Khirbet al-Batrawy

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Khirbet al-Batrawy	Arabic
The City Of Copper Axes	English

Brief summary of occupational history

from Nigro (2024:61)

Extensive archaeological activities along the northern fortifications brought to light a composite system made of fortifications brought to light a composite system made of four lines of defense, the continuous development of which neatly epitomizes the life of the city itself:

foundation at the beginning of Early Bronze II (3000 BC)
collapse caused by a severe earthquake at the end of the period (2800 BC)
urban floruit during the Early Bronze IIIA–B (2800–2500 – 2300 BC)
final destruction due to a fierce conflagration at the end of Early Bronze IIIB
reoccupation of the ruins by an Early Bronze IVB rural village (2200–2000 BC)

Introduction

from Sapienza Expedition to Khirbet al-Batrawy website

The city of Khirbet al-Batrawy represents a rare example of an early urban centre arising in a peripheral area of the ancient Near East at the dawn of urban civilization in the 3rd millennium BC. The discovery of Batrawy in 2004 by the Expedition to Jordan of Rome «La Sapienza» University and the discovery of its Royal Palace in 2009 opened up new perspectives on the settlement of these fringe regions, especially in the period before the domestication of the camel.

Exploration of the "Palace of the Copper Axes" and the quadruple fortification lines

from Sapienza Expedition to Khirbet al-Batrawy website

The site of Khirbat al-Batrawy, the previously unknown city of the third millennium BC discovered in 2004, has been systematically explored by the Expedition to Palestine & Jordan of Sapienza University of Rome since 2005. Archaeological investigations and restoration works were carried out under the aegis of the Department of Antiquities of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, with the support of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation and the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific Research.

Batrawy was founded as the outcome of a synecistic process which characterized the early urban phenomenon in the Southern Levant. The EB II-III (3000-2300 BC) city was in a strategic position, at the same time, for the exploitation of cultivable land and water resources, and for long-distance trade network connecting the site of Batrāwī with the main urban civilizations of the third millennium BC. The discoveries in the “Palace of the Copper Axes” revealed the central role played by the fortified city of Batrāwy at the junction of the east-west route which crosses the Syro-Arabic Desert to Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula and the south-north main route, later on named "King's' Highway", running upon the Jordanian Highlands from the Sinai, the Gulf of ‘Aqaba and Wadi 'Araba.

The planning activities for exploration on the northern slope of the site (Area B North) moved from the discovery in 2009 of the Royal Palace (the "Palace of the Copper Axes"), a public building of the 3rd millennium BC which has provided a wealth of data and ﬁndings in an extraordinary state of preservation. A second aim of the Expedition has been the exploration of the well-preserved massive fortification system, just north of the Royal Palace. The excavations revealed quadruple lines of fortifications with its projecting towers and bastions.

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Illustrations, and Photos

Maps

Khirbet al-Batraway in

Khirbet al-Batraway location in OSM (Open Street Map)

Pleaides website

OSM from Pleaides
Fig. 2 Map of Upper

Figure 2.5

Topographical map of Upper and Middle Wadi az-Zarqa with visited Early Bronze Age sites, dolmens and archaeological features detected during 2007 survey.

Nigro (2008)

and Middle Wadi az-Zarqa with visited Early Bronze Age sites, dolmens and archaeological feature from Nigro (2008)

Aerial Views

Fig. 3 Aerial view of

Figure 3

Aerial view of the ancient territory under Batrawy control, inside the big turn towards west of az-Zarqa river.

Nigro (2008)

the ancient territory under Batrawy control from Nigro (2008)
Khirbet al-Batrawy in Google Earth

Khirbet al-Batrawy

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth

Plans and Illustrations

Site Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 1.2 Topographical

Figure 1.2

Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007).

Nigro (2008)

plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy from Nigro (2008)

Magnified

Fig. 1.2 Topographical

Figure 1.2

Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007).

Nigro (2008)

plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy from Nigro (2008)

Area Plans and Illustrations

B North - North City Walls

Normal Size

Fig. 3.19 EB II city-wall

Figure 3.19

Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160.

Nigro (2008)

and gate from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 3.23 Schematic

Figure 3.23

Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall.

Nigro (2008)

reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall from Nigro (2008)

Magnified

Fig. 3.19 EB II city-wall

Figure 3.19

Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160.

Nigro (2008)

and gate from Nigro (2008)

E - South City Walls

Normal Size

Fig. 6.10 Plan of

Figure 6.10

Plan of Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city.

Nigro (2008)

Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city from Nigro (2008)

Magnified

Fig. 6.10 Plan of

Figure 6.10

Plan of Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city.

Nigro (2008)

Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city from Nigro (2008)

F - EB II and EB III Temple

Normal Size

Fig. 16 Reconstruction

Figure 16

Reconstruction of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II)

Nigro and Sala (2009)

of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II) from Nigro and Sala (2009)

Magnified

Fig. 16 Reconstruction

Figure 16

Reconstruction of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II)

Nigro and Sala (2009)

of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II) from Nigro and Sala (2009)

Photos

Fig. 2.5 Collapsed

Figure 2.5

Area A West: the layer of collapsed stones F.232 (Activity 3a) in square BjII17, from south; in the background, Cairn II.

Nigro (2008)

stones in Area A West from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 3.18 EB II-III

Figure 3.18

General view of the EB II-III triple line of fortifications excavated in Area B North, from north: W.103+W.163, the inner and main city-wall; W.155, the Outer Wall; adjoined Scarp-Wall W.165; in the middle, city-gate L.160 was excavated.

Nigro (2008)

fortification walls in Area B North from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 3.24 Street along

Figure 3.24

Street L.144b along the outer side W.103c+W.163c of Batrawy II city-wall, from west.

Nigro (2008)

the outer side of Batrawy II city-wall from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 3.37 Earthquake

Figure 3.37

Earthquake cracks visible on the eastern jamb (W.156) of city gate L.160.

Nigro (2008)

cracks on eastern jamb of city gate from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 3.38 City Gate

Figure 3.38

City-gate L.160 after the blockage (W.157) at the beginning of the Early Bronze IIIA, from north.

Nigro (2008)

after blockage (probable earthquake repair) from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 4.5 Collapsed stones

Figure 3.7

General view of layers of collapsed stones F.352 and F.366 (Activity 2a) in squares BpII8 + BpII9, from south-east.

Nigro (2008)

in Area B South from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 7.7 Collapsed stones

Figure 7.7

Area F: layer of collapsed stones F.513 (Activity 2a) excavated in House L.520 in square CpII18, from south-west.

