Damascus resides in a basin east of the Anti-Lebanon range, at the foot of Mt. Qasiyun. Despite low annual rainfall, the plain is well watered by the Barada River allowing Damascus to exist as an oasis. Damascus has one of the longest periods of occupation (perhaps the longest period of occupation) of any city in the world. Due to its high urban density, very little excavation has been possible in Damascus (Stern et al, 1993). In 661 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate moved the capital to Damascus where it remained until 744 CE when Caliph Marwan II moved the capital to Harran. It was during the Umayyad period that the the Great Mosque of Damascus was built on the site of a Christian Basilica dedicated to John the Baptist. Construction was completed in 715 CE. When the Abbasid Caliphate supplanted the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE, the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.

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Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls                                 Landslides ? (Dajaj suq fell) Roof Damage (Displaced Walls) Aftershocks Fatalities	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"there was an earthquake at Damascus which lasted for days and shook her like leaves on trees" - Michael the Syrian "There was at Damascus and the whole of its region an earthquake which lasted for days and which shook the city and made it quiver." - Chronicon Ad Annum 1234 "We were victims of an earthquake in Damascus in 130: the inhabitants had left their town; the Dajaj suq [poultry market] fell from the "Great Rocks". Several days after the catastrophe they started to dig through a part of the ruins and then it was that a man was found alive" - A.H. 130 (11 September 747 – 30 August 748 CE) - as-Suyuti "I was told that at the time of the catastrophic earthquake of 131, the platform of the mosque opened, allowing the sky to be seen; another earthquake following after this last one closed the gap up again." - A.H. 131 (31 August 748 – 19 August 749 CE) - as-Suyuti

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls                                 Displaced Masonry Blocks Collapsed Bridges Minaret fully or partially collapsed Broken windows Debris Aftershocks Fatalities (due to collapsed walls) People fleeing to open spaces	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus was shaken by an earthquake at dawn on Thursday 11 Rabi’ II in the year 233; a quarter of the mosque [Ommayad?] was torn open, its great stone blocks were thrown down, and the minaret collapsed. The bridges and houses collapsed ... People went to the musallāh where they prayed until midday. Then everything calmed down." - as-Suyuti quoting Ibn ʿAsākir. "An earthquake caused heavy shaking in Damascus since morning for 3 hours, destroying houses and displacing huge stones and breaking many windows of Souks and killing many people under debris. Many terraces of Ommyad Mosque the Great fell down, a quarter of its minaret fell down." - Ibn al-ʿImād "In 233 A.H. Rabi’ II, it was a dreadful earthquake in Damascus which lasted for three hours, causing walls to fall down and people die under debris." - al-Dhahabī

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls                                 Destroyed Homes Debris (from collapsed walls Fatalities (due to collapsed walls) Aftershocks People sleeping in open spaces	Damascus		"On the night of Saturday, on the the seventeenth of Muharram in the year [A.H.] 381 [April 5, 991], there was a great earthquake in Damascus, more than a thousand houses collapsed and a large number of inhabitants perished under the rubble. This same night a village in the vicinity of Baalbek was swallowed up. Other earthquakes then occurred in Damascus and in the province but the most violent was that of Damascus and Baalbek. After these earthquakes, others still took place. The inhabitants, after having left their homes, went into the desert and remained there in tents. The earthquakes succeeded each other without respite until Friday, the seventeenth day of Safar of the same year [May 5, 991 (Tuesday)]" - Yahya of Antioch "In the year [A.H.] 381, there was a great earthquake in Damascus on the 17th day of Muharram. A thousand houses collapsed. Many died. Likewise, in the district of Baalbek, there were collapses. Aftershocks continued until Friday 14 Safar. People left their homes to stay in the plains." - George al‑Makīn (Jirjis ibn al‑ʿAmīd)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Shaking Shocks                                 No reports of damage No reports of injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"there was a terrible earthquake at Damascus, causing the earth to shake three times. There were repeated further shocks the following Friday at the hour of sunset. During the first third of the night of Monday 19 Safar [27 October], the earthquake returned and the earth shook three times. Praise be to God and the manifest signs of his unfathomable power. There were more shocks during Wednesday night, and yet more in the last quarter of Friday night." - Ibn al-Qalanisi " In the early hours of the morning of Wednesday 21 Shawwal [21 June], there were some terrifying shocks which struck men's hearts with fear. [JW: It is not entirely certain that these shocks were in Damascus]" - Ibn al-Qalanisi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Felt? Light Shaking? No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"God Most High averted from Damascus and its environs the consequences which the people dreaded from the frequence and persistence of this quaking, out of His compassion and mercy towards them (to Him be the praise and thanks), but reports were received from Aleppo of the multitude of shocks there and the destruction of some of its dwellings. " - Ibn al-Qalanisi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Light Shaking at most No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"God spared Damascus and its districts from this terror, displaying his mercy to the inhabitants, all praise and thanks be to Him" - Ibn al-Qalanisi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
"a great earthquake shock" No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"On the eve of Wednesday, 19th Safar3 (3rd April), there was a great earthquake shock just about dawn . . . followed by another on the eve of the Thursday following . . . and another after the congregational prayer of the Friday following. A series of reports was received from the north relating the terrible effects of these earthquake shocks, both the earlier and the latter ones" - Ibn al-Qalanisi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
shaking No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"On Thursday, 25th First Jumada (4th July) . . . and on the eve of Sunday, 4th Latter Jumada (14th July) repeated earthquake shocks occurred" - Ibn al-Qalanisi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls (Mosque of Damascus fell) Displaced Walls (damaged mosaics and marble plaques) People fleeing	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"At the ninth hour on 4 Rajab in that year [12 August 1157], there was a dreadful earthquake at Damascus, such as had never been seen before; the shocks lasted so long that people fled in terror from their houses and shops and other covered places. In the confusion, numerous priceless objects were lost in the mosque [the Great Umayyad Mosque]. Immediately afterwards, there was another shock, which the will of God immediately brought to an end; hearts grew calm again and fear ceased. There were more shocks during the evening of that day, in the middle of the night and towards dawn, the last one being weaker than the others. On Friday 8 Rajab [16 August 1157], a dreadful shock spread panic again; it was followed by another shock in the middle of the night and a third at dawn. The same thing happened during the night of Saturday, Sunday and Monday, and on other days as well. When the earthquake struck Damascus [during the night of Monday 29 Rajab (6 September 1157)] people were terrified. [The date is missing from Ibn al-Qalanisi's text, but can be found in Abu Shama, al-Rawdatayn, I, 105, where the same news is reported], the inhabitants were panic stricken and fled from their homes and other covered places towards the Great Mosque and open spaces, fearing for their lives. After that first shock there was another: the gates of the city were opened and people poured out into the countryside, the fields outside the walls and the desert, thus spending some days in anguish and fear, begging God to save them." - Ibn al-Qalanisi "[552 Rajab 4 = 12 August 1157] On 4 Rajab a very violent earthquake, the like of which had never occurred before, occurred at Damascus. Shocks continued for quite a long time; fearing for their lives, people fled their houses, shops and covered markets. The shocks affected many parts of Damascus, and caused the mosque of Damascus to fall, together with such a large quantity of mosaics and marble plaques that it would be difficult to replace it with another. This earthquake was followed immediately by another; the shocks ceased; three earthquakes followed, one at the beginning of the night (lit. “at the beginning of the day”), the other in the middle of the night and the third at the end of the night. During the night of Friday 8 Rajab [16 August 1157], an awful earthquake occurred which sowed terror among the people; it was followed in the middle of the night by another earthquake; at first light [17 August 1157] a third earthquake occurred. The same happened on the nights of Saturday, Sunday and Monday [9, 10 and 11 Rajab = 17, 18 and 19 August 1157]. After this [12–19 August] the earthquakes proliferated to such an extent that a description of them would be too long. There were alarming reports from the North: at H’amat, the citadel and most of the houses collapsed on their inhabitants, the elderly, young children and a great number of women; very few people’s lives were saved. At Shayzar (MS B = Shiraz) the fortress of that town collapsed on the governor Taj ad-Daulat ibn Abi al-Askir ibn Munkid and his entourage; only those who were outside escaped. As for Hims, its inhabitants had abandoned it (al-Suyuti 81bis/27–28)." - as‑Suyūṭī "In 552 [August 1157, according to Ibn al-Athir] violent earthquakes took place in Damascus, Aleppo, Hamah, Shaizar, and in the most part of Syria and the Orient. " - Ibn Taghri Birdi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls Collapsed Balconies (Mosque) Minaret Tops Collapsed (Mosque) fatalities	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"On the day of the apostles Peter and Paul, there was a terrible earthquake in Outremer, in which the city of Tripolis, a part of Damascus, the most of Antioch collapsed." - Robert of Torigni " In the other coastal towns, as well as Damascus, Emessa and Hamat, and in all the other cities and rural areas this earthquake caused disasters, but nowhere did one hear talk of a disaster comparable to that which occurred in Aleppo." - Michael the Syrian "The earthquake struck the whole region of Syria, Mesopotamia, Mawsil and Iraq. The most devastating effects were produced in Syria: there was very serious damage at Damascus, Ba'alabik, Hims, Hamat, Shayzar, Ba`rin, Aleppo and elsewhere; walls and citadels were destroyed everywhere; the walls of houses fell on to the inhabitants, who were killed in great numbers." - Ibn al‑Athir "In the month of Shawwal, there were terrible earthquakes in Syria, causing severe damage at Damascus: the balconies of the mosque [the Great Umayyad Mosque] collapsed, as well as the tops of the minarets, which shook like palm trees on a stormy day. " - Sibt ibn al‑Jawzi "On 12th Shawwal [29 June 1170] there were large and frightening earthquakes, one after the next, the like of which had never been seen. They were felt in most of the regions of Syria, Jazirah, as far as Mosul, and in Iraq, but above all in Syria. Great parts of Damascus, Baalbek, Emessa, Hamah, Shaizar, Barin, Aleppo etc. were ruined. Their walls and citadels were overthrown, and the houses collapsed on their inhabitants, as a result of which a countless multitude perished. " - Kemal ad-Din (aka Ibn Al-Adim) "An earthquake in Syria, Mesopotamia and almost all the world; it destroyed many walls and houses in Syria, more particularly at Damascus, Emessa, Apamea, Aleppo and Balbek" - as‑Suyūṭī

