Byblos

Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Bublos	Greek	Βύβλος
Byblus	Latin
Jubayl	Arabic	جبيل
Jebeil	Arabic	جبيل
Gibelet	Crusades
Giblet	Crusades
gbl	Syriac	ܓܒܠ
Gebal	Phoenician
Geval, Gebal	Hebrew Bible	גבל
Kebny	Egyptian hieroglyphic records going back to the 4th-dynasty pharaoh Sneferu
kbn, kpny, kbny	Egyptian
Gubla	Akkadian cuneiform Amarna letters to the 18th-dynasty pharaohs Amenhotep III and IV.
Gubla	Babylonian

Introduction

Byblos is located on the Phoenician coast and has a long history of occupation dating back more than 7000 years. The city played an important role in Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange. The very name for the Bible is derived from Byblos, as Egyptian papyrus was shipped to Greece via this port ( Martha Sharp Joukowsky in Meyers et al. 1997). Byblos thus occupies a unique place in Near Eastern archaeology and intellectual history, serving as a nexus between Egypt, the Levant, and the Greek world.

Identification and Exploration

from Martha Sharp Joukowsky in Meyers et al (1997)

Byblos is a seaport located in Lebanon, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the Lebanese mountains 60 km (25 mi.) north of Beirut on the Tripoli highway, (approx. 34° N, 36° E). The site has been known throughout its long history in several variants on its name: in modern Arabic as Jebail, Jebeil, Jubail; by the Crusaders as Gibelet; in biblical Hebrew as Gebal (1 Kgs. 5:18,32, Ez. 2 7:9, Jos. 13:5) in Egyptian as kbn, kpny, kbny; and in Babylonian as Gubla. The Greeks probably gave the city its name at about the end of the second millennium BCE — the Greek bublos, "papyrus scroll." Egyptian papyrus came to Greece through Phoenicia and Byblos for transshipment to the Aegean area. The English word Bible is derived through medieval Latin from the Greek ta Biblia, "the books".

In Naples, Italy, in 1881, a sandstone bust from Byblos surfaced in the antiquities market. It was of Osorkon I, pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty (924-889 BCE), and it had on it a cartouche and a Phoenician alphabetic dedicatory inscription by King Elibaal of Byblos. It was sold in Paris in 1910 and subsequently donated to the Louvre Museum (where it remains); in 1925 Rene Dussaud translated the inscription. Also in the Drehem archives (the Ur III archives in Drehem, just south of Nippur) and dated to about 2050 BCE is the earliest cuneiform economic text referring to Byblos, mentioning Ibdadi, the ensi (a title meaning "ruler" in Sumerian) of Byblos (Ward, 1963).

In 1860 the French savant Ernest Renan, representing Napoleon III's mission in Phoenicia, located Byblos, made several soundings (even though twenty-nine houses occupied the site), and sketched the site and the sacred spring, the arched and roofed "Pool of the Phoenician Princess." In 1864 he published his findings and inscriptions, including the Renan bas-relief now also in the Louvre. The city was recognized as Byblos certainly by 1899. French archaeologist Pierre Montet undertook four campaigns (1921-1924) there, which uncovered the so-called Egyptian and Syrian temples (later identified as the single Temple of Baalat Gebal), along with three mutilated limestone colossi and many Egyptian Old Kingdom inscriptions, which he published in 1928 (Montet, 1928). A landslide in 1922 revealed the sarcophagus of a Byblite king with gifts from the Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhat III (c. nineteenth century BCE); eight other tombs were excavated in this royal necropolis. In 1930 the Lebanese government expropriated the houses built on the site. In 1926 the commissioner of France in Syria reopened the excavations, sponsored by the Lebanese government and the French Academy of Inscriptions and under the direction of French archaeologist Maurice Dunand. Dunand excavated from 1928 until the Lebanese civil war in the 1970s, under the auspices of the Lebanese government and the Louvre.

Maps, Aerial Views, Drawings, and Photos

Fig. 2 Simplified structural map

Figure 2

Simplified structural map of Lebanon and studied sites.

