• from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

The ancient mound of Lod is situated near the southern bank of Nahal Ayalon (Wadi el-Kabir) about 15 km (1 mi.) southeast of Tel-Aviv. It is completely covered by modern buildings, except on the northern side, where the edge of the mound was swept away, thus forming a section 2.5 m deep. Lod is first mentioned in the list of Canaanite towns conquered by Thutmose III in the fifteenth century BCE. It appears later only in the genealogical list of the tribe of Benjamin in connection with the wanderings of the Elpaal family and their settlement in the northern Shephelah (I Chr. 8: 12). B. Mazar accordingly considers that the town lay in ruins during most of the Late Bronze and Iron ages and was resettled only in the time of Josiah. Lod is also mentioned in the context of the return of the people from the Babylonian Exile (Ezra 2:33; Neh. 7:37, 11:35). The town is frequently mentioned in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Under the Emperor Septimius Severus, it was granted the status of a city and received the name of Diospolis. After the Arab conquest, its earlier name was restored.

• from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.3)

From December 1951 to January 1952, J. Kaplan conducted exploratory excavations at the site on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. Three small areas were examined:

• area A - the northern edge of the mound
• area B - the two sides of a small ravine
• area C - a level area north of the above-mentioned ravine

In area A, a trench (10 by 2.5 m) was dug running from the base of the mound toward its upper part. Here, below surface level, part of a circular structure built of rubble was exposed. Beneath the structure, a mud-brick wall had been built on the virgin white sandy soil. These two lower strata were found to be identical with the lowest strata of the mound visible in the section. Altogether, four phases of occupation could be distinguished in the section, all dating to the Early Bronze Age I.

In area B, on the two banks of the small ravine, a dump of gray earth was discovered with pottery from different periods, mainly from the Chalcolithic cultures in Israel: Wadi Rabah, stratum VIII at Jericho, and Ghassulian ware. The pottery of the first two types included sherds of low-neck jars, splay-ended loop handles, and black-burnished ware. Among the Ghassulian sherds were loop handles with triangular section, goblets, and churns.

In area C shallow cavities were found-the remains of pits dug into the white sand-that contained Neolithic pottery. Most of the pottery was characteristic of Jericho IX ware - simple and coarse ware made with a large quantity of straw, plain burnished ware, and decorated pottery with a red-painted chevron pattern, and typical Jericho IX handles, including rough loop handles, cylindrical knob handles, and triangular ledge handles.

• from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

According to scholars, the name Ramla derives from the Arabic word raml, meaning "sand," probably referring to the sand dunes on which the city was built, about 4 km (2.5 mi.) south of Lod and 15 km (9 mi.) southeast of Tel Aviv (map reference 138.148). Ramla was founded in the early eighth century (712-715 CE) by the Umayyad caliph Suleiman ibn 'Abdel-Malik (brother of Walid I), the former governor of Jund Filistin (the District of Palestine). It is the only city in Palestine founded by Arabs. Ramla was first made the capital of the newly created province Filistin, which included the regions of Judea and Samaria. According to accounts by Arab geographers, Ramla was built from the ruins of nearby Lod. This destruction was not only expressed in the preferred status granted to Ramla, but also in the reuse in its construction of building materials from the ruins of Lod. To promote its growth, part of the population of Lod was also moved to Ramla.

With the city's founding, many installations and buildings, such as cisterns, a drain channel, the House of Dyers, and the mosque, were erected. Most of the Umayyad city is now covered by later construction. Only in the Umayyad mosque, called the White Mosque (which was later renovated, probably in the Ayyubid period), were several remains of that period preserved. Its minaret, which was rebuilt in the Mameluke period, is the most prominent structure of medieval Ramla.

• from Jacob Kaplan in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

Excavations at the White Mosque were conducted by J. Kaplan in 1949 on behalf of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. The excavations attempted to ascertain which buildings, both above ground and subterranean, belonged to the original mosque enclosure. It was revealed that the mosque enclosure was built in the form of a quadrangle (93 by 84 m), with its walls oriented to the cardinal points. It included the following structures: the mosque itself; two porticoes along the quadrangle's east and west walls; the north wall; the minaret; an unidentified building in the center of the area; and three subterranean cisterns.