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls Collapsed Domes Collapsed Crennalations Collapsed Minarets fatalities people fled to open spaces	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"I have the honour to write to you-this letter, to inform you of the earthquake which took place during the night of Monday 26th Shaban, at the break of dawn, and which lasted for quite some time. One of us said that it lasted long enough to read the surat of the Koran entitled 'The Cavern'. One of the oldest men of Damascus attests that he had never felt anything equal to it. Among other damage caused by it in the city, sixteen crenellations of the great mosque and one of the minarets fell; another was split, as well as the leaden dome. The building called the Kallaseh was swallowed up, as the earth was open, and two men died; a man also died at the gate called the Gate of Jirun. There were several cracks in diverse parts of the mosque, and a great number of the city's houses fell." - Ibn al‑Latif al‑Baghdadi "In Syria, the effects were dreadful: many houses were destroyed at Damascus" - Ibn al-Athir "The earthquake spread as far as Damascus and caused the exterior minaret of the mosque to fall, as well as the greater part of al-Kalasa, and the Baymaristan of Nureddin. Most of the houses in Damascus were destroyed, with few exceptions. People fled to the square, sixteen of the crenellations fell from the mosque, and the dome of Nasr split in two before men's eyes." - Sibt ibn al-Jawzi "It was felt as far as Damascus, where it shook the tops of the minarets of the mosque, and several crenellations of the north wall. A maghrebin was killed at Kalasa and also a Mamluk Turk, [the latter] a slave of an official who lived in the Street of the Samaritans" - Sibt ibn al-Jawzi "The earthquake reached Damascus: part of the east minaret of the [Great Umayyad] mosque collapsed. There was massive damage to the lime kilns (al-Kallasa), the Nur al-Din hospital, and nearly all the houses in the city. The inhabitants ran out into the squares. Sixteen balconies fell from the [Umayyad] mosque, and the Nasr mausoleum split open. " - Abu Shama "there was also an earthquake and it destroyed many buildings and high walls in Damascus" - Bar Hebraeus "It encompassed Damascus: some of the minarets of the Umayyad Mosque were destroyed, and most of al-Kallasah and the Nuri hospital. The people fled to the public spaces. Sixteen galleries fell from the mosque. The Qubbah al-Nasr split." - Ibn al-Dawādārī

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Displaced Walls	Damascus Old City of Damascus and its 7 gates Click on image to open in a new tab Zozo2kx at English Wikipedia - Public Domain Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"In the month of Sha'ban, there were great disturbances at Damascus." - al-Dhahabī "As far as I know, it was an earthquake; but God has greater knowledge." - al‑Yafiʿi "the earth split the walls of the Bab al-Faradis and reached the school of Muqaddamyya.’ (Ibn al-Hambali, Shadharat 5/381)" - Ibn al‑ʿImād

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Damaged Walls? ("Displaced walls") Damaged Towers? ("Displaced walls")	Damascus		"About noon, on the 14th of January AD 1546 there was a terrific earthquake in Jerusalem. As a result the vault of the Holy Tomb sunk and the walls and tower of the Temple were damaged and parts of them collapsed. The same happened in Damascus and great damage was done to other towns and villages; many people perished at sea and on land. Four towns in particular, Rama, Joppe, ‘Zozilgip and Sichem were totally destroyed by this earthquake to the extent that, with the exception of Damascus and Joppe, one can no longer recognise that there had been towns on these sites." - Letter by an Anonymous Venetian "On Thursday afternoon, 10th of Dhu’l-Qa’da 952, there occurred a great earthquake in Jerusalem, al-Khalil [Hebron], Gaza, al-Ramlah, alKarak, as-Salt, and Nablus which extended to Damascus." - Anonymous Continuator of Mujir Al-Din