Morhange et al (2006)

of Lebanon from Morhange et al (2006)
Byblos in Google Earth

Byblos

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
Fig. 3 Drawing of Raised Benches

Figure 3

On the northern part of Ilot du Phare (Tripoli), marks of a double raised bench have been preserved. The lowest step, at approx. +1 m (above present MSL), comprises Dendropoma dated 2630 ± 35 BP (403-265 cal. BC). The outer part of the upper step, at approx. +1.2 m, has been dissected by erosion, but on the inner part, that corresponds to the base of a tidal notch, a thin cover of in situ Dendropoma petraeum shells have been collected and dated 5975 ± 40 BP (4514-4339 cal. BC).

Morhange et al (2006)

at Ilot du Phare (Tripoli) from Morhange et al (2006)
Fig. 4 Photo of raised shoreline

Figure 4

On Ilot du Phare, a double, stepped biological bioconstruction has been preserved on the walls of a rock fissure, at approx. +1 and +1.3 m, respectively (arrows). The upper rim could not be reached for sampling, but the two organic cornices clearly indicate, with an uncertainty of ± 0.2 m, the position of the biological sea level corresponding to two former shorelines (Photo G672). The lower rim was dated 2630 ± 35 BP (403-265 cal. BC).

Morhange et al (2006)

at Ilot du Phare from Morhange et al (2006)
Panoramic View of Byblos

Panoramic View of Byblos

Courtesy of Garen Bosnoyan (2022)

- Photo by Garen Bosnoyan (2022)

Survival of Apollodorus Earthquake - 2nd - early 4th century CE

Discussion

References

Ambraseys (2009)

Ambraseys (2009) discussed an inscription found in Byblos which may allude to the 303–306 CE Eusebius Martyr Quake,

There is also an inscription from an altar in Byblus that records the survival of one Apollodorus after an earthquake Dussaud (1896:299). The inscription is dated by Seyrig to the second or third century, which would seem to indicate that it is not connected with this earthquake (H. Seyrig, personal communication 5 July 1972). However, since provincial epigraphy is often slower to change than that in major centres, and there is no other earthquake recorded for this location during the second or third century, the inscription has been very tentatively allocated to this event.

Potential Historical Tsunami Date Assignments from Megablocks

from Morhange et al (2006:90-91)

It is an oversimplification to attribute the tsunami triggering mechanism solely to earthquake-induced seabed faulting. In some areas sediment slides may be the dominant factor of tsunami generation. In other areas, extreme storm surges leave facies which cannot be unequivocally differentiated from tsunami signatures. For example in Haifa, northern Israel a huge block was projected onto the beach during the severe storm of 2002 (Galili, pers. commun., Fig. 14). Although present day storms in the Mediterranean may displace blocks of significant size, a tsunami origin seems a feasible explanation for most of the megablocks encountered on the Lebanon coasts.

A review of the vertical movements having affected Lebanon during the late Holocene shows that tectonic uplift of the coastal areas occurred around 3000 yr BP, in the 6th century AD, and possibly in the 10th to 11th centuries AD (Pirazzoli 2005, Morhange et al., submitted). It is important to note that none of these periods coincides with the megablock dates. This suggests that they were possibly projected by waves coming from outer tsunamigenic areas. It is surprising to note that the 4th and 5th centuries AD (e.g. the tsunami of 365 AD), a period of tectonic paroxysm in the eastern Mediterranean (Pirazzoli 1986, Pirazzoli et al. 1996), are not represented by the dated megablocks.

Correlation with chronicled tsunami events is given in Table 1. Tsunami and earthquake catalogues do not provide any information on the mid-Holocene date from Ile du Palmier. Conversely, displacement of the Byblos megablocks are consistent with the 1456 AD, and 1534 or 1546 AD tsunami events, whereas the dated Senani island megablock could have been projected by any of the tsunami events reported in the area in 1752,1759,1822,1856, or 1870 AD.

Table 1

Tentative correlation between radiocarbon dates obtained from megablocks sampled on the Lebanon coast and historical tsunamis reported by catalogues for the Eastern Mediterranean (coastal areas indicated by catalogues as tsunami-affected are added in brackets).

