptly broken by a vertical rupture Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	Indisputable proof of the earthquake occurrence was found in the balks of Area K1, where a fault in the layers of sand and hamra, which were split due to a fissure, stands out prominently (Fig. 10). One side of the layers in the section was lower than the other side. The fissure continued along several excavation squares and it caused a plaster floor and a column base that stood above it to sink 1.5 m [Fig. 4]. Such vertical movement of layers could only be caused by a powerful seismic event. An opposite fracture was discerned elsewhere on the site, where the movement was not only vertical but also horizontal, causing the layers to climb one atop the other [Fig. 5]. - Gorzalczany (2009b) Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the column base and associated plaster floor which collectively sank 1.5 m [Fig. 4] were underlain by neatly superimposed layers of sand and hamra which constituted an artificial fill. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) found evidence that this artificial fill was placed in a foundation trench which was dug to set up an antilia type water well (Avitsur 1976: 60-63; Ayalon 2000) which abutted the plaster floor and columns. The presence of an antilia type water well indicates a shallow water table and a shallow water table, uncompacted fill, and alternating layers of strata with differing permeabilities is a veritable recipe for liquefaction during seismic events. Liquefaction, which is driven by temporal increases in pore pressure that cannot dissipate can be enhanced if pore pressures in the more permeable sandy layers cannot dissipate because they are surrounded and sealed by less permeable layers. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the entire antilia installation - the pit and the lifting superstructure device together with the layers of fill and the occupation layer abutting them - collapsed and sank several meters. Damage to surrounding areas indicates that the pit (Fig. 5) constituted the central axis of the fall and the sand layers around the antilia [that appeared] broken in a stepped formation (Fig. 5) encompassed the pit.
Rebuilding ?	White Mosque at Ramla Fig. 2 Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified Taxel (2013)		Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the second building phase was a reaction to seismic damage to the first phase from a mid 8th century CE earthquake - noting that although not all the excavators discovered signs of destruction compatible with an earthquake, some indeed relate to this possibility. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) described the physical archaeoseismic evidence as inconclusive. The evidence is inconclusive, since a significant proportion of the finds was found in disturbed stratigraphy. In other words, even if there had been significant damage, this may not have been evident in excavation. However, even minimal disturbance — not of the magnitude caused by the eleventh-century earthquake — may have been sufficient to warrant the renovations.

11th century CE Earthquake

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls	Ramla		a violent earthquake overthrew a large number of buildings but none of the inhabitants were injured - Nasir i-Khosero reading from an inscription at the Great Mosque of Ramla sometime between 1046 and 1053 CE (Sefer Nameh:64)
Rebuilding ?	White Mosque at Ramla Fig. 2 Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified Taxel (2013)		Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the third building phase occurred after the structure was damaged in the earthquake of 1033 CE. She suggested that third phase construction was carried out in 1190 CE and should be attributed to Salah al-Din. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) mentions that traveller Nasir i-Khosero [] visited Palestine one decade after the earthquake [of 1033 CE] and grieved for the city of Ramla which was devastated in the early eleventh-century earthquake. On page 64 a passage in a French translation of Sefer Nema by Nasir i-Khosero we can read: The area of the great mosque is three hundred paces by two hundred. An inscription, placed above the soffèh (bench), relates that on Moharrem 15, 425 ( December 11, 1033), a violent earthquake overthrew a large number of buildings but none of the inhabitants were injured. It should be noted that textual accounts also state that Ramla suffered damage during the earthquake of 1068 CE. The Crusaders arrived in 1099 CE and occupied Ramla after which a number of battles were fought in the area which could/would have delayed mosque renovations.