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls ("destroyed walls") Collapsed Walls ("destroyed walls") Debris due to Collapsed Walls Fatalities due to Collapsed Walls Minaret split (displaced walls) Two stones disloadged from a minaret (displaced walls) Minarets fell (collapsed walls) Collapsed Walls (Collapsed Buildings) Woke People Up Roofs swayed and shook Made Noise "Clatter" People frightened Some people fled	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Until this year, 1117, I had never seen the like of the succession of earthquakes which occurred day and night. They began on the night of Tuesday 7 Sha'ban: we were in our house which we had built on Mount Qasyun and the Salihiyah. The first earthquake occurred at ten at night and woke us up. We got out of bed and prayed. We were told that when the people of Damascus saw the roofs sway and heard the clatter, they thought that thieves were running on the roofs... After 11 hours of the night had passed, a stronger earthquake occurred, driving us out into the yard where we heard the people of Damascus crying out and shouting. This second earthquake lasted for two or three degrees. Two or three degrees later a lighter quake occurred. Things continued like this until Ramadan began, a light earthquake continuing every day and night, some people feeling them and some not. The second above-mentioned earthquake caused some houses to fall, destroyed walls and shook roofs and buildings in Damascus and its surrounding villages to such an extent that many people were killed in the debris. The top of the eastern minaret of the Umayyad Mosque was split and two stones fell from the top of the western minaret, but caused no damage. The upper portion of the Murshidiyah minaret fell in Salihiyah, as did the minaret of the Afram mosque and part of the buildings in Magharat al-Damm up on Mt Qasyun." - al-Nabalusi

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls                 Upper parts of almost all minarets fell E and N walls of E minaret of Great Umayyad Mosque collapsed cracked walls (displaced walls) parts of Umayyad and other mosques damaged victims uprooted trees shock lasted 2-3 minutes aftershocks 430 structures in need of repair due to both earthquakes	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus is three quarters destroyed." - Letter from the French Consulate in Saida - covers both earthquakes "Damascus, severe destruction and at least several hundred dead." - Boutros Jalfaq - covers both earthquakes "October the 30th, about four in the morning, we had a pretty severe shock ... letters from Damascus, where the same shock felt by us at Aleppo, and several other successive ones, had done considerable damage. From this time, we had daily accounts of earthquakes from Damascus, Tripoly, Seidon, Acri, and all along the coast of Syria; but so exaggerated in some circumstances, and so inaccurate in all, that we only knew in in general, that Damascus, Acri, and Seidon, have suffered injury from the earthquake, though less than was at first given out. the 25th of November ... The earthquake of the evening of the 25th has proved fatal to Damascus ; one-third of the city was thrown down, and of the people, numbers yet unknown perished in the ruins. The greater part of the surviving inhabitants fled to the fields, where they still continued, being hourly alarmed by slighter shocks, which deterred them from re-entering the city, or attempting the relief of such as might yet be saved, by clearing away the rubbish. Such was the purport of a letter I read this day, which was wrote from Damascus three days after the earthquake. Other accounts we have at this place, make the loss of the inhabitants amounts to 20,000; but, in circumstances of such general horror and confusion, little accuracy can be expected, and the eastern disposition to exaggeration reigns, at present, universally.." - Letter written by Patrick Russell in Aleppo on 2 and 7 Dec. 1759 CE "Rome, Nov, 10. The Society for propagating Christian knowledge in foreign parts, have received advice from their Missionaries in Syria, that after the dreadful earthquake, the city of Damas was visited with the plague, which made great havoc; and that the neighboring country had been ruined by a hurricane. ." - The London Chronicle "Gazette Issue No. 9, 1st March 1760 CE ... From Marseilles, February 22, 1760. From letters from Constantinople dated the beginning of last month, we learn that a great earthquake has been experienced in the Levant. It not only overthrew the City of Safet as was first reported; but also Antioch, Damascus, Tiberias and Jaffa. Gazette Issue No. 10, 8 March 1760 CE ... From Paris, 8 March 1760. ...Letters arrived recently from various places of Syria confirming the news of the repeated earthquakes which have destroyed most of the towns of this region. The two main tremors were felt last October 30, at three-quarters past three in the morning, and November 25, at a quarter past seven at night. The others were so numerous that they cannot be counted. Tripoli in Syria is no more than a heap of ruins, as are Saphet, Napouloufe (Nablus?), Damascus, several other cities, and a multitude of Towns and Villages." - La Gazette de France Partial List of Structures in Damascus slated for Repair no fewer than 430 structures that needed full or partial repair Umayyad Mosque Selimiye Mosque Süleymaniye Mosque Smaller Mosques Madrasas Soup Kitchens unspecified buildings walls, gates, and domes Muhyi al-Din al- ‘Arabi (Ibn ‘Arabi) tomb - Ottoman Work Orders in Damascus "In October, when no drop of rain had fallen so far..., a slight tremor was felt in Damascus followed by a second, then the earth shook violently,... The upper parts of almost all minarets of the mosques of Damascus fell,..., there was a lot of destruction and victims in Damascus and in the surrounding villages. The tremors followed one another... few trees remained standing. An epidemic broke out, the upper parts of the east and west minarets of the Umayyad Mosque fell. The tremors continued which caused the collapse of the eastern and northern walls of the eastern minaret the Umayyad mosque... around fifteen mosques are mentioned by name; the eastern wall of the Mosque "Al-MAZBOUR" cracked,... ... then, on the evening of Monday, the 6th of the month Rabi II (Nov 25, 1759), the earthquake occurred. supreme, never known in the past,..., the eastern minaret we mentioned fell, on the side of the mosque, by destroying part of the 3 "Mihrabs", the majestic dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the mosque, despite its well-built columns,...; there were a lot of victims this night in Damascus as well as in the villages of the surroundings in Tell there were victims; people have left Damascus and stayed 3 months in tents,..., the Umayyad mosque contains 3 minarets including the eastern called minaret of Isa (Jesus) son of Mary, peace be upon him..., the tremor of 30 OCT lasted 2 to 3 minutes,... that of 25 NOV lasted 4 minutes..., (TAHA)." - al-Budayr from Ayalon (2014:61) paraphrase of the account in Mikha’il Burayk (1982:78-80) It was three hours before sunrise on 19 October 1759, and Mikha’il Burayk, a Greek Orthodox resident of Damascus, was sleeping.1 Suddenly he woke up: The earth was shaking. In the morning, cries were heard all over the city as the damage of the nocturnal earthquake was discovered. Many houses were razed, and parts of the Umayyad and other mosques were damaged. That disaster turned out to be a prelude to another, more violent quake. The next month, late in the evening, a “strong and frightening earthquake” again hit the city. “Walls were torn down, foundations weakened, minarets collapsed, and the Umayyad mosque with its minarets, domes and baths was destroyed.” Numerous other buildings were ruined too, among them the Greek Church, and fires broke out in many quarters. In the next few days, city residents left in mass numbers and settled temporarily in gardens surrounding the city, where they set up huts as provisional lodging.2 Footnotes 1 Sections of this chapter are taken from my IJMES article, “Ottoman urban privacy. 2 Mikha’il Burayk, Ta’rikh al-sham (Damascus: Dar Qutayba, 1982), 78–80. - Mikha'il al‑Burayk