Morhange et al (2006)

11th century BCE Coastal Uplift

Discussion

References

Notes by JW

Morhange et al. (2006:91) noted that

A review of the vertical movements having affected Lebanon during the late Holocene shows that tectonic uplift of the coastal areas occurred around 3000 yr BP, in the 6th century AD, and possibly in the 10th to 11th centuries AD (Pirazzoli 2005, Morhange et al., submitted).

6th century CE Coastal Uplift

Discussion

References

Notes by JW

Carayon et al. (2011) discussed 6 cores taken in Byblos — 2 in the northern harbor and 4 in the bay of El-Skhiny. The study focused on geomorphic evolution of the harbor. Core profiles were not presented. There is no mention of tsunamogenic evidence.

Morhange et al. (2006:91) noted that

A review of the vertical movements having affected Lebanon during the late Holocene shows that tectonic uplift of the coastal areas occurred around 3000 yr BP, in the 6th century AD, and possibly in the 10th to 11th centuries AD (Pirazzoli 2005, Morhange et al., submitted).

10th - 11th century CE Coastal Uplift

Discussion

References

Notes by JW

Morhange et al. (2006:91) noted that

A review of the vertical movements having affected Lebanon during the late Holocene shows that tectonic uplift of the coastal areas occurred around 3000 yr BP, in the 6th century AD, and possibly in the 10th to 11th centuries AD (Pirazzoli 2005, Morhange et al., submitted).

11th century BCE Coastal Uplift

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Coastal Uplift	Levantine Coast from Turkey to Lebanon Uplift reported in Levantine Coast around 3000 yr BP (11th century BCE) by Morhange et al. (2006a) Map created by JW using Google Earth Click on image to open in a new tab		Morhange et al. (2006a:112) report that "seismotectonic displacement(s)" uplifted the northern Levantine coast "around 3000 BP," with the amplitude of uplift progressively decreasing from levantine Turkey toward southern Lebanon. Morhange et al. (2006a:111) further note that on the Syrian coast an uplifted shoreline occurs between "+0.7 and +2.8 m and is dated to ca. 2900–2800 BP (Dalongeville et al., 1993)," while in the Orontes delta region of Turkey the coast was uplifted by approximately "+2 m around 3000 BP (Pirazzoli et al., 1991)." They add that "south of Lebanon, from Israel to Gaza and the Sinai, no evidence is found for an elevated shoreline above present MSL (Galili et al., 1998; Sivan et al., 2001)," indicating that "only the northern Levant coast was uplifted around 3000 BP."

6th century CE Coastal Uplift

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Coastal Uplift	Lebanese Coast Figure 2 Structural map of Lebanon and adjacent areas. Sample locations and their corresponding elevation above sea level are shown on the left-hand side of the figure Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006a)	Figure 2B Uplifted, karst-pitted vermetid benches near Tabarja. Click on image to open in a new tab Elias et al (2007) Figure 3 On the northern part of IIe du Phare (Tripoli), marks of a double raised bench have been preserved. The lowest step, at approx. +1 m (above present MSL), comprises Dendropoma dated 2630 ± 35 BP (403-265 cal. BC). The outer part of the upper step, at approx. +1.2 m, has been dissected by erosion, but on the inner part, that corresponds to the base of a tidal notch, a thin cover of in situ Dendropoma petraeum shells have been collected and dated 5975 ± 40 BP (4514-4339 cal. BC). Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006b)	Morhange et al. (2006a) dated fossil vermetids on uplifted benches to establish when they were last situated in the subtidal zone (close to mean sea level). These data, when combined with the structural evidence, strongly support attributing the uplift of ~80 ± 30 cm to the 551 CE Beirut earthquake.