• from Myriam Rosen-Ayalon in Stern et. al. (1993 v.4)

Of the various excavations carried out in different areas of Ramla, the major undertaking was conducted in October 1965 by M. Rosen-Ayalon and A. Eitan, on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. This excavation was concentrated in the southwestern part of the town; however, several trial soundings on a smaller scale were dug simultaneously in an effort to broaden the general picture.

• from Gideon Avni and Oren Gutfeld in Stern et. al. (2008)

In the wake of development and construction projects, 79 salvage excavations and soundings were conducted in various parts of the city of Ramla in 1990–2003. While most of the excavations were probes at building sites or under modern streets, a number of large-scale excavations were also carried out in areas north and west of the Old City and north and south of the White Mosque. Several excavations were also conducted around the Ramla bypass road northeast of the Old City and in the western suburbs of the modern city. The aqueduct that carried water to the city from the springs at Tel Gezer was also examined in salvage excavations. Although they were conducted in non-contiguous areas, the many excavations make it possible to arrive at a tentative reconstruction of Ramla in the Early Islamic, Mameluke, and Ottoman periods. In addition to the excavations, an architectural survey of the buildings from the Middle Ages and the Ottoman period was conducted by A. D. Petersen in the center of the city.

• from Amir Gorzalczzany in Stern et. al. (2008)

The Umayyad aqueduct to Ramla is referred to as Qanat Bint el-Kafir (“The Heretic Daughter’s Aqueduct”) on the map of the British Survey of Palestine of 1882; the source of this name is unknown. In 1950, R. Gophna and J. Kaplan mapped a section of the aqueduct at Moshav Ptah ya. In 1998–2001, A. Gorzalczany and Y. Zelinger conducted salvage excavations along its course and exposed large sections of it.

Most of the course of the c. 10-km-long aqueduct can be reconstructed, but its water source and point of entry to Ramla have not yet been ascertained. Its source should probably be identified with the group of springs located in the vicinity of Abu Shusha, near Gezer. From there it runs northwest, entering Ramla from the south or southwest.

The aqueduct consists of a foundation of fieldstones bonded with cement and two parallel walls of dressed limestone masonry. The walls (40–50 cm wide) are plastered on their inner and outer faces and overlaid with another layer of fieldstones mixed with gray cement. The overall width of the aqueduct is about 1.5 m. Its channel is covered with flat limestone slabs averaging 30 by 80 cm and 12–15 cm thick, laid widthwise. The inside of the aqueduct was covered with an approximately 1-cm-thick layer of light red plaster composed of quartz, sherds, and shells applied to a base of sherds. Another layer of plaster was applied above this, somewhat altering the cross-section of the channel (specus), which varies along its length. In the eastern part of the aqueduct its width was distorted by the movement and inward collapse of the supporting walls and this section is at present completely blocked. Soundings made in the middle of the aqueduct revealed that it was dug into the virgin hamra soil. The aqueduct descends to a depth of c. 0.7 m and is set on a slightly wider foundation (1.50 m) made of small stones bonded in gray mortar, reaching a depth of 0.7 m below the base of the channel.

In the middle of the excavated segment of the aqueduct is a cylindrical shaped manhole, 1.30 m in diameter and preserved to a height of 0.50 m above the level of the cover stones. The superstructure is hollow and has a hexagonal internal horizontal cross-section (0.70 m in diameter). The manhole was built above a square opening set between the cover stones and is large enough for a person to enter. A similar manhole was exposed 45 m to the west, but its superstructure had collapsed. No cover stones were found in situ in the westernmost part of the exposed segment, probably having been robbed in antiquity.