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Collapsed Walls                 one third of city thrown down (collapsed walls) More violent than 30 Oct. 1759 CE Quake foundations weakened Fatalities due to collapsed walls Fires Minarets fell (displaced walls) Mosques damaged (displaced walls) dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the great ummayad mosque (collapsed vault) people fled to countryside shock lasted 4 minutes aftershocks 430 structures in need of repair due to both earthquakes	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus is three quarters destroyed." - Letter from the French Consulate in Saida - covers both earthquakes "Damascus, severe destruction and at least several hundred dead." - Boutros Jalfaq - covers both earthquakes "October the 30th, about four in the morning, we had a pretty severe shock ... letters from Damascus, where the same shock felt by us at Aleppo, and several other successive ones, had done considerable damage. From this time, we had daily accounts of earthquakes from Damascus, Tripoly, Seidon, Acri, and all along the coast of Syria; but so exaggerated in some circumstances, and so inaccurate in all, that we only knew in in general, that Damascus, Acri, and Seidon, have suffered injury from the earthquake, though less than was at first given out. the 25th of November ... The earthquake of the evening of the 25th has proved fatal to Damascus ; one-third of the city was thrown down, and of the people, numbers yet unknown perished in the ruins. The greater part of the surviving inhabitants fled to the fields, where they still continued, being hourly alarmed by slighter shocks, which deterred them from re-entering the city, or attempting the relief of such as might yet be saved, by clearing away the rubbish. Such was the purport of a letter I read this day, which was wrote from Damascus three days after the earthquake. Other accounts we have at this place, make the loss of the inhabitants amounts to 20,000; but, in circumstances of such general horror and confusion, little accuracy can be expected, and the eastern disposition to exaggeration reigns, at present, universally.." - Letter written by Patrick Russell in Aleppo on 2 and 7 Dec. 1759 CE "Rome, Nov, 10. The Society for propagating Christian knowledge in foreign parts, have received advice from their Missionaries in Syria, that after the dreadful earthquake, the city of Damas was visited with the plague, which made great havoc; and that the neighboring country had been ruined by a hurricane. ." - The London Chronicle "Gazette Issue No. 9, 1st March 1760 CE ... From Marseilles, February 22, 1760. From letters from Constantinople dated the beginning of last month, we learn that a great earthquake has been experienced in the Levant. It not only overthrew the City of Safet as was first reported; but also Antioch, Damascus, Tiberias and Jaffa. Gazette Issue No. 10, 8 March 1760 CE ... From Paris, 8 March 1760. ...Letters arrived recently from various places of Syria confirming the news of the repeated earthquakes which have destroyed most of the towns of this region. The two main tremors were felt last October 30, at three-quarters past three in the morning, and November 25, at a quarter past seven at night. The others were so numerous that they cannot be counted. Tripoli in Syria is no more than a heap of ruins, as are Saphet, Napouloufe (Nablus?), Damascus, several other cities, and a multitude of Towns and Villages." - La Gazette de France Partial List of Structures in Damascus slated for Repair no fewer than 430 structures that needed full or partial repair Umayyad Mosque Selimiye Mosque Süleymaniye Mosque Smaller Mosques Madrasas Soup Kitchens unspecified buildings walls, gates, and domes Muhyi al-Din al- ‘Arabi (Ibn ‘Arabi) tomb - Ottoman Work Orders in Damascus "In October, when no drop of rain had fallen so far..., a slight tremor was felt in Damascus followed by a second, then the earth shook violently,... The upper parts of almost all minarets of the mosques of Damascus fell,..., there was a lot of destruction and victims in Damascus and in the surrounding villages. The tremors followed one another... few trees remained standing. An epidemic broke out, the upper parts of the east and west minarets of the Umayyad Mosque fell. The tremors continued which caused the collapse of the eastern and northern walls of the eastern minaret the Umayyad mosque... around fifteen mosques are mentioned by name; the eastern wall of the Mosque "Al-MAZBOUR" cracked,... ... then, on the evening of Monday, the 6th of the month Rabi II (Nov 25, 1759), the earthquake occurred. supreme, never known in the past,..., the eastern minaret we mentioned fell, on the side of the mosque, by destroying part of the 3 "Mihrabs", the majestic dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the mosque, despite its well-built columns,...; there were a lot of victims this night in Damascus as well as in the villages of the surroundings in Tell there were victims; people have left Damascus and stayed 3 months in tents,..., the Umayyad mosque contains 3 minarets including the eastern called minaret of Isa (Jesus) son of Mary, peace be upon him..., the tremor of 30 OCT lasted 2 to 3 minutes,... that of 25 NOV lasted 4 minutes..., (TAHA)." - al-Budayr from Ayalon (2014:61) paraphrase of the account in Mikha’il Burayk (1982:78-80) It was three hours before sunrise on 19 October 1759, and Mikha’il Burayk, a Greek Orthodox resident of Damascus, was sleeping.1 Suddenly he woke up: The earth was shaking. In the morning, cries were heard all over the city as the damage of the nocturnal earthquake was discovered. Many houses were razed, and parts of the Umayyad and other mosques were damaged. That disaster turned out to be a prelude to another, more violent quake. The next month, late in the evening, a “strong and frightening earthquake” again hit the city. “Walls were torn down, foundations weakened, minarets collapsed, and the Umayyad mosque with its minarets, domes and baths was destroyed.” Numerous other buildings were ruined too, among them the Greek Church, and fires broke out in many quarters. In the next few days, city residents left in mass numbers and settled temporarily in gardens surrounding the city, where they set up huts as provisional lodging.2 Footnotes 1 Sections of this chapter are taken from my IJMES article, “Ottoman urban privacy. 2 Mikha’il Burayk, Ta’rikh al-sham (Damascus: Dar Qutayba, 1982), 78–80. - Mikha'il al‑Burayk

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls                                 Landslides ? (Dajaj suq fell) Roof Damage (Displaced Walls) Aftershocks Fatalities (due to collapsed walls)	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"there was an earthquake at Damascus which lasted for days and shook her like leaves on trees" - Michael the Syrian "There was at Damascus and the whole of its region an earthquake which lasted for days and which shook the city and made it quiver." - Chronicon Ad Annum 1234 "We were victims of an earthquake in Damascus in 130: the inhabitants had left their town; the Dajaj suq [poultry market] fell from the "Great Rocks". Several days after the catastrophe they started to dig through a part of the ruins and then it was that a man was found alive" - A.H. 130 (11 September 747 – 30 August 748 CE) - as-Suyuti "I was told that at the time of the catastrophic earthquake of 131, the platform of the mosque opened, allowing the sky to be seen; another earthquake following after this last one closed the gap up again." - A.H. 131 (31 August 748 – 19 August 749 CE) - as-Suyuti	VIII+ IV+ VII+ ? VIII+

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls                                 Displaced Masonry Blocks Collapsed Bridges Minaret fully or partially collapsed Broken windows Debris Aftershocks Fatalities (due to collapsed walls) People fleeing to open spaces	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus was shaken by an earthquake at dawn on Thursday 11 Rabi’ II in the year 233; a quarter of the mosque [Ommayad?] was torn open, its great stone blocks were thrown down, and the minaret collapsed. The bridges and houses collapsed ... People went to the musallāh where they prayed until midday. Then everything calmed down." - as-Suyuti quoting Ibn ʿAsākir. "An earthquake caused heavy shaking in Damascus since morning for 3 hours, destroying houses and displacing huge stones and breaking many windows of Souks and killing many people under debris. Many terraces of Ommyad Mosque the Great fell down, a quarter of its minaret fell down." - Ibn al-ʿImād "In 233 A.H. Rabi’ II, it was a dreadful earthquake in Damascus which lasted for three hours, causing walls to fall down and people die under debris." - al-Dhahabī	VIII+ VIII+ ? ? ? VIII+ ? VIII+ ?