Nigro (2008)

in Area F from Nigro (2008)
Fig. 15 EB II-III broad

Figure 15

General view of the EB II - III broad room temple and round platform S.510 in Area F, from east-southeast.

Nigro and Sala (2009)

room temple and round platform in Area F from Nigro and Sala (2009)

Stratigraphy

Site-wide

Nigro (2008)

from Nigro (2008)

Table 1.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphic phases of Khirbet al-Batrawy.

Nigro (2008)

Nigro and Sala (2009)

from Nigro and Sala (2009)

Table 1

Chronology, stratigraphy and structures at Khirbat al-Batråwi

Nigro and Sala (2009)

Nigro and Sala (2010)

from Nigro and Sala (2010)

Table 1

Architectural and stratigraphic phasing of Khirbat al-Batråwi

Nigro and Sala (2010)

Areas

A West

from Nigro (2008)

Table 2.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area A West

Nigro (2008)

B North

from Nigro (2008)

Table 3.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area B North.

Nigro (2008)

B South

from Nigro (2008)

Table 4.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area B South.

Nigro (2008)

E

from Nigro (2008)

Table 6.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area E

Nigro (2008)

F

from Nigro (2008)

Table 7.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area F

Nigro (2008)

Time Periods

Time periods from Stern et al (1993)

Age	Dates	Comments
Early Bronze IA-B	3300-3000 BCE	‎
Early Bronze II	3000-2700 BCE	‎
Early Bronze III	2700-2200 BCE	‎
Middle Bronze I	2200-2000 BCE	‎EB IV - Intermediate Bronze
Middle Bronze IIA	2000-1750 BCE	‎
Middle Bronze IIB	1750-1550 BCE	‎
Late Bronze I	1550-1400 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE	‎
Iron IA	1200-1150 BCE	‎
Iron IB	1150-1100 BCE	‎
Iron IIA	1000-900 BCE	‎
Iron IIB	900-700 BCE	‎
Iron IIC	700-586 BCE	‎
Babylonian & Persian	586-332 BCE	‎
Early Hellenistic	332-167 BCE	‎
Late Hellenistic	167-37 BCE	‎
Early Roman	37 BCE - 132 CE	‎
Herodian	37 BCE - 70 CE	‎
Late Roman	132-324 CE	‎
Byzantine	324-638 CE	‎
Early Arab	638-1099 CE	Umayyad & Abbasid‎
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE	‎
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE	Fatimid & Mameluke‎
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE	‎

Time periods from Meyers et al (1997)

Phase	Dates	Variants
Early Bronze IA-B	3400-3100 BCE	‎
Early Bronze II	3100-2650 BCE	‎
Early Bronze III	2650-2300 BCE	‎
Early Bronze IVA-C	2300-2000 BCE	Intermediate Early-Middle Bronze, Middle Bronze I‎
Middle Bronze I	2000-1800 BCE	‎Middle Bronze IIA
Middle Bronze II	1800-1650 BCE	‎Middle Bronze IIB‎
Middle Bronze III	1650-1500 BCE	‎‎Middle Bronze IIC
Late Bronze IA	1500-1450 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1450-1400 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE	‎
Iron IA	1200-1125 BCE	‎
Iron IB	1125-1000 BCE	‎
Iron IC	1000-925 BCE	Iron IIA‎
Iron IIA	925-722 BCE	Iron IIB‎
Iron IIB	722-586 BCE	‎Iron IIC
Iron III	586-520 BCE	Neo-Babylonian‎
Early Persian	520-450 BCE	‎
Late Persian	450-332 BCE	‎
Early Hellenistic	332-200 BCE	‎
Late Hellenistic	200-63 BCE	‎
Early Roman	63 BCE - 135 CE	‎
Middle Roman	135-250 CE	‎
Late Roman	250-363 CE	‎
Early Byzantine	363-460 CE	‎
Late Byzantine	460-638 CE	‎
Early Arab	638-1099 CE	‎
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE	‎
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE	‎
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE	‎

Batrawy II Earthquake - ~2800 BCE (Early Bronze II)

Discussion

Nigro (2008:251–255) reports that the Batrawy II fortifications show that a violent earthquake brought to a sudden end the earliest city. Archaeoseismic evidence was uncovered along both the northern and southern city walls—in Areas B North and E. The earthquake provoked almost the full collapse of the mudbrick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall, as clearly documented by the cracks and inner collapses detected in the EB II city-wall and city-gate in Area B North.

Nigro and Sala (2009:377) reported that the Early Bronze II Broad Room Temple F1 collapsed during the same earthquake in a collapse that may have been exacerbated by poor construction practices. The original temple was erected directly over the bedrock, by filling in a shallow depression under the approximate centre of the building with virgin soil and small rock fragments (Nigro ed. 2008: 276–282, plan III). Nigro and Sala (2009:377) further noted that the presence of this depression weakened the central part of the structure, which in fact collapsed during the tremendous Batrāwī II EB II earthquake.

Nigro (2008:87 n. 30) noted that centres of the North-Central Jordan Valley such as Pella/Tell el-Husn, Tell Abu Kharaz and Tell es Sa‛idiyeh [...] were apparently destroyed in the same period and by a similar agent (Bourke 2000, 233–235). Nigro (2008:87 n. 30) also pointed to similar destruction at:

Megiddo – Such a conflagration apparently caused by an earthquake is attested to also at Megiddo (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006, 49–50)
‘Ai (Callaway 1980, 147; 1993, 42)
Jericho/Tell es-Sultan (Kenyon 1957, 175–176, pl. 37a; 1981, 373, pls. 200–201, 343a; Nigro 2006c, 359–361, 372–373)
Khirbet ez-Zeraqon – phase 3 (EB II) ends in a fierce conflagration (Douglas 2007, 27–28), though it is not surely ascribable to an earthquake

References

Nigro (2008)

3. Area B North: the EB II-III fortification system

Introduction

from Nigro (2008:65)

Archaeological investigations in Area B (fig. 3.1) during the second (2006) and third (2007) seasons were extended towards the north, the south and the west, subdividing the area into two main sectors, north and south of the main city-wall; what follows is, thus, the report on monuments excavated north of the latter, while Area B South is illustrated in chapter 4. Area B North, outside the main city-wall (W.103 + W.105), included squares BnII4 (eastern half) + BoII4 + BpII4 + BoII5 + BpII5 + BoII6 + BpII6 + BqII6, in order to accomplish a comprehensive exploration of the northern slope of the hill (fig. 3.2). Here, excavation reached the earliest defensive works at the site, dating back from Early Bronze II, and allowed to identify the main city-gate of this period (§ 3.2.1.), as well as the successive lines of fortifications (§§ 3.2.2.-3.2.3.), with several annexed structures, which lasted in use until the end of the Early Bronze IIIB, and which will be described in detail below, according to their stratigraphic and constructive sequence.