10th - 11th century CE Coastal Uplift

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description
Coastal Uplift	Lebanese and Syrian Coast Figure 2 Structural map of Lebanon and adjacent areas. Sample locations and their corresponding elevation above sea level are shown on the left-hand side of the figure Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006a)		Morhange et al. (2006a:111) reported that following the 6th century CE coastal uplift associated with the 551 CE Beirut earthquake, sea level remained relatively stable until a subsequent rise was recorded by marine crusts preserved at Ras el-Bassit (Syria), located at an elevation of +60 ± 20 cm. above MSL (Mean Sea Level). These crusts are dated by six consistent radiocarbon measurements to between the 10th and 11th centuries CE (Sanlaville et al. 1997). Morhange et al. (2006a:111) further observed that two samples from Bouar and Khaizerane in Lebanon indicate a comparable, rapid, and likely tectonic relative sea-level rise of several decimetres. In a complementary study, Morhange et al. (2006b:91) suggested that “tectonic uplift of the coastal areas” may have taken place during the 10th–11th centuries CE (Pirazzoli 2005; Morhange et al., submitted).

11th century BCE Coastal Uplift

Earthquake Environmental

Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity

click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab

Effects (ESI 2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Coastal Uplift	Levantine Coast from Turkey to Lebanon Uplift reported in Levantine Coast around 3000 yr BP (11th century BCE) by Morhange et al. (2006a) Map created by JW using Google Earth Click on image to open in a new tab		Morhange et al. (2006a:112) report that "seismotectonic displacement(s)" uplifted the northern Levantine coast "around 3000 BP," with the amplitude of uplift progressively decreasing from levantine Turkey toward southern Lebanon. Morhange et al. (2006a:111) further note that on the Syrian coast an uplifted shoreline occurs between "+0.7 and +2.8 m and is dated to ca. 2900–2800 BP (Dalongeville et al., 1993)," while in the Orontes delta region of Turkey the coast was uplifted by approximately "+2 m around 3000 BP (Pirazzoli et al., 1991)." They add that "south of Lebanon, from Israel to Gaza and the Sinai, no evidence is found for an elevated shoreline above present MSL (Galili et al., 1998; Sivan et al., 2001)," indicating that "only the northern Levant coast was uplifted around 3000 BP."	VIII

Since Morhange et al. (2006a:112) reports that the amplitude of seismotectonic displacement(s) "around 3000 BP" progressively decreased from levantine Turkey toward southern Lebanon, Intensity is estimated at VIII using the the ESI-2007 Earthquake Environmental Effects Chart.

6th century CE Coastal Uplift

Earthquake Environmental

Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity

click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab

Effects (ESI 2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Coastal Uplift	Lebanese Coast Figure 2 Structural map of Lebanon and adjacent areas. Sample locations and their corresponding elevation above sea level are shown on the left-hand side of the figure Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006a)	Figure 2B Uplifted, karst-pitted vermetid benches near Tabarja. Click on image to open in a new tab Elias et al (2007) Figure 3 On the northern part of IIe du Phare (Tripoli), marks of a double raised bench have been preserved. The lowest step, at approx. +1 m (above present MSL), comprises Dendropoma dated 2630 ± 35 BP (403-265 cal. BC). The outer part of the upper step, at approx. +1.2 m, has been dissected by erosion, but on the inner part, that corresponds to the base of a tidal notch, a thin cover of in situ Dendropoma petraeum shells have been collected and dated 5975 ± 40 BP (4514-4339 cal. BC). Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006b)	Morhange et al. (2006a) dated fossil vermetids on uplifted benches to establish when they were last situated in the subtidal zone (close to mean sea level). These data, when combined with the structural evidence, strongly support attributing the uplift of ~80 ± 30 cm to the 551 CE Beirut earthquake.	IX

The paleoseismic evidence suggests an Intensity of IX (9) when using the ESI-2007 Earthquake Environmental Effects Chart.