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls                                 Destroyed Homes Debris (from collapsed walls Fatalities (due to collapsed walls) Aftershocks People sleeping in open spaces	Damascus		"On the night of Saturday, on the the seventeenth of Muharram in the year [A.H.] 381 [April 5, 991], there was a great earthquake in Damascus, more than a thousand houses collapsed and a large number of inhabitants perished under the rubble. This same night a village in the vicinity of Baalbek was swallowed up. Other earthquakes then occurred in Damascus and in the province but the most violent was that of Damascus and Baalbek. After these earthquakes, others still took place. The inhabitants, after having left their homes, went into the desert and remained there in tents. The earthquakes succeeded each other without respite until Friday, the seventeenth day of Safar of the same year [May 5, 991 (Tuesday)]" - Yahya of Antioch "In the year [A.H.] 381, there was a great earthquake in Damascus on the 17th day of Muharram. A thousand houses collapsed. Many died. Likewise, in the district of Baalbek, there were collapses. Aftershocks continued until Friday 14 Safar. People left their homes to stay in the plains." - George al‑Makīn (Jirjis ibn al‑ʿAmīd)	VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ ? ?

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Shaking Shocks                                 No reports of damage No reports of injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"there was a terrible earthquake at Damascus, causing the earth to shake three times. There were repeated further shocks the following Friday at the hour of sunset. During the first third of the night of Monday 19 Safar [27 October], the earthquake returned and the earth shook three times. Praise be to God and the manifest signs of his unfathomable power. There were more shocks during Wednesday night, and yet more in the last quarter of Friday night." - Ibn al-Qalanisi " In the early hours of the morning of Wednesday 21 Shawwal [21 June], there were some terrifying shocks which struck men's hearts with fear. [JW: It is not entirely certain that these shocks were in Damascus. This also records a well-removed aftershock]" - Ibn al-Qalanisi	V VI n/a n/a

This evidence suggests Intensities as high as V (5) or VI (6).

• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Felt? Light Shaking? No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"God Most High averted from Damascus and its environs the consequences which the people dreaded from the frequence and persistence of this quaking, out of His compassion and mercy towards them (to Him be the praise and thanks), but reports were received from Aleppo of the multitude of shocks there and the destruction of some of its dwellings. " - Ibn al-Qalanisi	II-IV II-IV II-IV

This evidence suggests Intensities between II (2) and IV (4).

• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Light Shaking at most No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"God spared Damascus and its districts from this terror, displaying his mercy to the inhabitants, all praise and thanks be to Him" - Ibn al-Qalanisi	I-III ?

This evidence suggests Intensities between I (1) and III (3).

• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
"a great earthquake shock" No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"On the eve of Wednesday, 19th Safar3 (3rd April), there was a great earthquake shock just about dawn . . . followed by another on the eve of the Thursday following . . . and another after the congregational prayer of the Friday following. A series of reports was received from the north relating the terrible effects of these earthquake shocks, both the earlier and the latter ones" - Ibn al-Qalanisi	V ?

This evidence suggests an Intensity of V (5).

• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
shaking No reports of damage, injuries or fatalities	Damascus		"On Thursday, 25th First Jumada (4th July) . . . and on the eve of Sunday, 4th Latter Jumada (14th July) repeated earthquake shocks occurred" - Ibn al-Qalanisi	III-IV ?

This evidence suggests Intensities between III (3) and V (5).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls (Mosque of Damascus fell) Displaced Wall Walls (damaged mosaics and marble plaques) Poeple fleeing	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"At the ninth hour on 4 Rajab in that year [12 August 1157], there was a dreadful earthquake at Damascus, such as had never been seen before; the shocks lasted so long that people fled in terror from their houses and shops and other covered places. In the confusion, numerous priceless objects were lost in the mosque [the Great Umayyad Mosque]. Immediately afterwards, there was another shock, which the will of God immediately brought to an end; hearts grew calm again and fear ceased. There were more shocks during the evening of that day, in the middle of the night and towards dawn, the last one being weaker than the others. On Friday 8 Rajab [16 August 1157], a dreadful shock spread panic again; it was followed by another shock in the middle of the night and a third at dawn. The same thing happened during the night of Saturday, Sunday and Monday, and on other days as well. When the earthquake struck Damascus [during the night of Monday 29 Rajab (6 September 1157)] people were terrified. [The date is missing from Ibn al-Qalanisi's text, but can be found in Abu Shama, al-Rawdatayn, I, 105, where the same news is reported], the inhabitants were panic stricken and fled from their homes and other covered places towards the Great Mosque and open spaces, fearing for their lives. After that first shock there was another: the gates of the city were opened and people poured out into the countryside, the fields outside the walls and the desert, thus spending some days in anguish and fear, begging God to save them." - Ibn al-Qalanisi "[552 Rajab 4 = 12 August 1157] On 4 Rajab a very violent earthquake, the like of which had never occurred before, occurred at Damascus. Shocks continued for quite a long time; fearing for their lives, people fled their houses, shops and covered markets. The shocks affected many parts of Damascus, and caused the mosque of Damascus to fall, together with such a large quantity of mosaics and marble plaques that it would be difficult to replace it with another. This earthquake was followed immediately by another; the shocks ceased; three earthquakes followed, one at the beginning of the night (lit. “at the beginning of the day”), the other in the middle of the night and the third at the end of the night. During the night of Friday 8 Rajab [16 August 1157], an awful earthquake occurred which sowed terror among the people; it was followed in the middle of the night by another earthquake; at first light [17 August 1157] a third earthquake occurred. The same happened on the nights of Saturday, Sunday and Monday [9, 10 and 11 Rajab = 17, 18 and 19 August 1157]. After this [12–19 August] the earthquakes proliferated to such an extent that a description of them would be too long. There were alarming reports from the North: at H’amat, the citadel and most of the houses collapsed on their inhabitants, the elderly, young children and a great number of women; very few people’s lives were saved. At Shayzar (MS B = Shiraz) the fortress of that town collapsed on the governor Taj ad-Daulat ibn Abi al-Askir ibn Munkid and his entourage; only those who were outside escaped. As for Hims, its inhabitants had abandoned it (al-Suyuti 81bis/27–28)." - as‑Suyūṭī "In 552 [August 1157, according to Ibn al-Athir] violent earthquakes took place in Damascus, Aleppo, Hamah, Shaizar, and in the most part of Syria and the Orient. " - Ibn Taghri Birdi	VIII+ VII+ ?