3.1. Stratigraphy of Area B North

from Nigro (2008:75)

Table 3.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area B North.

Nigro (2008)

...

3.1.5. Phase 5: stratigraphy of Batrawy II fortification system

Phase 5 is basically constituted by the destruction layer (Activity 5a) marking the end of the Batrawy II city, and the original constructional phase (Activity 5b).

Activity 5a: destruction of Batrawy II city-gate and city-wall

A layer around 0.2-0.3 m thick preserved only in two spots in the excavated area, namely in square BoII5 (to the west) F.168 (fig. 3.16) and within the gate passage (F.172), including fragmentary grayish mud-bricks and small pebbles, illustrates the collapse and destruction of the city-gate and earliest city-wall of Batrawy II (fig. 3.17).

Activity 5b: construction of Batrawy II city-gate and city-wall

The earliest city-wall and city-gate L.160 were erected directly over the bedrock and included the two doorjambs (W.183 to the east, W.156 to the west), entrance step L.182, marking the passage into the gate, floor L.186 into the passage, and street L.144b outside the gate. All features were linked each other.

3.2. Architecture & finds: the EB II city-gate and the EB II-III triple line of fortifications

from Nigro (2008:77-87)

Excavations in the area north of the main city-wall reached the bedrock, thus thoroughly illustrating the progressive transformation of the defensive system in this strategic spot of the town (fig. 3.18), from the earliest city wall of the Early Bronze II (2900-2700 BC) up to the last urban defence – the outer scarp-wall of the EB IIIB (2300 BC) –, and to the latest embankment of the EB IVB (2200-2000 BC) village (see below).

3.2.1. The earliest city-wall and city-gate (Period Batrawy II, Early Bronze II)

The earliest defence of Batrawy (fig. 3.19) was a solid wall 2.9-3.2 m wide, consisting of a lower foundation made of huge limestone blocks and boulders (some exceeding 1.5 m in length by 1.0 in width) on the northern outer face (W.103c+W.163c; figs. 3.20-3-21), and of big blocks (0.5 x 0. 6 m) on the southern inner curtain (W.105c+W.161c; fig. 3.22). The inner core of the wall (W.104c) was made by medium size undressed stones laid in regular layers with pebbles, limestone chops and mud mortar. The outer (W.103c+W.163c) and inner (W.105c+W.161c) walls were carefully set into the bedrock¹⁶, and the outer wall exhibited a battering foot in order to make firmer the whole structure¹⁷.

This imposing stone foundation was 2.3 m high around the gate and 2 m in the rest of the area; it supported a mud-brick superstructure up to 4 m high¹⁸ with battering sides, reaching on top a hypothetical width of 2.2 m, presumably with a wooden coronation and a continuous parapet slightly protruding from the façade (fig. 3.23). The city-wall was built in separated stretches of 6-8 m length in order to prevent dangerous effects of earthquakes¹⁹, a technique also attested to in other Early Bronze urban sites in Palestine and Jordan²⁰.

Street L.144 (Period Batrawy II, Early Bronze II)

A street (L.144b) run along the city-wall on its outer side (figs. 3.24 3.25)²¹, paved with a layer of a gritty chalk plastering the bedrock and regularizing its surface (at some spots also stone fillings were used to make the street floor more regular). The collapse layer lying over the street, F.168, preserved only in square BoII5 (§ 3.1.4.), included EB II sherds (pl. XXI), a stone blade²², and various fragments of greyish mud-bricks.

The city-gate of Period Batrawy II (Early Bronze II)

In spite of the monumentality of the city-wall, the EB II gate was a simple opening, 1.6 m wide, since the town was approachable only by pedestrians and equids (onagers or donkeys) through the street (L.144b) which flanked the wall (figs. 3.26-3-28). A 0.27 m step (B.182) marked the entrance (figs. 3.29-3.30)²³ to the passage, paved with a plastered floor (L.186), and flanked by reinforced door-jambs made of bigger and carefully intermingled blocks, which supported a monolithic capstone (2.4 x 0.7 x 0.35 m) on the outer side and a wooden beam on the inside (as it is indicated by burnt traces on the faces of the stones in between the beams were inserted). At least four wooden beams were presumably employed in the ceilings of the gate passage and supported the brick superstructure (fig. 3.56). The eastern jamb (W.183) was made, on its outer side, by a series of alternately superimposed cubic and rectangular limestone blocks (figs. 3.31-3.32); the western jamb (W.156) was reinforced by a large slab on its fourth course of stones, linked to a huge bock visible on the northern façade of the main wall (figs. 3.33-3.34, 3.36). Such a strengthening device was set in the wall just above a protruding buttress (W.187), preserved only at the lowest course of stones over the bedrock (fig. 3.35), perhaps to be connected with a passage through the street running along the city-wall (L.144b). In spite of its apparently simple layout, the EB II gate at Batrawy accomplished mainly defensive purposes, since due to its dimensions (the passageway was a corridor 1.6 m wide and 3.2 m long), it was easy to be looked out and to be locked in case of enemy attack; it was, anyhow, the main access to the town, as its location on the city perimeter and the organization of spaces inside and outside it testifies to.

Nonetheless, the plan of gate L.160 finds several comparison in contemporary EB II defensive architecture of the region, such as at Khirbet Kerak²⁴, Tell el-Far‘ah North²⁵, et-Tell/‘Ai²⁶, Arad²⁷, Khirbet ez-Zeraqon²⁸, and, later on in EB III, also at Bab edh-Dhra‘²⁹.

There is no evidence for the presence of towers adjoined to this early gate, even though the area was completely reconstructed when the gate was blocked and an outer wall (W.155) was added to the defense at the beginning of the Early Bronze IIIA (see below § 3.2.2.).

Two sharp earthquake cracks on the eastern jamb (fig. 3.37) testify to the destruction of the lintels and possibly of the capstone of the passageway, which presumably caused a general collapse, so that the gate went out of use at the end of the Early Bronze II³⁰.