10th - 11th century CE Coastal Uplift

Earthquake Environmental

Graphic Representation of ESI 2007 Intensity

click on image to open a higher resolution version in a new tab

Effects (ESI 2007)

Effect	Location	Image(s)	Description	Intensity
Coastal Uplift	Lebanese and Syrian Coast Figure 2 Structural map of Lebanon and adjacent areas. Sample locations and their corresponding elevation above sea level are shown on the left-hand side of the figure Click on image to open in a new tab Morhange et al. (2006a)		Morhange et al. (2006a:111) reported that following the 6th century CE coastal uplift associated with the 551 CE Beirut earthquake, sea level remained relatively stable until a subsequent rise was recorded by marine crusts preserved at Ras el-Bassit (Syria), located at an elevation of +60 ± 20 cm. above MSL (Mean Sea Level). These crusts are dated by six consistent radiocarbon measurements to between the 10th and 11th centuries CE (Sanlaville et al. 1997). Morhange et al. (2006a:111) further observed that two samples from Bouar and Khaizerane in Lebanon indicate a comparable, rapid, and likely tectonic relative sea-level rise of several decimetres. In a complementary study, Morhange et al. (2006b:91) suggested that “tectonic uplift of the coastal areas” may have taken place during the 10th–11th centuries CE (Pirazzoli 2005; Morhange et al., submitted).	VIII

The paleoseismic evidence suggests an Intensity of VIII (8) when using the ESI-2007 Earthquake Environmental Effects Chart.

References

Articles and Books

Carayon, N. and N. Marriner (2011). "Geoarchaeology of Byblos, Tyre, Sidon and Beirut." Rivista di studi fenici XXXIX: 55-66.

Dussaud, R. (1897). "VOYAGE EN SYRIE Octobre-novembre 1896 NOTES ARCHÉOLOGIQUES." Revue archéologique 30: 305-357.

Elias, A., et al. (2007). "Active thrusting offshore Mount Lebanon: Source of the tsunamigenic A.D. 551 Beirut-Tripoli earthquake." Geology 35(8): 755-758.

Morhange, C., et al. (2006a). "Late Holocene relative sea-level changes in Lebanon, Eastern Mediterranean." Marine Geology 230(1): 99-114.

Morhange, C., Marriner, Nick, Pirazzoli, P. (2006b). "Evidence of late Holocene tsunami events in Lebanon." Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie 146: 81-95.

Okada, Y. (1985). "Surface deformation due to shear and tensile faults in a half-space." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 75: 1135-1154.

Sanlaville P, Dalongeville R, Bernier P, Evin J (1997) The Syrian coast: a model of Holocene coastal evolution. J Coast Res 13(2): 385–396 - JSTOR

Sarieddine, K. (2022). Seismic Interpretation and Analysis of the Messinian Salt system Offshore Lebanon. Msc Thesis, American University of Beirut. 121p

SHALIMAR Oceanographic cruise 27/09/2003 - 26/10/2003 Data Page

Sivan, D., Schattner, U., Morhange, C., Boaretto, E. (2010). "What can a sessile mollusk tell about neotectonics?" Earth and Planetary Science Letters 296(3): 451-458.

Bibliography from Meyers et al (1997)

Albright, William Foxwell. "The Eighteenth-Century Princes of Byblos and the Chronology of thee Middle Bronze. " Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no . 17 6 (Nov. 1989): 38-46.

Breasted, James H, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. 5 vols. Chicago, 1906-1907.

Dunand , Maurice. Fouilles de Byblos. 5 vols. Paris, 1937-1958.

Dunand , Maurice. "Rapport preliminaire sur les fouilles de Byblos." Bulletin duMusiede Beyrouth 9 (1949-1950): 53-74 ; 12 (1955): 7-23 ; 13 (1956): 73-86 ; 16 (1964): 69-85. Reports by the site's most prolific excavator.

Dunand , Maurice. Byblos: Its History, Ruins, and Legends. 2d ed. Beirut, 1968.

Jidejian, Nina. Byblos through the Ages. Beirut, 1968. Comprehensive history of Byblos through tine ages, with strong coverage of ancient, classical, and contemporary references. Includes a good bibliography through the late 1960s.

Joukowsky, Mardia Sharp. The Young Archaeologist in the Oldest Port City in the World. Beirut, 1988, Children's book exploring the history and archaeology of Byblos

Montet, Pierre. Byblos et I'Egypte: Quatre campagnes de fouilles d Gebeil 1021-1024. Paris, 1929. Comprehensive publication of four early expeditions.

Pritchard, James B. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Tes~ lament. 3d ed, with supp. Princeton, 1978.