8th century CE Earthquake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Cracks along the walls of installations (penetrative fracures in masonry blocks) Collapsed walls - large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction Dropped floors (subsidence) Folded walls Rebuilding	Areas J2 and K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	Evidence of a major earthquake was discerned in Areas J2 and K1 (see Fig. 2 - site map); it included cracks along the walls of installations, large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed, floors that had dropped and walls that curved in unexpected directions. Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. It seems that the residents of the town were concerned with the quick restoration of the settlement’s activity. Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. The room was leveled and quickly refurbished in an attempt to regain its capacity for industrial manufacture as soon as possible. The renovation of the room included the construction of new walls - Gorzalczany (2009b)	VI+ VIII+ VI+ VII+ ?
Broken Pottery found in fallen position	Warehouse in Area J1-3 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 9 Figure 9 Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground. Gorzalczany (2009b)	Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. - Gorzalczany (2009b)	VII+
Collapsed Walls	Area K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed ... Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. - Gorzalczany (2009b) Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) observed building stones of walls that had collapsed in a clear, `orderly' pattern found in situ (Fig. 2)	VIII+
Fault Scarps Subsidence Liquefaction	Area K1 Figure 2 The excavated areas Gorzalczany (2009b)	Fig. 10 Figure 10 The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake. Gorzalczany (2009b) Fig. 3 Vertical section displaying superimposed layers of sand and hamra,abruptly broken by a vertical rupture Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)	Indisputable proof of the earthquake occurrence was found in the balks of Area K1, where a fault in the layers of sand and hamra, which were split due to a fissure, stands out prominently (Fig. 10). One side of the layers in the section was lower than the other side. The fissure continued along several excavation squares and it caused a plaster floor and a column base that stood above it to sink 1.5 m [Fig. 4]. Such vertical movement of layers could only be caused by a powerful seismic event. An opposite fracture was discerned elsewhere on the site, where the movement was not only vertical but also horizontal, causing the layers to climb one atop the other [Fig. 5]. - Gorzalczany (2009b) Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the column base and associated plaster floor which collectively sank 1.5 m [Fig. 4] were underlain by neatly superimposed layers of sand and hamra which constituted an artificial fill. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) found evidence that this artificial fill was placed in a foundation trench which was dug to set up an antilia type water well (Avitsur 1976: 60-63; Ayalon 2000) which abutted the plaster floor and columns. The presence of an antilia type water well indicates a shallow water table and a shallow water table, uncompacted fill, and alternating layers of strata with differing permeabilities is a veritable recipe for liquefaction during seismic events. Liquefaction, which is driven by temporal increases in pore pressure that cannot dissipate can be enhanced if pore pressures in the more permeable sandy layers cannot dissipate because they are surrounded and sealed by less permeable layers. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the entire antilia installation - the pit and the lifting superstructure device together with the layers of fill and the occupation layer abutting them - collapsed and sank several meters. Damage to surrounding areas indicates that the pit (Fig. 5) constituted the central axis of the fall and the sand layers around the antilia [that appeared] broken in a stepped formation (Fig. 5) encompassed the pit.	VII+ VI+ VII+
Rebuilding ?	White Mosque at Ramla Fig. 2 Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified Taxel (2013)		Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the second building phase was a reaction to seismic damage to the first phase from a mid 8th century CE earthquake - noting that although not all the excavators discovered signs of destruction compatible with an earthquake, some indeed relate to this possibility. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) described the physical archaeoseismic evidence as inconclusive. The evidence is inconclusive, since a significant proportion of the finds was found in disturbed stratigraphy. In other words, even if there had been significant damage, this may not have been evident in excavation. However, even minimal disturbance — not of the magnitude caused by the eleventh-century earthquake — may have been sufficient to warrant the renovations.	?

Although this archaeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), much of the damage and collapse may have been primarily due to liquefaction rather than strength of shaking on the structures. Rapid rebuilding efforts and attempts to cover up stone tumbles suggest that this wasn't an earthquake which wiped out the city due to widespread collapse. As it appears that liquefaction was a driving factor for the damage, the Intensity for this earthquake is estimated at VII (7) based on Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013)'s assessment for liquefaction.