3.2.2. The double city-wall of Period Batrawy IIIa (Early Bronze IIIA)

After the destruction which caused the partial collapse of the gate and brought to a sudden end the EB II city, the defensive system in Area B North, at the most sensitive and exposed side of the town, underwent a general reconstruction. The gate was blocked by a solid wall made³¹ with big stones (W.157; figs. 3.38-3-40)³², and the superstructure of the main city-wall (W.103b+163b + W.104b+ W.105b+W.161b) was rebuilt em ploying medium size stones up to a height of around 4.0-5.0 m; only the upper section of the structure was built up with reddish mud-bricks up to 8 m. The original stretches in which the main wall was subdivided³³ were tied up one to the other (on its outer face this indicates in several spots the height from which the wall was reconstructed).

Footnotes

16 Usually the elevation of the inner foot of the main city-wall is around 0.5-1 m higher than that of the outer one.

17 Nigro ed. 2006, 175-176, fig. 4.32.

18 Actually, there is no information on the dimension of this brick superstructure. Fragments of greyish mud-bricks were retrieved in the destruction layers of Period Batrawy II, however even the dimensions of the bricks is uncertain (0.6 x 0.4 x 0.16 m), while the height of the superstructure has been calculated according to the presumed height of the later EB III city-wall, suggested by a flight of steps of a staircase discovered inside wall W.105b+W.161b (staircase W.181, § 3.2.2.).

19 Nigro ed. 2006, 176-177, note 26.

20 See below note 27.

21 This street was already partially identified in the first season (Nigro 2006a, 245, fig. 26; Nigro ed. 2006, 191, figs. 4.53-4.54).

22 KB.06.B.74 (pl. XXI).

23 The elevation outside the gate is 54.49 m, while the floor inside the gate was 55.01 m.

24 The South-East Gate in Wall A (2.5 m wide; Greenberg - Paz 2005, 84, 86-89, fig. 8, 10-14; Greenberg et al. 2006, 239-244, plans 6.2, 6.4).

25 De Vaux 1962, 221-234, pls. XIX-XXI.

26 The Citadel Gate at Site A (around 1 m wide and 4.5 m long; Callaway 1980, 63-65, figs. 38, 41); the Postern Gate (around 1 m wide; Callaway 1980, 72-73, figs. 48-49, 51) and the Lower City Gate (around 1 m wide; Callaway 1980, 114 115, figs. 74-75) at Site L.

27 The Western Gate in Area T (2.50-2.70 m wide), the Gate in Area N (2.10 m wide), and the Postern Gate in Area K (0.80 m wide): Amiran - Ilan 1996, 20-22, pls. 68-70, 78, 85-86, 90-93.

28 The City-Gate in the Lower City fortifications (around 2.0-2.5 m wide; Douglas 2007, 9, figs. 3, 6-12, pls. 1-5; phase 4g-a; EB II). Just 7 m north-west of the main city-gate a postern 0.80 m wide (sortie-postern) was opened across the city wall W1 (Douglas 2007, 10). According to excavators, it was closed after a little while already during the Early Bronze II (Douglas 2007, 14; phase 4d).

29 The EB III West Gate in Fields IV and XIII, also blocked during the Early Bronze III (Rast - Schaub 2003, 272-280, fig. 10.12). A possible EB III postern (around 1.50 m wide) at Tell Ta‘annek, detected on the western side of the site (Lapp 1964, 12, fig.4), exhibited instead a bent-axis plan.

30 Nigro 2007a, 352; in press a, § 6. This was the case of other centres of the North-Central Jordan Valley: Pella/Tell el-Husn, Tell Abu Kharaz and Tell es Sa‛idiyeh, which were apparently destroyed in the same period and by a similar agent (Bourke 2000, 233-235). Such a conflagration apparently caused by an earthquake is attested to also at Megiddo (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006, 49-50), ‘Ai (Callaway 1980, 147; 1993, 42), Jericho/Tell es-Sultan (Kenyon 1957, 175-176, pl. 37a; 1981, 373, pls. 200-201, 343a; Nigro 2006c, 359-361, 372-373). Also at Khirbet ez-Zeraqon, phase 3 (EB II) ends in a fierce conflagration (Douglas 2007, 27-28), though it is not surely ascribable to an earthquake.

31 EB II city-gates at ‘Ai were partly blocked already in the late Early Bronze II (the Citadel Gate and the Postern Gate; Callaway 1980, 113-115), partly at the beginning of the Early Bronze III (the Lower City Gate; Callaway 1980, 152-154). Also at Khirbet Kerak, EB II south-east gate in Wall A was possibly blocked at the beginning of the Early Bronze III (Greenberg - Paz 2005, 89, figs. 13-14; Greenberg et al. 2006, 245, fig. 6.18, plan 6.5). The same happened in the Early Bronze III at the City-Gate of the Lower City at Khirbet ez-Zeraqon (Douglas 2007, 35-38, figs. 5, 19-20, plans 10-11; phase 1, Early Bronze IIIB).

32 Only a few pottery sherds were retrieved in wall W.157 dating back from EB II/early EB IIIA (pl. XXI).

33 Nigro ed. 2006, 176-177.

6. Area E: the Early Bronze II city-wall and related layers on the southern side of the hill

Introduction

from Nigro (2008:245)

A probe (4 × 2 m) was opened inside the main Batrawy II-III city-wall roughly at the middle of the southern fortification line (fig. 6.1), in squares CdIII9 + CeIII9 (also excavating baulk CdIII9/CeIII9), with the aim of checking the architecture, stratigraphy and chronology of the city-wall on this side of the mound¹.

In Area E the main city-wall was cleaned for a length of around 10 m, and the sounding was opened just aside a small ravine (fig. 6.2), which cut through it in correspondence of a joint between two separated sections of the defensive structure², at a change of its orientation (fig. 6.3).

A major achievement of this sounding was the confirmation that the city wall preserved here dates back from the Early Bronze II (2900-2700 BC)e³, since the later EB III reconstructions collapsed and were almost completely obliterated by erosion, and that the fortified town of Batrawy was founded at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC.

Footnotes

1 Nigro 2007a, 357-358, figs. 1, 17.

2 The Batrawy II city-wall was built in separated juxtaposed stretches (each around 8 m long), as it was also evident in Area B North (in trench BrII7 + BsII7 excavated in 2005), where a junction between two of such sectors (named wall W.103c to the west and wall W.101c to the east) was visible on the northern outer face of the main city-wall (Nigro 2006a, 243; Nigro ed. 2006, 176-177, note 26, fig. 4.35, pl. IV). For a detailed analysis of this well-known building technique from EB II-III defensive systems in Southern Levant see Area B North, §§ 3.2.1.-3.2.3.; Nigro 2006c, 370-371; 2006e, 9; 2007a, 352, 357; in press, §§ 4.2.-4.3.