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls Collapsed Balconies (Mosque) - fallen columns Minaret Tops Collapsed (Mosque) fatalities (due to collapsed walls)	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"On the day of the apostles Peter and Paul, there was a terrible earthquake in Outremer, in which the city of Tripolis, a part of Damascus, the most of Antioch collapsed." - Robert of Torigni " In the other coastal towns, as well as Damascus, Emessa and Hamat, and in all the other cities and rural areas this earthquake caused disasters, but nowhere did one hear talk of a disaster comparable to that which occurred in Aleppo." - Michael the Syrian "The earthquake struck the whole region of Syria, Mesopotamia, Mawsil and Iraq. The most devastating effects were produced in Syria: there was very serious damage at Damascus, Ba'alabik, Hims, Hamat, Shayzar, Ba`rin, Aleppo and elsewhere; walls and citadels were destroyed everywhere; the walls of houses fell on to the inhabitants, who were killed in great numbers." - Ibn al‑Athir "In the month of Shawwal, there were terrible earthquakes in Syria, causing severe damage at Damascus: the balconies of the mosque [the Great Umayyad Mosque] collapsed, as well as the tops of the minarets, which shook like palm trees on a stormy day. " - Sibt ibn al‑Jawzi "On 12th Shawwal [29 June 1170] there were large and frightening earthquakes, one after the next, the like of which had never been seen. They were felt in most of the regions of Syria, Jazirah, as far as Mosul, and in Iraq, but above all in Syria. Great parts of Damascus, Baalbek, Emessa, Hamah, Shaizar, Barin, Aleppo etc. were ruined. Their walls and citadels were overthrown, and the houses collapsed on their inhabitants, as a result of which a countless multitude perished. " - Kemal ad-Din (aka Ibn Al-Adim) "An earthquake in Syria, Mesopotamia and almost all the world; it destroyed many walls and houses in Syria, more particularly at Damascus, Emessa, Apamea, Aleppo and Balbek" - as‑Suyūṭī	VIII+ V+ ? VIII+

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls Collapsed Domes Collapsed Crennalations (Collapsed Walls?) Collapsed Minarets fatalities (due to collapsed walls) people fled to open spaces (due to collapsed walls)	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"I have the honour to write to you-this letter, to inform you of the earthquake which took place during the night of Monday 26th Shaban, at the break of dawn, and which lasted for quite some time. One of us said that it lasted long enough to read the surat of the Koran entitled 'The Cavern'. One of the oldest men of Damascus attests that he had never felt anything equal to it. Among other damage caused by it in the city, sixteen crenellations of the great mosque and one of the minarets fell; another was split, as well as the leaden dome. The building called the Kallaseh was swallowed up, as the earth was open, and two men died; a man also died at the gate called the Gate of Jirun. There were several cracks in diverse parts of the mosque, and a great number of the city's houses fell." - Ibn al‑Latif al‑Baghdadi "In Syria, the effects were dreadful: many houses were destroyed at Damascus" - Ibn al-Athir "The earthquake spread as far as Damascus and caused the exterior minaret of the mosque to fall, as well as the greater part of al-Kalasa, and the Baymaristan of Nureddin. Most of the houses in Damascus were destroyed, with few exceptions. People fled to the square, sixteen of the crenellations fell from the mosque, and the dome of Nasr split in two before men's eyes." - Sibt ibn al-Jawzi "It was felt as far as Damascus, where it shook the tops of the minarets of the mosque, and several crenellations of the north wall. A maghrebin was killed at Kalasa and also a Mamluk Turk, [the latter] a slave of an official who lived in the Street of the Samaritans" - Sibt ibn al-Jawzi "The earthquake reached Damascus: part of the east minaret of the [Great Umayyad] mosque collapsed. There was massive damage to the lime kilns (al-Kallasa), the Nur al-Din hospital, and nearly all the houses in the city. The inhabitants ran out into the squares. Sixteen balconies fell from the [Umayyad] mosque, and the Nasr mausoleum split open. " - Abu Shama "there was also an earthquake and it destroyed many buildings and high walls in Damascus" - Bar Hebraeus "It encompassed Damascus: some of the minarets of the Umayyad Mosque were destroyed, and most of al-Kallasah and the Nuri hospital. The people fled to the public spaces. Sixteen galleries fell from the mosque. The Qubbah al-Nasr split." - Ibn al-Dawādārī	VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ ? VIII+ VIII+

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Displaced Walls	Damascus Old City of Damascus and its 7 gates Click on image to open in a new tab Zozo2kx at English Wikipedia - Public Domain Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"In the month of Sha'ban, there were great disturbances at Damascus." - al-Dhahabī "As far as I know, it was an earthquake; but God has greater knowledge." - al‑Yafiʿi "the earth split the walls of the Bab al-Faradis and reached the school of Muqaddamyya.’ (Ibn al-Hambali, Shadharat 5/381)" - Ibn al‑ʿImād	VII+

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Damaged Walls? ("Displaced walls") Damaged Towers? ("Displaced walls")	Damascus		"About noon, on the 14th of January AD 1546 there was a terrific earthquake in Jerusalem. As a result the vault of the Holy Tomb sunk and the walls and tower of the Temple were damaged and parts of them collapsed. The same happened in Damascus and great damage was done to other towns and villages; many people perished at sea and on land. Four towns in particular, Rama, Joppe, ‘Zozilgip and Sichem were totally destroyed by this earthquake to the extent that, with the exception of Damascus and Joppe, one can no longer recognise that there had been towns on these sites." - Letter by an Anonymous Venetian "On Thursday afternoon, 10th of Dhu’l-Qa’da 952, there occurred a great earthquake in Jerusalem, al-Khalil [Hebron], Gaza, al-Ramlah, alKarak, as-Salt, and Nablus which extended to Damascus." - Anonymous Continuator of Mujir Al-Din	VII+? VII+?

Although this evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VII (7) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224), the textual reports are vague about specific damage in Damascus and it is possible that damage was minimal and Intensity was lower (e.g. V).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls ("destroyed walls") Collapsed Walls ("destroyed walls") Debris due to Collapsed Walls Fatalities due to Collapsed Walls Minaret split (displaced walls) Two stones disloadged from a minaret (displaced walls) Minarets fell (collapsed walls) Collapsed Walls (Collapsed Buildings) Woke People Up Roofs swayed and shook Made Noise "Clatter" People frightened Some people fled	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Until this year, 1117, I had never seen the like of the succession of earthquakes which occurred day and night. They began on the night of Tuesday 7 Sha'ban: we were in our house which we had built on Mount Qasyun and the Salihiyah. The first earthquake occurred at ten at night and woke us up. We got out of bed and prayed. We were told that when the people of Damascus saw the roofs sway and heard the clatter, they thought that thieves were running on the roofs... After 11 hours of the night had passed, a stronger earthquake occurred, driving us out into the yard where we heard the people of Damascus crying out and shouting. This second earthquake lasted for two or three degrees. Two or three degrees later a lighter quake occurred. Things continued like this until Ramadan began, a light earthquake continuing every day and night, some people feeling them and some not. The second above-mentioned earthquake caused some houses to fall, destroyed walls and shook roofs and buildings in Damascus and its surrounding villages to such an extent that many people were killed in the debris. The top of the eastern minaret of the Umayyad Mosque was split and two stones fell from the top of the western minaret, but caused no damage. The upper portion of the Murshidiyah minaret fell in Salihiyah, as did the minaret of the Afram mosque and part of the buildings in Magharat al-Damm up on Mt Qasyun." - al-Nabalusi	VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ VII+ VII+ VIII+ VIII+ V V-VI V V V