• Fig. 2 - Ramla City Limits
  Fig. 2
  
  Plan of Ramla city limits and excavations
  
  courtesy of G. Avni, Israel Antiquities Authority; slightly modified
  
  Taxel (2013)
  from Taxel (2013)

• Annotated Google Satellite View
  Annotated Google Satellite View of Lod/Ramla
  
  Used with permission from BibleWalks.com
  of Lod/Ramla from BibleWalks.com
• Lod/Ramla in Google Earth
  Lod/Ramla in Google Earth
  
  click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
• Lod/Ramla on govmap.gov.il
  Lod/Ramla on govmap.gov.il
  
  click on image to explore this site on a new tab in govmap.gov.il
• Fig. 5.3 Aerial View of White
  Figure 5.3
  
  Ramla: the White Mosque and excavations south of it, seen from the air looking south
  
  (© IAA)
  
  Petersen and Pringle (2021)
  Mosque and environs from Petersen and Pringle (2021)

• Drawing of Ramla from 1487
  Ramla, 1487, by Conrad Grünenberg - Double page, from Conrad Grünenberg: description of the journey from Konstanz to Jerusalem. Lake Constance area, around 1487. Baden State Library Karlsruhe, Cod. St. Peter, pap. 32.
  
  Click on image to open a higher resolution magnifiable image in a new tab
  
  Wikipedia and Digital Badische Landes-Bibliothek - Public Domain
  by Conrad Grünenberg from wikipedia and Digital Badische Landes-Bibliothek
• Painting of Ramla from 1698
  A rare 1698 view of Ramla by Dutch artist Cornelius de Bruijin. Depicts the city as well as the nearby caravan staging grounds. Arab horsemen and tent camps decorate the foreground. This view was most likely rendered in secret during de Bruijin’s second world tour. The Holy Land was then under the control of the Ottoman Empire who imposed strict limitations on pilgrims and tourist from Europe. It is highly unlikely that de Bruijin would have been allowed to make sketches of the region openly.
  
  Click on image to open a higher resolution magnifiable image in a new tab
  
  Wikipedia and Geographicus Rare Antique Maps - Public Domain
  by Cornelis de Bruijn from wikipedia and Geographicus Rare Antique Maps
• Photo of Ramla from before
  Ramleh, Palestine, late 19th century. In album: Constantinople, Smyrna, Beyrout, Ba'albec, Damascus, p. 43B, pl. 86.
  
  Click on image to open a higher resolution magnifiable image in a new tab
  
  Wikipedia and Geographicus Rare Antique Maps - Public Domain
  1885 by Félix Bonfils from wikipedia
• Photo of Ramla from 1895
  View from Tower of the Forty Martyrs, Ramleh, Holy Land, ca. 1895
  
  Click on image to open a higher resolution magnifiable image in a new tab
  
  Wikipedia and U.S. Library of Congress - Public Domain
  from wikipedia and the Detroit Publishing Co. Collection at the U.S. Library of Congress

• Fig. 6 - Smashed Jars
  Fig. 6
  
  Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb
  
  Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
  from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
• Fig. 9 - Smashed Jars
  Figure 9
  
  Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground.
  
  Gorzalczany (2009b)
  from Gorzalczany (2009b)
• Fig. 10 - Faulted strata
  Figure 10
  
  The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake.
  
  Gorzalczany (2009b)
  from Gorzalczany (2009b)
• Fig. 3 - Faulted Strata
  Fig. 3
  
  Vertical section displaying superimposed layers of sand and hamra,abruptly broken by a vertical rupture
  
  Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
  from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
• Fig. 4 - Sunken Floor
  Fig. 4
  
  Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm.
  
  Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
  and Column base from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
• Fig. 5 - Sunken Strata
  Fig. 5
  
  Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction
  
  Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
  at the antilia type water well from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
• Fig. 2 - Collapsed Wall
  Fig. 2
  
  Dressed stones uncovered in Area K1, which collapsed keeping the alignment in which they were originally arranged in the wall
  
  Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
  with aligned courses from Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)
• Fig. 6 - Tilted Wall
  Fig. 6
  
  Square E1, detail of W2, looking east.
  
  JW: Two phases are evident in this photo. The lower courses are from Phase II, the earliest phase. The single top row of crude stones are from Phase I, the later phase.
  