11th century CE Earthquake

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls	Ramla		a violent earthquake overthrew a large number of buildings but none of the inhabitants were injured - Nasir i-Khosero reading from an inscription at the Great Mosque of Ramla sometime between 1046 and 1053 CE (Sefer Nameh:64)	VIII+
Rebuilding ?	White Mosque at Ramla Fig. 2 Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified Taxel (2013)		Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the third building phase occurred after the structure was damaged in the earthquake of 1033 CE. She suggested that third phase construction was carried out in 1190 CE and should be attributed to Salah al-Din. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) mentions that traveller Nasir i-Khosero [] visited Palestine one decade after the earthquake [of 1033 CE] and grieved for the city of Ramla which was devastated in the early eleventh-century earthquake. On page 64 a passage in a French translation of Sefer Nema by Nasir i-Khosero we can read: The area of the great mosque is three hundred paces by two hundred. An inscription, placed above the soffèh (bench), relates that on Moharrem 15, 425 ( December 11, 1033), a violent earthquake overthrew a large number of buildings but none of the inhabitants were injured. It should be noted that textual accounts also state that Ramla suffered damage during the earthquake of 1068 CE. The Crusaders arrived in 1099 CE and occupied Ramla after which a number of battles were fought in the area which could/would have delayed mosque renovations.	?

The collapsed walls requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224. However, since Ramla is subject to liquefaction, local bedrock intensity is downgraded to VII (7).

Remove Site Effect

Variable	Input	Units	Notes
Intensity		unitless	Intensity Estimate before considering site effect
V_S30		m/s	Enter a value of 655 for no site effect Equation comes from Darvasi and Agnon (2019)
Variable	Output	Units	Notes
Intensity		unitless	Intensity with Site Effect Removed

Using Darvasi and Agnon (2019) to remove site effect does not work for this location.

V_S30 values for Lod

V_S30 is the average seismic shear-wave velocity from the surface to a depth of 30 meters at earthquake frequencies (below ~5 Hz.). Table 2 of Darvasi and Agnon (2019) lists two V_S30 values for Lod.

Location	V_S30
Lod 1	320 m/s
Lod 2	374 m/s

References

Articles and Books

Avni, Gideon () Chapter 5 Excavations in Ramla, 1990–2018: Reconstructing the Early Islamic City in Ramla Archaeopress pp. 31-63

Cytryn, Katia (2010) The Mamluk Minarets of Ramla , Bulletin Du Centre De Recherche Francais a Jerusalem - describes architecture and history of the minaret of the White Mosque but does not mention earthquakes

Gorzalczany, A. (2009b) Ramla (South). Hadashot Arkheologiot Excavations and Surveys in Israel 121.

Gorzalczany, A., Salamon, A. (2018). "Archaeological Evidence of a Powerful Earthquake in Ramla, Israel, during the Early Islamic Period."

i-Khosero, Nasir (1881) Sefer Nameh translated into French by Charles Henri Auguste Schefer , Paris - open access at archive.org

Kletter, R. (2005) Early Islamic Remains at Ramla Part 1 Atiqot 49, 2005

Kletter, R. (2005) Early Islamic Remains at Ramla Part 2 Atiqot 49, 2005

Petersen, A. and D. Pringle (2021). Ramla: City of Muslim Palestine, 715-1917: Studies in History, Archaeology and Architecture, Archaeopress. - at JSTOR

Rosen-Ayalon, M. (2006). "The White Mosque of Ramla: Retracing Its History." Israel Exploration Journal 56(1): 67-83.

Schwartz, J. J. (1991). Lod (Lydda), Israel: From Its Origins Through the Byzantine Period, 5600 B.C.E.-640 C.E, B.A.R.

Websites

Excavations at the White Mosque in Ramla

Overview of Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

Khan el-Hilu at Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

St. George Church at Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

Bibliography from Stern et al (1993 v.3)

Lod

Abel, GP 2, 370

J. Kaplan, JNES 28 (1969), 197-199

J. Porath, ESI 1 (1982), 67

A. Oppenheimer, HUCA 59 (1988), 115-136

Weippert 1988, 112, 691

E. Braun, PEQ 121 (1989), 1-43;1. Schwartz,I£140 (1990), 47-57.

Ramla

Conder-Kitchener SWP2, 271-273

C. Clerrnont-Ganneau, ARP 1, 25

J. Kaplan, 'Atiqot 2 (1959), 106- 115

L.A. Mayer, ibid., 116-117

M. Rosen-Ayalon and A. Eitan, IEJ 16 (1966), 148-150

id., Ramla Excavations (Israel Museum Cat. 66), Jerusalem 1969

M. Rosen-Ayalon, IEJ 26 (1976), 104-119.

Bibliography from Stern et al (2008)