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale
• Environmental Effects (ESI 2007)
  Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity
  
  click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab
  
  
• Synoptic Table of ESI 2007
  Plate I
  
  Synoptic Table of ESI 2007 Intensity Degrees - The accuracy of the assessment improves in the higher degrees of the scale, in particular in the range of occurrence of primary effects, typically starting from intensity VIII, and with growing resolution for intensity IX, X, XI and XII. Hence, in the yellow group of intensity degrees (XI-XII) they become the most effective tool for intensity assessment.
  
  click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab
  
  Michetti et al. (2007)
  Intensity Degrees from Michetti et al. (2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls                 Upper parts of almost all minarets fell E and N walls of E minaret of Great Umayyad Mosque collapsed cracked walls (displaced walls) parts of Umayyad and other mosques damaged victims (due to collapsed walls) uprooted trees shock lasted 2-3 minutes aftershocks 430 structures in need of repair due to both earthquakes	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus is three quarters destroyed." - Letter from the French Consulate in Saida - covers both earthquakes "Damascus, severe destruction and at least several hundred dead." - Boutros Jalfaq - covers both earthquakes "October the 30th, about four in the morning, we had a pretty severe shock ... letters from Damascus, where the same shock felt by us at Aleppo, and several other successive ones, had done considerable damage. From this time, we had daily accounts of earthquakes from Damascus, Tripoly, Seidon, Acri, and all along the coast of Syria; but so exaggerated in some circumstances, and so inaccurate in all, that we only knew in in general, that Damascus, Acri, and Seidon, have suffered injury from the earthquake, though less than was at first given out. the 25th of November ... The earthquake of the evening of the 25th has proved fatal to Damascus ; one-third of the city was thrown down, and of the people, numbers yet unknown perished in the ruins. The greater part of the surviving inhabitants fled to the fields, where they still continued, being hourly alarmed by slighter shocks, which deterred them from re-entering the city, or attempting the relief of such as might yet be saved, by clearing away the rubbish. Such was the purport of a letter I read this day, which was wrote from Damascus three days after the earthquake. Other accounts we have at this place, make the loss of the inhabitants amounts to 20,000; but, in circumstances of such general horror and confusion, little accuracy can be expected, and the eastern disposition to exaggeration reigns, at present, universally.." - Letter written by Patrick Russell in Aleppo on 2 and 7 Dec. 1759 CE "Rome, Nov, 10. The Society for propagating Christian knowledge in foreign parts, have received advice from their Missionaries in Syria, that after the dreadful earthquake, the city of Damas was visited with the plague, which made great havoc; and that the neighboring country had been ruined by a hurricane. ." - The London Chronicle "Gazette Issue No. 9, 1st March 1760 CE ... From Marseilles, February 22, 1760. From letters from Constantinople dated the beginning of last month, we learn that a great earthquake has been experienced in the Levant. It not only overthrew the City of Safet as was first reported; but also Antioch, Damascus, Tiberias and Jaffa. Gazette Issue No. 10, 8 March 1760 CE ... From Paris, 8 March 1760. ...Letters arrived recently from various places of Syria confirming the news of the repeated earthquakes which have destroyed most of the towns of this region. The two main tremors were felt last October 30, at three-quarters past three in the morning, and November 25, at a quarter past seven at night. The others were so numerous that they cannot be counted. Tripoli in Syria is no more than a heap of ruins, as are Saphet, Napouloufe (Nablus?), Damascus, several other cities, and a multitude of Towns and Villages." - La Gazette de France Partial List of Structures in Damascus slated for Repair no fewer than 430 structures that needed full or partial repair Umayyad Mosque Selimiye Mosque Süleymaniye Mosque Smaller Mosques Madrasas Soup Kitchens unspecified buildings walls, gates, and domes Muhyi al-Din al- ‘Arabi (Ibn ‘Arabi) tomb - Ottoman Work Orders in Damascus "In October, when no drop of rain had fallen so far..., a slight tremor was felt in Damascus followed by a second, then the earth shook violently,... The upper parts of almost all minarets of the mosques of Damascus fell,..., there was a lot of destruction and victims in Damascus and in the surrounding villages. The tremors followed one another... few trees remained standing. An epidemic broke out, the upper parts of the east and west minarets of the Umayyad Mosque fell. The tremors continued which caused the collapse of the eastern and northern walls of the eastern minaret the Umayyad mosque... around fifteen mosques are mentioned by name; the eastern wall of the Mosque "Al-MAZBOUR" cracked,... ... then, on the evening of Monday, the 6th of the month Rabi II (Nov 25, 1759), the earthquake occurred. supreme, never known in the past,..., the eastern minaret we mentioned fell, on the side of the mosque, by destroying part of the 3 "Mihrabs", the majestic dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the mosque, despite its well-built columns,...; there were a lot of victims this night in Damascus as well as in the villages of the surroundings in Tell there were victims; people have left Damascus and stayed 3 months in tents,..., the Umayyad mosque contains 3 minarets including the eastern called minaret of Isa (Jesus) son of Mary, peace be upon him..., the tremor of 30 OCT lasted 2 to 3 minutes,... that of 25 NOV lasted 4 minutes..., (TAHA)." - al-Budayr from Ayalon (2014:61) paraphrase of the account in Mikha’il Burayk (1982:78-80) It was three hours before sunrise on 19 October 1759, and Mikha’il Burayk, a Greek Orthodox resident of Damascus, was sleeping.1 Suddenly he woke up: The earth was shaking. In the morning, cries were heard all over the city as the damage of the nocturnal earthquake was discovered. Many houses were razed, and parts of the Umayyad and other mosques were damaged. That disaster turned out to be a prelude to another, more violent quake. The next month, late in the evening, a “strong and frightening earthquake” again hit the city. “Walls were torn down, foundations weakened, minarets collapsed, and the Umayyad mosque with its minarets, domes and baths was destroyed.” Numerous other buildings were ruined too, among them the Greek Church, and fires broke out in many quarters. In the next few days, city residents left in mass numbers and settled temporarily in gardens surrounding the city, where they set up huts as provisional lodging.2 Footnotes 1 Sections of this chapter are taken from my IJMES article, “Ottoman urban privacy. 2 Mikha’il Burayk, Ta’rikh al-sham (Damascus: Dar Qutayba, 1982), 78–80. - Mikha'il al‑Burayk	VIII+ VIII+ VIII+ VII+ VII+ VIII+ VIII-XII VIII+? ? VIII?

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

• Earthquake Archeological Effects chart
  Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)
  
  click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab
  
  Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
  of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)
• Subjective MMI Intensity
  Subjective MMI Intensity Scale
  
  Click on image to open in a new tab
  Scale
• Environmental Effects (ESI 2007)
  Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity
  
  click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab
  
  
• Synoptic Table of ESI 2007
  Plate I
  
  Synoptic Table of ESI 2007 Intensity Degrees - The accuracy of the assessment improves in the higher degrees of the scale, in particular in the range of occurrence of primary effects, typically starting from intensity VIII, and with growing resolution for intensity IX, X, XI and XII. Hence, in the yellow group of intensity degrees (XI-XII) they become the most effective tool for intensity assessment.
  