3 Nigro 2007a, fig. 18.

6.1. Stratigraphy

from Nigro (2008:247)

Area E suffered drastic erosion, and, at least along the southern edge of cliff, also pillage of large limestone blocks from the city-wall, that is preserved only in the lower courses of its boulders set into the bedrock and belonging to the original defence line erected all around the site in Early Bronze II.

Strata were all eroded according to the slope of the khirbet and they illustrated four main phases (tab. 6.1; fig. 6.4), from the topmost shallowest layer of humus to the earliest strata related to the destruction of Batrawy II city-wall, founded directly upon the bedrock (Phase 4). Structures and finds from destruction layers of Phase 4 will be thoroughly described in § 6.2.

Table 6.1

Archaeological periodization and stratigraphy of Area E

Nigro (2008)

...

6.1.4. Phase 4: stratigraphy of Batrawy II fortification system

Phase 4 illustrates the erection (Activity 4b), first utilization and sudden end, testified to by a thick collapse layer in the fillings inside the town (Activity 4a), of Batrawy II fortification system during the Early Bronze II.

Activity 4a: destruction of Batrawy II fortification system

Deposits of Period Batrawy II have been clearly identified in the sounding inside the southern line of the main Batrawy city-wall (W.705), where a thick layer of destruction and collapse was accumulated on a floor lying directly over the bedrock. Here, an upper stratum (F.704) of grey clayish sandy soil, 20-25 cm high, with ashy lenses, charcoals and small limestone chops probably from the Batrawy II city-wall superstructure, as well as scattered animal bones (samples KB.06.FR.106 and KB.06.FR.123) and pottery sherds (pl. LIII), covered a greyish layer (F.706), 20 cm thick, basically composed of compacted charcoals, ash and crushed greyish mud bricks, with numerous limestone grits, chops and mud mortar from the EB II city-wall collapsed superstructure (§ 6.2.), as well as a few pottery sherds (pl. LIV). Both these layers sloped from north to south and from west to east according to the natural slope of the bedrock.

Activity 4b: erection of Batrawy II fortification system

Activity 4b represents the erection of Batrawy II city-wall, the earliest phase of the Batrawy fortification system, similarly detected in Area B North (§ 3.1.4.). It is illustrated by the inner face of city-wall W.705 and the earliest floor exposed inside the town (L.710), lying directly upon the bedrock, in trench CdIII9 + CeIII9 (§ 6.2.), and by the inner face of the westerner juxtaposed stretch of city-wall W.707, further to the west.

6.2. Architecture & Finds: the EB II city-wall on the southern side of the site

from Nigro (2008:251-255)

Though badly eroded, the main EB II-III city-wall was preserved along the whole southern side of the khirbet (figs. 6.9-6.10). Since the later Early Bronze III reconstructions collapsed and were almost completely obliterated by erosion, the original EB II foundation of the city wall and the related passage inside the city were reached and brought to light in Area E.

The defensive work, consisting of a single wall running on the very edge of the cliff, was strongly eroded on the outer side, where its outer face was preserved only for the lower courses of limestone boulders directly set into the bedrock (fig. 6.11). Conversely, the inner face of the wall was preserved on four superimposed courses of unworked stones, tied up with mortar and small limestone chops (figs. 6.12-6-13).

As well documented in the EB II main city-wall in Area B North (§ 3.2.1.), the Batrawy II city-wall was built in separated juxtaposed stretches (each around 6-8 m long)¹², according to a well-known technique attested to in many Early Bronze fortified sites in Palestine and Transjordan, in order to prevent dangerous effects of earthquakes¹³.

Inside city-wall W.705, where the sounding was opened, a well refined floor (L.710) of limestone marl and small pebbles, lying directly over the bedrock (fig. 6.14), was uncovered after the removal of a thick heavy destruction layer (F.704, F.706). From the latter layer, scattered fragments of EB II common wares were retrieved¹⁴, as well as some specimens of EB II typical specialized productions, such as Red Burnished¹⁵ and Red Polished¹⁶ vessels (pls. LIII-LIV). A flint blade¹⁷ and a Canaanean blade¹⁸ were also retrieved in layer F.706.

A typical feature of this phase was the presence of fragmentary light greyish mud-bricks in the layers of collapse, belonged to the superstructure of the EB II city-wall. The greyish mud-bricks of the city-wall superstructure were split over the stone foundations and left a thick stratum of greyish dump all around the defences, especially visible on the southern inner side of the khirbet.

The Batrawy II fortifications in Area E show that a violent earthquake brought to a sudden end the earliest city. Traces of such a dramatic event were detected both on the northern and southern city-wall, in Areas B North (§ 3.2.1.) and E. It provoked almost the full collapse of the mud brick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall, as it is clearly documented in the cracks and inner collapses detected in the EB II city-wall and city-gate in Area B North (§§ 3.1.4., 3.2.1.).

Footnotes

12 In trench BrII7+BsII7 excavated in 2005 a junction between two of such sectors (named wall W.103c to the west and wall W.101c to the east) was visible on the northern outer face of the main city-wall (Nigro ed. 2006, 176, fig. 4.35, pl. IV).

13 Nigro ed. 2006, 176-177, in particular note 26.

14 Two fragments of storage jars with Grain Wash decoration from layer F.706 can be noticed (KB.06.E.706/7, KB.06.E.706/8; pl. LIV).

15 A platter (KB.06.E.704/1) and a bowl (KB.06.E.704/6) from layer F.704 (pl. LIII), and three platters (KB.06.E.706/1, KB.06.E.706/2, KB.06.E.706/3) from layer F.706 (pl. LIV).

16 Three jugs (KB.06.E.704/7, KB.06.E.704/14, KB.06.E.704/15) from layer F.704 (pl. LIII), and a jar (KB.06.E.706/5) from layer F.706 (pl. LIV).

17 KB.06.E.86 (pl. LIV).

18 KB.06.E.102 (pl. LIV).

Nigro and Sala (2009)

Introduction

from Nigro and Sala (2009:371)

... During the fourth season⁵, excavation and restoration was focused on three areas (Area B North, Area B South and Area F), respectively located in the middle of the northern side of the tall, both outside and inside the main city wall, and on the easternmost terrace of the site (Fig. 2; Nigro 2008b).