  Kletter (2005)
  from Kletter (2005)

• from Gorzalczany (2009b)

Stratum	Period	Age	Comments
0	Modern		Remains of a military installation
I		11th cent. CE
II	Fatimid	9th-10th cent. CE
IIIa	Abbasid	8th-9th cent. CE	Industrial installations
IIIb	Byzantine/Umayyad	7th-8th cent. CE	Industrial installations
IV	Byzantine	4th-5th cent. CE	Pottery kilns
V	Roman	1st cent. BCE - 4th cent. CE
VI	Persian/Hellenistic	4th-5th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VI	Persian/Hellenistic	4th-5th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VII	Late Bronze	15th-13th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
VIII	Middle Bronze	20th-15th cent. BCE	Potsherds only
IX	Prehistoric		Area A

• from Table 1 of Rosen-Ayalon (2006)

Phase	Features	Period	Comments
1	Eastern wing, including part of covered prayer hall; exedra; entrance gate; mihrab?; minaret?	Umayyad (first half of eighth century)	According to multiple textual sources, the White Mosque at Ramla was first built in the second decade of the 8th century CE (Rosen-Ayalon, 2006)
2	Extension of eastern wall; northern wall; subterranean pools	Abbasid (second half of eighth century)
3	Renovation of prayer hall; possibly western wing	Ayyubid (twelfth century)
4	Minaret	Mamluk (fourteenth century)

Plans and Photos

Discussion

Gorzalczany (2009b) described 8th century CE earthquake evidence as follows:

Evidence of a major earthquake was discerned in Areas J2 and K1 (see Fig. 2 - site map); it included cracks along the walls of installations, large sections of collapse composed of neat ashlar stone construction that had not been robbed, floors that had dropped and walls that curved in unexpected directions. Wall collapse, which had been intentionally covered over with soil and hamra to save the building stones from being plundered, was observed. It seems that the residents of the town were concerned with the quick restoration of the settlement’s activity. Especially interesting was a series of jars, some positioned upside down, which were discovered in situ, smashed inside a room that was apparently used for storage [Fig. 6

Fig. 6

Warehouse in Area J1-3, with dozens of smashed jars attributed to Stratum IIIb

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. The jars dated to the first half of the eighth century CE and they seem to have been all damaged simultaneously in the same event. The room was leveled and quickly refurbished in an attempt to regain its capacity for industrial manufacture as soon as possible. The renovation of the room included the construction of new walls, with which jars dating to the second half of the eighth century CE were associated and preserved intact (Fig. 9

Figure 9

Shattered jars from Stratum IIIb and intact jar from Stratum IIIa; metal object in left foreground.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

). It therefore seems that we have here a small, rare chronological window, which enables us to date the earthquake.

Indisputable proof of the earthquake occurrence was found in the balks of Area K1, where a fault in the layers of sand and hamra, which were split due to a fissure, stands out prominently (Fig. 10

Figure 10

The fault in the sand and hamra strata caused by strong earthquake.

Gorzalczany (2009b)

). One side of the layers in the section was lower than the other side. The fissure continued along several excavation squares and it caused a plaster floor and a column base that stood above it to sink 1.5 m [Fig. 4

Fig. 4

Occupational layer with architectural items atop it that sank some 150 cm.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. Such vertical movement of layers could only be caused by a powerful seismic event. An opposite fracture was discerned elsewhere on the site, where the movement was not only vertical but also horizontal, causing the layers to climb one atop the other [Fig. 5

Fig. 5

Antilia well, including the pit and remains of the lifting superstructure (on the right side) that sank several meters as a whole, thus creating a configuration of layers of stepped sand and hamra. The sudden soil failure was most probably caused by the phenomenon known as liquefaction

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018)

]. It appears then that archaeological evidence of an earthquake, which occurred close to Ramla in the middle of the eighth century CE, can be pointed to for the first time. The dating is firmly based on the pottery and it is feasible that this is the famous earthquake of the year 749 CE.

Thus, we have earthquake evidence which is precisely dated and well described. The 1.5 meter sinking of the column base (Fig. 4 ) strongly suggests that this site experienced liquefaction. In fact, Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the column base and associated plaster floor which collectively sank 1.5 m [Fig. 4] were underlain by neatly superimposed layers of sand and hamra which constituted an artificial fill. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) found evidence that this artificial fill was placed in a foundation trench which was dug to set up an antilia type water well (Avitsur 1976: 60-63; Ayalon 2000) which abutted the plaster floor and columns. The presence of an antilia type water well indicates a shallow water table and a shallow water table, uncompacted fill, and alternating layers of strata with differing permeabilities is a veritable recipe for liquefaction during seismic events. Liquefaction, which is driven by temporal increases in pore pressure that cannot dissipate can be enhanced if pore pressures in the more permeable sandy layers cannot dissipate because they are surrounded and sealed by less permeable layers. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that the entire antilia installation - the pit and the lifting superstructure device together with the layers of fill and the occupation layer abutting them - collapsed and sank several meters. Damage to surrounding areas indicates that the pit (Fig. 5) constituted the central axis of the fall and the sand layers around the antilia [that appeared] broken in a stepped formation (Fig. 5) encompassed the pit.

Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) added an observation of building stones of walls that had collapsed in a clear, `orderly' pattern found in situ (Fig. 2 ). Such an orderly fall pattern can be a diagnostic effect of failure due to an earthquake. Gorzalczany and Salamon (2018) report that no fault traces were found underneath the affected areas and no faults were indicated on geologic maps suggesting that the observed archeoseismic damage was due to shaking away from the epicenter of the causitive earthquake.

Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) suggested that renovations to the White Mosque at Ramla in the second building phase was a reaction to seismic damage to the first phase from a mid 8th century CE earthquake - noting that although not all the excavators discovered signs of destruction compatible with an earthquake, some indeed relate to this possibility. Rosen-Ayalon (2006:72) described the physical archaeoseismic evidence as inconclusive.

The evidence is inconclusive, since a significant proportion of the finds was found in disturbed stratigraphy. In other words, even if there had been significant damage, this may not have been evident in excavation. However, even minimal disturbance — not of the magnitude caused by the eleventh-century earthquake — may have been sufficient to warrant the renovations.

By comparing architectural elements (e.g. pointed arches) of the 3 subterranean cisterns of the Phase 2 mosque enclosure with architectural elements (e.g. pointed arches) of a subterranean cistern known as 'the pools of Saint Helena' or the 'Aneziya', Rosen-Ayalon (2006:74) concluded that Phase 2 mosque construction took place around 788/789 CE as construction of 'the pools of Saint Helena' is dated by inscription to A.H. 172 (788/789 CE).

• Plan 1 - eastern squares
  Plan 1
  
  Area A, eastern squares
  
  Kletter (2005)
  of Area A from Kletter (2005)
• Fig. 6 - Tilted Wall
  Fig. 6
  
  Square E1, detail of W2, looking east.
  
  JW: Two phases are evident in this photo. The lower courses are from Phase II, the earliest phase. The single top row of crude stones are from Phase I, the later phase.
  
  Kletter (2005)
  from Kletter (2005)

Avni, Gideon () Chapter 5 Excavations in Ramla, 1990–2018: Reconstructing the Early Islamic City in Ramla Archaeopress pp. 31-63

Cytryn, Katia (2010) The Mamluk Minarets of Ramla , Bulletin Du Centre De Recherche Francais a Jerusalem - describes architecture and history of the minaret of the White Mosque but does not mention earthquakes

Gorzalczany, A. (2009b) Ramla (South). Hadashot Arkheologiot Excavations and Surveys in Israel 121.

Gorzalczany, A., Salamon, A. (2018). "Archaeological Evidence of a Powerful Earthquake in Ramla, Israel, during the Early Islamic Period."

i-Khosero, Nasir (1881) Sefer Nameh translated into French by Charles Henri Auguste Schefer , Paris - open access at archive.org

Kletter, R. (2005) Early Islamic Remains at Ramla Part 1 Atiqot 49, 2005

Kletter, R. (2005) Early Islamic Remains at Ramla Part 2 Atiqot 49, 2005

Petersen, A. and D. Pringle (2021). Ramla: City of Muslim Palestine, 715-1917: Studies in History, Archaeology and Architecture, Archaeopress. - at JSTOR

Rosen-Ayalon, M. (2006). "The White Mosque of Ramla: Retracing Its History." Israel Exploration Journal 56(1): 67-83.

Schwartz, J. J. (1991). Lod (Lydda), Israel: From Its Origins Through the Byzantine Period, 5600 B.C.E.-640 C.E, B.A.R.

Excavations at the White Mosque in Ramla

Overview of Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

Khan el-Hilu at Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

St. George Church at Lod (Lydda) at BibleWalks.com

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