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  Michetti et al. (2007)
  Intensity Degrees from Michetti et al. (2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Collapsed Walls                 one third of city thrown down (collapsed walls) More violent than 30 Oct. 1759 CE Quake foundations weakened Fatalities due to collapsed walls Fires Minarets fell (displaced walls) Mosques damaged (displaced walls) dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the great ummayad mosque (collapsed vault) people fled to countryside shock lasted 4 minutes aftershocks 430 structures in need of repair due to both earthquakes	Damascus Sauvaget’s reconstructed plan of “ancient/medieval Damascus" Click on image to open in a new tab Sauvaget (1949)		"Damascus is three quarters destroyed." - Letter from the French Consulate in Saida - covers both earthquakes "Damascus, severe destruction and at least several hundred dead." - Boutros Jalfaq - covers both earthquakes "October the 30th, about four in the morning, we had a pretty severe shock ... letters from Damascus, where the same shock felt by us at Aleppo, and several other successive ones, had done considerable damage. From this time, we had daily accounts of earthquakes from Damascus, Tripoly, Seidon, Acri, and all along the coast of Syria; but so exaggerated in some circumstances, and so inaccurate in all, that we only knew in in general, that Damascus, Acri, and Seidon, have suffered injury from the earthquake, though less than was at first given out. the 25th of November ... The earthquake of the evening of the 25th has proved fatal to Damascus ; one-third of the city was thrown down, and of the people, numbers yet unknown perished in the ruins. The greater part of the surviving inhabitants fled to the fields, where they still continued, being hourly alarmed by slighter shocks, which deterred them from re-entering the city, or attempting the relief of such as might yet be saved, by clearing away the rubbish. Such was the purport of a letter I read this day, which was wrote from Damascus three days after the earthquake. Other accounts we have at this place, make the loss of the inhabitants amounts to 20,000; but, in circumstances of such general horror and confusion, little accuracy can be expected, and the eastern disposition to exaggeration reigns, at present, universally.." - Letter written by Patrick Russell in Aleppo on 2 and 7 Dec. 1759 CE "Rome, Nov, 10. The Society for propagating Christian knowledge in foreign parts, have received advice from their Missionaries in Syria, that after the dreadful earthquake, the city of Damas was visited with the plague, which made great havoc; and that the neighboring country had been ruined by a hurricane. ." - The London Chronicle "Gazette Issue No. 9, 1st March 1760 CE ... From Marseilles, February 22, 1760. From letters from Constantinople dated the beginning of last month, we learn that a great earthquake has been experienced in the Levant. It not only overthrew the City of Safet as was first reported; but also Antioch, Damascus, Tiberias and Jaffa. Gazette Issue No. 10, 8 March 1760 CE ... From Paris, 8 March 1760. ...Letters arrived recently from various places of Syria confirming the news of the repeated earthquakes which have destroyed most of the towns of this region. The two main tremors were felt last October 30, at three-quarters past three in the morning, and November 25, at a quarter past seven at night. The others were so numerous that they cannot be counted. Tripoli in Syria is no more than a heap of ruins, as are Saphet, Napouloufe (Nablus?), Damascus, several other cities, and a multitude of Towns and Villages." - La Gazette de France Partial List of Structures in Damascus slated for Repair no fewer than 430 structures that needed full or partial repair Umayyad Mosque Selimiye Mosque Süleymaniye Mosque Smaller Mosques Madrasas Soup Kitchens unspecified buildings walls, gates, and domes Muhyi al-Din al- ‘Arabi (Ibn ‘Arabi) tomb - Ottoman Work Orders in Damascus "In October, when no drop of rain had fallen so far..., a slight tremor was felt in Damascus followed by a second, then the earth shook violently,... The upper parts of almost all minarets of the mosques of Damascus fell,..., there was a lot of destruction and victims in Damascus and in the surrounding villages. The tremors followed one another... few trees remained standing. An epidemic broke out, the upper parts of the east and west minarets of the Umayyad Mosque fell. The tremors continued which caused the collapse of the eastern and northern walls of the eastern minaret the Umayyad mosque... around fifteen mosques are mentioned by name; the eastern wall of the Mosque "Al-MAZBOUR" cracked,... ... then, on the evening of Monday, the 6th of the month Rabi II (Nov 25, 1759), the earthquake occurred. supreme, never known in the past,..., the eastern minaret we mentioned fell, on the side of the mosque, by destroying part of the 3 "Mihrabs", the majestic dome of the eagle fell as well as the entire northern part of the mosque, despite its well-built columns,...; there were a lot of victims this night in Damascus as well as in the villages of the surroundings in Tell there were victims; people have left Damascus and stayed 3 months in tents,..., the Umayyad mosque contains 3 minarets including the eastern called minaret of Isa (Jesus) son of Mary, peace be upon him..., the tremor of 30 OCT lasted 2 to 3 minutes,... that of 25 NOV lasted 4 minutes..., (TAHA)." - al-Budayr from Ayalon (2014:61) paraphrase of the account in Mikha’il Burayk (1982:78-80) It was three hours before sunrise on 19 October 1759, and Mikha’il Burayk, a Greek Orthodox resident of Damascus, was sleeping.1 Suddenly he woke up: The earth was shaking. In the morning, cries were heard all over the city as the damage of the nocturnal earthquake was discovered. Many houses were razed, and parts of the Umayyad and other mosques were damaged. That disaster turned out to be a prelude to another, more violent quake. The next month, late in the evening, a “strong and frightening earthquake” again hit the city. “Walls were torn down, foundations weakened, minarets collapsed, and the Umayyad mosque with its minarets, domes and baths was destroyed.” Numerous other buildings were ruined too, among them the Greek Church, and fires broke out in many quarters. In the next few days, city residents left in mass numbers and settled temporarily in gardens surrounding the city, where they set up huts as provisional lodging.2 Footnotes 1 Sections of this chapter are taken from my IJMES article, “Ottoman urban privacy. 2 Mikha’il Burayk, Ta’rikh al-sham (Damascus: Dar Qutayba, 1982), 78–80. - Mikha'il al‑Burayk	VIII+ VIII+ > VIII+ IX VIII+ ? VII+ VII+ VIII+ ? ? ? VIII+

This evidence requires a minimum Intensity of IX (9) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224).

Wellhausen (1927:382-383) relates that in the summer of 746 CE (A.H. 128) during the 3rd Muslim Civil War, Marwan II ordered the walls of Hims, Jerusalem, Baalbek, Damascus, and other prominent Syrian cities razed to the ground. In Theophanes entry for A.M._a 6237, we can read in Mango and Scott (1997:587)'s translation (Turtledove's translation is available here):

[A.M. 6237, AD 744/5]

• Constantine, 5th year
• Marouam, 2nd year
• Zacharias, 12th year
• Anastasios, 16th year
• Theophylaktos, 2nd year

...

At that time Marouam, after victoriously taking Emesa [aka Homs], killed all the relatives and freedmen of Isam. He also demolished the walls of Helioupolis^h [aka Baalbek] Damascus, and Jerusalem, put to death many powerful men, and maimed those remaining in the said cities.