Footnotes

5. In previous seasons (Nigro 2006a, 2006b, 2006c, 2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b; Nigro ed. 2006, 2008), the main chronological, topographical and architectural features of the site were established (Nigro 2006a: 233-236, 2007a: 346-347, tab. 1; Nigro ed. 2006: 9-36, ig. 1.2, 2008: 7-8), and ive areas opened, respectively on the Acropolis (Area A: Nigro 2006a: 236-240, 2007a: 347- 349; Nigro ed. 2006: 63-102, plan II, 2008: 9-63), the northern slope (Areas B North and South: Nigro 2006a: 240-246, 2007a: 349-354; Nigro ed. 2006: 153-196, plans III-IV, 2008: 65-240, plans I-II), at the northwestern and south-western corners (respectively Area C: Nigro ed. 2006: 25-27, igs. 1.27-1.31 and Area D: Nigro 2007a: 355-357; Nigro ed. 2006: 32-33, igs. 1.38-1.41; 2008: 241-244), on the southern side (Area E: Nigro 2007a: 357-358; Nigro ed. 2008: 245-268) and on the easternmost terrace of the Khirbat (Area F: Nigro 2007a: 358-359; Nigro ed. 2006: 22, ig. 1.25, 2008: 269-316, plans III-IV).

4. Area B North: the Early Bronze II - III Fortiication System

4.1 Stratigraphy of Area B North

from Nigro and Sala (2009:373-374)

Excavations in Area B North provided a detailed insight into the occupational and architectural sequence, not only of the fortiication system, but also of the city as a whole⁹:

Phase 1: Topsoil, representing natural erosion and dust accumulation following the final abandonment of the site around 2000 BC.
Phase 2: Consisting of stone embankment W.199, which stabilised the collapsed defensive structures of the Early Bronze IIIB city in order to support and protect the Early Bronze IVB dwellings erected within the main city wall in Area B South.
Phase 3: The most recent, Early Bronze IIIB urban phase which includes:
- Event 3a: the abandonment and progressive collapse of destroyed defensive structures.
- Event 3b: violent destruction, with burned layers of dark grey ash, charcoal and reddish-yellow mudbrick fragments, which marks the end of the third millennium BC city; excavated between the main city wall and outer wall W.155, between outer wall W.155 and scarp wall W.165, and to the north of the latter.
- Event 3c: the final rebuild of the Batrawy IIIb fortification system, in which the main city wall and outer wall W.155 were retained from the previous phase, with the addition of new scarp wall W.165.
Phase 4: The Early Bronze IIIA reconstruction of the defensive system, which includes:
- Event 4a: again represented by a violent destruction layer excavated between the main city wall and outer wall W.155.
- Event 4b: blocking of the collapsed Phase 5 city gate with wall W.157 and the erection of outer wall W.155 with associated curvilinear outwork W.185.
Phase 5: Earliest phase of the city, including:
- Event 5a: collapse of the main city wall and gate, attested to by a thick layer of compact yellowish-grey soil with limestone chippings, and fragments of greyish mudbricks found outside the main city wall on the plastered floor of street L.144b, which lies directly over bedrock.
- Event 5b: erection of the main city wall and gate, marking the foundation of the city.

Footnotes

9. For the stratigraphy of Area B North up to and including the third, 2007 season see Nigro ed. 2008: 66-76.

4.3. Early Bronze IIIB Triple Fortiication Line (Batrawy Period IIIb)

from Nigro and Sala (2009:374-375)

In Area B North, on the northern slope of the hill, the initial urban fortiication was a triple line of defence with several associated outworks, demonstrating that the city reached its most heavily defended state towards the end of the Batrawy III period (Nigro 2007a: 351-352; Nigro ed. 2008: 100-102, plan III). A further structure, scarp wall W.165, was added to the outer side of the original main city wall, now reinforced by outer wall W.155. Scarp wall W.165 was characterized by the placement of large, irregular stones on a foundation of medium-sized stones. It had already been exposed to the west, in square BoII4, during 2006. In 2008, it was followed eastwards through three more squares, BpII5, BqII5 and BrII5, where its five courses of stone attained a height of 1.2m, and westwards into BnII4, where its eleven courses attained 1.8m. Between scarp wall W.165 and outer wall W.155, was a rubble fill¹⁰ which was fully excavated in BnII4 (Fig. 5). Scarp wall W.165 strengthened the outer line of fortiication and incorporated dismantled EB IIIA curvilinear outwork W.185 (see below).

The EB IIIB triple fortiication line underwent a violent destruction. Several burned strata of ash and charcoal were identiied:

F.802 in BnII5 (Fig. 6) and F.194 in BrII6, BrII7 and in the baulk between squares BqII6 and BrII6, that is to say between the main city wall and the outer wall; F.807 between the outer wall and scarp wall; F.804 on the outer slope, north of the scarp wall.

Footnotes

10. This rubble fill was designated F.808 to the west, in BnII4, and F.193 to the east, in BpII5 and BqII5.

4.4. Doubling the Line of Fortiication: The Early Bronze IIIA Reconstruction of the Main City Wall and Addition of Outer Wall W.155 Batrawy Period IIIa)

from Nigro and Sala (2009:375)

At the beginning of Early Bronze IIIA, after the dramatic destruction of the EB II city in a violent earthquake (Nigro ed. 2008: 87, 255), the main city wall was reconstructed by blocking the collapsed city gate and rebuilding the superstructure of the wall, as clearly illustrated during the 2008 season by excavations in square BnII5 and in the baulk between squares BqII6 and BrII6. This baulk was at the intersection of two separate stretches of the original city wall, which were incorporated into the EB IIIA reconstruction.

In addition to this reconstruction of the main city wall, an outer wall, W.155, was constructed using boulders on its outer face and large stones on its inner face. The stretch excavated so far (Fig. 7), runs parallel to and 1.7m in front of the main city wall.

In square BnII5, the space between the main city wall and the outer wall was filled with a destruction layer of ash and charcoal, designated F.805 (Figs. 8 and 9). In squares BrII6 and BrII7, a further section of outer wall W.155 was exposed in 2008, which showed how a fill of limestone pebbles and chippings, F.803, had been deliberately deposited in order to regularize a step in the bedrock (Fig. 10). Just above it was a fill of loose brown soil and rubble, F.196.