Lod

Main publications

J. J. Schwartz, Lod (Lydda), Israel: From its Origins Through the Byzantine Period, 5600 B.C.E.- 640 C.E. (BAR/IS 571), Oxford 1991

ibid. (Review), PEQ 125 (1993), 177–178

N. Blockman, The Lodian Culture (Jericho IX) Following the Excavation at Newe Yarak, Lod (M.A. thesis), Tel Aviv 1997 (Eng. abstract)

R. Gophna & I. Beit-Arieh, Map of Lod (80) (Archaeological Survey of Israel), Jerusalem 1997

B. -Z. Rosenfeld, Lod and its Sages: The Period of the Mishnah and the Talmud, Jerusalem 1997 (Heb.).

Studies

L. Gershuny, ESI 10 (1991), 20

J. Kaplan, ABD, 4, New York 1992, 346–347

A. Rosenberger & A. Shavit, ESI 13 (1993), 54–56

A. Gopher (& A. Rosenberger), ibid. 14 (1994), 85–86

id. (& N. Blackman), ‘Atiqot 47 (2004), 1–50

A. Feldstein, ESI 19 (1997), 50*

H. Khalaily & A. Gopher, ibid., 51*

E. C. M. Van den Brink, ESI 19 (1997), 49*–50*

110 (1999), 47*–48*

id., AJA 102 (1998), 768–769

id., Egypt and the Levant , London 2002, 286–305

id. (& E. L. Braun), In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscapes, Tel Aviv 2002, 167–192

S. Golan, ESI 112 (2000), 65–66

O. Shmueli, ibid., 66*–67*

E. Yannai & O. Marder, ibid., 63–65

E. L. Braun, Egypt and the Levant , London 2002, 173–189

id., Egypt at its Origins: Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,” Krakow, 28.8.–1.9.2002 (Barbara Adams Fest.

Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 138; eds. S. Hendricks et al.), Leuven 2004, 508–517

id., MdB 162 (2004), 42–45

M. Rosen-Ayalon, Art et archéologie islamiques en Palestine (Islamiques), Paris 2002, 115–117

H. Torgë, ESI 115 (2003), 44*

Y. Arbel, ibid. 116 (2004), 40*

Y. Goren, ‘Atiqot 47 (2004), 51–55

Y. Paz et al., Salvage Excavation Reports 2 (2005), 114–158.

Later Periods (includes The Floor Mosaic)

R. Reich, ‘Atiqot 25 (1994), 190

A. Kloner, Aram 8 (1996), 119–122

S. A. Kingsley, Minerva 8/4 (1997), 45–47

M. Avissar, ESI 17 (1998), 169–172; 20 (2000), 64*–65*

id., “Couched as a Lion...Depictions of Animals from the Leo Mildenberg Collection (Reuben & Edith Hecht Museum Catalogue 16), Haifa 1999, 55–56

id., Tropis VI: Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 (ed. H. Tzalas), Athens 2001, 47–54

Y. Selinger, BAIAS 16 (1998), 75–84

E. Kogan-Zehavi, ESI 20 (2000), 65*

A. Ovadiah (& S. Mucznik), Assaph B/3 (1998), 1–18

id., Art and Archaeology in Israel and Neighbouring Countries: Antiquity and Late Antiquity, London 2002 (index)

E. Friedheim, JSRS 9 (2000), xxi

Y. Paz, TA 27 (2000), 295

B. Zissu & H. Eshel, INJ 14 (2000–2002), 157–158

F. E. Udoh, PEQ 134 (2002), 130–143

E. Haddad & M. Avissar, IJNA 32 (2003), 73–77

Y. Arbel, ESI 116 (2004), 40*

Z. Friedman, IJNA 33 (2004), 164–167

B. Rosen, ibid., 167–168.

Ramla

Main Publications

Ramla: The Development of a Town from the Early Islamic to Ottoman Periods (IAA Booklet 4; eds. S. Gibson & F. Vitto), Jerusalem 1999; ‘Atiqot 49 (2005), 57–130.