A major curvilinear outwork, W.185, abutted the outer wall, strengthening and protecting the north side of the city, the direction from which it was most easily approached.

5. Area F: the Early Bronze II - III Broad Room Temple

Introduction

from Nigro and Sala (2009:377)

During 2008, archaeological activities in Area F were focused on completing the excavation of the Early Bronze II - III broad room temple discovered in 2006, roughly in the middle of Terrace V (Nigro 2007a: 359). This monumental structure, though badly eroded and truncated at its north-eastern corner by later Early Bronze IVB dwellings, could still be understood in terms of its two major constructive phases, attributed to Early Bronze II and III respectively (Fig. 15)¹¹. Three soundings dug within the temple cella and complete excavation of its western side clariied the transformation this religious building underwent when it was reconstructed at the beginning of Early Bronze III, around 2700 BC.

Footnotes

11. For a comprehensive illustration of stratigraphy, Nigro ed. 2008: 269-275.

5.1. The Early Bronze II Broad Room Temple F1

from Nigro and Sala (2009:377, 380)

The original temple was erected directly over the bedrock, by filling in a shallow depression under the approximate centre of the building with virgin soil and small rock fragments (Nigro ed. 2008: 276-282, plan III). The presence of this depression weakened the central part of the structure, which in fact collapsed during the tremendous earthquake, which brought about the end of the Early Bronze II city.

The original walls of the temple were preserved along its southern, main façade (W.563E and W.563W) and its western (W.586) and northern (W.521) sides. The eastern wall was completely truncated by an Early Bronze IVB domestic building, which obliterated all previous structures. Only the south-eastern corner of the cella was preserved, but this allowed us to reconstruct the eastern wall (W.561) of the temple. The width of these walls varies from 1.0 to 1.2m, being wider on the western side where the temple abuts the bedrock step between terraces IV and V. The rear wall of the temple was excavated all the way to its western end, which led to the discovery of a curvilinear structure (W.587) connected with the north-western corner of the building. This may represent a boundary wall, similar to the one known from the Early Bronze II temple at at-Tall / ‘Ayy (Sala 2008b: 135-140, Fig. 40).

The cella itself was a broad room measuring 2.7m in width and 12.5m in length, with the entrance (L.592) two thirds of the way along its length. The entrance was in the form of a passage 1.4m wide. Four stone bases were aligned along the main axis of the cella, as supports for the wooden pillars, which would have held up the roof. Facing the entrance, which opened out on to a forecourt, and in the rear wall of the temple was a niche (L.562), 1.3m wide, 0.8m deep and with an internal bench 0.2m high. A small slab, with two circular depressions, at the northwest corner of the bench suggests that the niche was the cult focus of the temple.

In the forecourt, facing the entrance, was a circular altar (S.510) with a central slab with a small cup mark in the middle, and a light of three steps made of stone slabs by which to approach the altar from east. About 1m west of the altar, some stones set vertically into the ground (S.503) probably served as the base for a betyl (Fig. 16; Nigro ed. 2008: 283-284).

5.2. The Early Bronze III Bent Axis Temple F2

from Nigro and Sala (2009:381-383)

At the end of Early Bronze II, the earthquake, which destroyed the city of al-Batrawi badly, damaged the temple in Area F. The collapse of the central part of the façade led to the reconstruction of the temple entrance at the beginning of Early Bronze III (Fig. 17; Nigro ed. 2008: 285-290, plan IV). The new front wall was wider and more carefully built than its predecessor. The reconstructed part of the wall (W.505) was offset from the previous line by about 0.2m, and the entrance (L.550) included a small step 0.1m high. The rear wall was partly rebuilt and the niche facing the entrance closed off. The ceiling of the cella consisted of wooden beams spanning its entire width, as the pillar bases of the previous phase had been buried under the new floor of the room. The cult focus was shifted to the western side of the cella, which was reoriented (Fig. 18). A platform (B.585) 0.2m high was provided with a new style of raised niche (L.580), lanked by two vertical slabs and located in the middle of the western side. Against the southern wall of the cella was a stone-lined basin, delineated by stones set vertically into the platform, paved with lagstones and ending in a large slab. In front of the niche and its two antae, two round bases may indicate the location of two betyls (Fig. 19). A bench was placed against the northern side of the cella.

The transformation of this structure from a classic broad room temple into a bent axis cult place, where the religious symbols were grouped at the end of the short side to the left of the entrance, perhaps reflects the same gradual transformation of the deeply rooted tradition of southern Levantine religious architecture attested to at the contemporary sanctuary of Båb adh-Dhrå‘¹².

Footnotes

12. Rast - Schaub 2003: 157-166, 321-335. For a general appraisal on the Early Bronze Age sacred architecture in the Southern Levant see Sala 2008b.

Batrawy II Earthquake - ~2800 BCE (Early Bronze II)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls through-going cracks lintel destruction possible capstone destruction foundation damage	Area B North (north city-wall) Figure 3.19 Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)	Figure 3.37 Earthquake cracks visible on the eastern jamb (W.156) of city gate L.160. Nigro (2008)	Two sharp earthquake cracks on the eastern jamb (fig. 3.37) testify to the destruction of the lintels and possibly of the capstone of the passageway, which presumably caused a general collapse, so that the gate went out of use at the end of the Early Bronze II - Nigro (2008:87) [The earthquake] provoked almost the full collapse of the mud brick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall, as it is clearly documented in the cracks and inner collapses detected in the EB II city-wall and city-gate in Area B North - Nigro (2008:87)
Collapsed Walls	Area B North (north city-wall) Figure 3.19 Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)	Figure 3.24 Street L.144b along the outer side W.103c+W.163c of Batrawy II city-wall, from west. Nigro (2008)	Fig 3.24 of the Street along an outer city wall shows stone and wall collapse on right side of the photo closest to the viewer
Collapsed Walls foundation damage	Area E (south city-wall) Figure 6.10 Plan of Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)		[The earthquake] provoked almost the full collapse of the mud brick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall - Nigro (2008:87)
Collapsed Walls	Area F - Early Bronze II Broad Room Temple F1 Figure 15 General view of the EB II - III broad room temple and round platform S.510 in Area F, from east-southeast. Nigro and Sala (2009) Figure 16 Reconstruction of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II) Nigro and Sala (2009) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)		The original temple was erected directly over the bedrock, by filling in a shallow depression under the approximate centre of the building with virgin soil and small rock fragments (Nigro ed. 2008: 276-282, plan III). The presence of this depression weakened the central part of the structure, which in fact collapsed during the tremendous earthquake, which brought about the end of the Early Bronze II city. - Nigro and Sala (2009:377) At the end of Early Bronze II, the earthquake, which destroyed the city of al-Batrawi badly, damaged the temple in Area F. The collapse of the central part of the façade led to the reconstruction of the temple entrance at the beginning of Early Bronze III (Fig. 17; Nigro ed. 2008: 285-290, plan IV). - Nigro and Sala (2009:381)

Batrawy II Earthquake - ~2800 BCE (Early Bronze II)

Modified by JW from Fig. 1.2 from Nigro (2008)

Deformation Map

Modified by JW from Fig. 1.2 from from Nigro (2008)

Batrawy II Earthquake - ~2800 BCE (Early Bronze II)

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls through-going cracks lintel destruction possible capstone destruction foundation damage	Area B North (north city-wall) Figure 3.19 Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)	Figure 3.37 Earthquake cracks visible on the eastern jamb (W.156) of city gate L.160. Nigro (2008)	Two sharp earthquake cracks on the eastern jamb (fig. 3.37) testify to the destruction of the lintels and possibly of the capstone of the passageway, which presumably caused a general collapse, so that the gate went out of use at the end of the Early Bronze II - Nigro (2008:87) [The earthquake] provoked almost the full collapse of the mud brick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall, as it is clearly documented in the cracks and inner collapses detected in the EB II city-wall and city-gate in Area B North - Nigro (2008:87)	VIII+ VI+ VI+ VI+ IX+
Collapsed Walls	Area B North (north city-wall) Figure 3.19 Plan of EB II city-wall W.103c+163c + W.104c+ W.105c+W.161c and city-gate L.160. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)	Figure 3.24 Street L.144b along the outer side W.103c+W.163c of Batrawy II city-wall, from west. Nigro (2008)	Fig 3.24 of the Street along an outer city wall shows stone and wall collapse on right side of the photo closest to the viewer	VIII+
Collapsed Walls foundation damage	Area E (south city-wall) Figure 6.10 Plan of Batrawy II (EB II) city-wall and related floor inside the city. Nigro (2008) Figure 3.23 Schematic reconstruction of a stretch of Batrawy II city-wall. Nigro (2008) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)		[The earthquake] provoked almost the full collapse of the mud brick superstructure and seriously damaged the 2 m high stone foundations of the Batrawy II city-wall - Nigro (2008:87)	VIII+ IX+
Collapsed Walls	Area F - Early Bronze II Broad Room Temple F1 Figure 15 General view of the EB II - III broad room temple and round platform S.510 in Area F, from east-southeast. Nigro and Sala (2009) Figure 16 Reconstruction of Temple F1 with its forecourt (Phase 4, Early Bronze II) Nigro and Sala (2009) Figure 1.2 Topographical plan of Khirbet al-Batrawy (2006-2007). Nigro (2008)		The original temple was erected directly over the bedrock, by filling in a shallow depression under the approximate centre of the building with virgin soil and small rock fragments (Nigro ed. 2008: 276-282, plan III). The presence of this depression weakened the central part of the structure, which in fact collapsed during the tremendous earthquake, which brought about the end of the Early Bronze II city. - Nigro and Sala (2009:377) At the end of Early Bronze II, the earthquake, which destroyed the city of al-Batrawi badly, damaged the temple in Area F. The collapse of the central part of the façade led to the reconstruction of the temple entrance at the beginning of Early Bronze III (Fig. 17; Nigro ed. 2008: 285-290, plan IV). - Nigro and Sala (2009:381)	VIII+

Foundation damage suggests an intensity of IX (9) or higher. It also suggests that Khirbet al-Batrawy was within 10 km. of the epicenter. Other archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224 big pdf). The collapsed walls of Temple F1 may have been exacerbated by poor construction practice - building on top of uncompacted fill.

References

Articles and Books

Nigro, L. (2006) Preliminary Report of the First Season of Excavations of Rome “La Sapienza” Univesity at Khirbet al-Batrawy (Upper Wadi az-Zarqa, Jordan) in J.M. Córdoba et al. (edd.), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (5-8 April 2006), Madrid 2008, Volume II, pp. 663-682.

Nigro, L. and Sala, M. (2009) Preliminary Report on the Fourth Season of Excavations by "La Sapienza" University of Rome at Khirbat al-Batrāwī in Upper Wādī az-Zarqā’, 2008 , ADAJ 53

Nigro, L. and Sala, M. (2010) Preliminary Report on the Fifth Season (2009) of Excavations at Khirbat al-Batrāwī (Upper Wādī az-Zarqā’) by the University of Rome “La Sapienza" , ADAJ 54

Nigro, L. and Sala, M. (2011) Preliminary Report on the Sixth Season (2010) of Excavations by "La Sapienza" University of Rome at Khirbat al-Batrāwī (Upper Wādī az-Zarqā’) , ADAJ 55

Nigro, L., and E. Gallo. (2022) “Khirbet al-Batrawy 2015–2019: The Four-Lines Defensive System and the Entrance Hall of the Palace of the Copper Axes .” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 11: 161–177.

Nigro, L. (2024) Khirbet al-Batrawy, Archaeology In Jordan 4

Excavation Reports

Nigro, L. (ed.) (2006) KHIRBET AL-BATRAWY An Early Bronze Age Fortified Town in North-Central Jordan Preliminary Report of the First Season of Excavations (2005) ROSAPAT 03

Nigro, L. (ed.) (2008) KHIRBET AL-BATRAWY II The EB II city-gate, the EB II-III fortifications, the EB II-III temple Preliminary report of the second (2006) and third (2007) seasons of excavations ROSAPAT 06

Nigro, L. (ed.) (2012) KHIRBET AL-BATRAWY III The EB II-III triple fortification line, and the EB IIIB quarter inside the city-wall Preliminary report of the fourth (2008) and fifth (2009) seasons of excavations ROSAPAT 08

Nigro, L. (ed.) (2010) In The Palace of the Copper Axes. Khirbet al-Batrawy: The discovery of a forgotten city of the III millennium BC in Jordan

Publications Page of the Sapienza Expedition to Khirbet al-Batrawy website

Websites

Sapienza Expedition to Khirbet al-Batrawy website

APAAME photos for Khirbet al-Batrawy

Khirbet al-Batrawy at Pleiades

Wikipedia pages

Khirbet al-Batrawy (in Italian)

from wikipedia