Studies

M. Rosen-Ayalon, BA 56 (1993), 146–148

id., Arabica 43 (1996), 250–263

id., OEANE, 4, New York 1997, 404

id, Art et archéologie islamiques en Palestine (Islamiques), Paris 2002, 53–60, 108–109, 111–114

A. Baldwin, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 72

eds. U. Vermeulen & D. De Smet), Leuven 1995

A. D. Petersen, Levant 27 (1995), 75–102

32 (2000), 97–99

33 (2001), 1–6 (with R. Wardill)

id., Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras, 3: Proceedinsg of the 6th, 7th, and 8th International Colloquium, Leuven, May 1997, 1998 and 1999 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 102

eds. U. Vermeulen & J. Van Steenbergen), Leuven 2001, 345–358

id., Antiquity 79/306 (2005), 858–864

N. Luz, Cathedra 79 (1996), 203

id., Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (1997), 27–54

id., Studies in the Geography of Israel 15 (1998), viii–ix

D. Glick (& D. Gamil), ESI 19 (1999), 52*–53*; 106*–107*; 109 (1999), 67*

M. Sharon, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60 (1997), 100–108

id., ‘Atiqot 49 (2005), 123–125

R. Schick, NEA 61 (1998), 76

O. Segal, ESI 18 (1998), 77

Y. Yasur-Landau, ibid., 76

O. Abd Rabu, ibid. 110 (1999), 54*

H. Geva, Archaeological Sites in Israel, 4, Jerusalem 1999, 21–23

O. Gutfeld, ESI 109 (1999), 65*–66*, 67*–68*

E. Haddad, ibid. 110 (1999), 51*; 111 (2000), 103*–104*

Y. Hirschfeld, ibid. 110 (1999), 52*

M. Priel, ibid. 109 (1999), 66*

D. Pringle, Levant 31 (1999), 318

Y. Shor, ESI 110 (1999), 53*–54*

M. Avissar, ibid. 112 (2000), 68*–69*

E. Ayyash, ibid., 69*–70*

Y. Elisha, ibid. 111 (2000), 104*

I. Freestone & Y. Gorin-Rosen, La route du verre: ateliers primaires et secondaires du 2. millenaire ap. J.-C. au Moyen Age (Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient 33; ed. M. -D. Nenna), Lyon 2000, 65–83

R. Kletter, ESI 111 (2000), 56*–57*

id., ‘Atiqot 49 (2005), 57–99, 117–119

S. Kol-Ya‘aqov, ibid. 112 (2000), 67*–68*

Y. Paz, TA 27 (2000), 295–296

O. Syon, ESI 20 (2000), 66*; 116 (2004), 72*

id., ‘Atiqot 46 (2004), 133* (pt. with A. Berman)

F. Vitto, ibid. 111 (2000), 55*

Y. Zelinger, ibid., 57*–58*; 113 (2001), 123*–124*

id. (& O. Shmueli), In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscapes, Tel Aviv 2002, 279–288

S. Golan, ESI 114 (2002), 68*–69*

H. Torge & M. Cohen, ibid., 69*

A. de Vincenz, Transport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean: Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens, 26–29.9.2002 (Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens 5; eds. J. Eiring & J. Lund), Aarhus 2004, 403–406

S. Gudovitz, ESI 116 (2004), 41*, 71*–72*

E. Kogan-Zehavi, ibid., 41*–42*

N. Amitai-Preiss, ‘Atiqot 49 (2005), 121–122

A. Berman & H. Sokolov, ibid., 115; Y. Gorin-Rosen & N. Katsnelson, ibid., 101–114

M. Sade, ibid., 127–130.

Notes

Ramla is based on the Arabic root word Raml which means sand (Rosen-Ayalon, 2006).
The book Sefer Nameh was written by Nasir i-Khosero based on a 7 year travelogue beginning in 1046 CE. His visit to Ramla would have thus been between 1046 and 1053 CE - i.e. after the 1033 CE Quake but before the 1068 CE Quake.

Wikipedia pages

Lod

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Ramla

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White Mosque of Ramle

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