Renan, Ernest. Mission de Phenicie. Paris, 1864. One of the earliest works on Phoenician sites.

Tufhell, Olga, and William A. Ward. "Relations between Byblos, Egypt, and Mesopotamia at the End of the Third Millennium B.C. " Syria 43 (1966): 165-241 . Specialized study of the Montet jar and its contents; see Ward and Dever (below) for a recent study of the jar.

Ward, William A. "Egypt and the East Mediterranean in the Early Second Millennium B. C. " Or 30 (1961): 22-45 , 129-155.

Ward, William A. "Egypt and the East Mediterranean from Pre-Dynastic Times to die End of the Old Kingdom. " Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 6 (1963): 1-57. Survey of political and cultural relations between Egypt, Asia, and the Aegean world.

Ward, William A., and William G. Dever. Studies on Scarab Seals. Vol. 3, Scarab Typologies and Archaeological Context. San Antonio, 1994. See chapter 4 for the most recent study of the Montet jar and its contents.

Mega Blocks

Photos of Mega Blocks on the Coast

Description	Image	Source
Ilot du Palmier megablock	Figure 5 Ilot du Palmier is characterised by numerous megablocks, 50 to 100 m from the present coastline. The volume of the photographed megablock is approx. 3.5 m³. Superficial Dendropoma crusts yielded a radiocarbon age of 5155 ± 40 BP (3639-3489 cal. BC). Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 5 - Morhange et al (2006)
Senani island megablock	Figure 6 On Senani island, megablocks are scattered on the windward side. Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 6 - Morhange et al (2006)
Senani island megablock	Figure 7 A large tsunami block on Senani island approx. 30m³ and 10 m from the shoreline is encrusted with biological remains dated 525 ± 40 BP (1690-1950 cal. AD). Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 7 - Morhange et al (2006)
South of Enfe megablock	Figure 8 South of Enfe, rare cyclopean blocks arc covered by Dendropoma. Photo of a 12 m³ block radio-carbon dated to modern times (Ly 11578). Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 8 - Morhange et al (2006)
Byblos megablock	Figure 9 Byblos, a 5.5 m³ block projected towards the base of the ancient sea wall, encrusted with upper subtidal vermetid shells, dated 855 ± 30 yr BP (1436-1511 cal. AD). Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 9 - Morhange et al (2006)
Byblos megablock	Figure 10 20 m³ conglomerate block at Byblos, dated 710 ± 30 yr BP (1528-1673 cal. AD). Morhange et al (2006)	Fig. 10 - Morhange et al (2006)

Abstract of Morhange et al (2006) - Megablock tsunami evidence

Summary. We present new evidence of megablocks left by extreme waves around the Tripoli islands and Byblos, northern Lebanon. On Ile du Palmier, megablocks have been projected a distance of 50 to 100 m from the shoreline. A Dendropoma bioconstruction was sampled from the outer part of one of the blocks, approx. 3.5 m³ in size and located 60 m from the shore. It dates a mid-Holocene event (5155 ± 40 ¹⁴C years BP, or 3639-3489 cal. yr BC) deriving from the west. On the nearby island of Senani, numerous megablocks are scattered on the flat island surface. Their position again suggests projection by westerly waves. One of the blocks, approx. 30 m³ in size and 10 m from the shoreline, yielded a radiocarbon age of 525 ± 40 BP (1690-1950 cal. AD). Further south, at Byblos, a 5.5 m³ block projected towards the base of the ancient sea wall, was encrusted with upper subtidal vermetid shells, constrained to 855 ± 30 yr BP (1436-1511 cal. AD). A nearby 20 m³ conglomerate block was dated 710 ± 30 yr BP (1528-1673 cal. AD). A tsunami origin seems a feasible explanation for most of the megablocks encountered. Review of the vertical movements having affected the Lebanese coast during the late Holocene shows that major uplift of coastal areas occurred around 3000 yr BP, in the 6th century AD, and possibly in the 10th to 11th centuries AD. None of these periods coincide with the megablock dates, suggesting that the tsunami waves derived from outer tsunamigenic areas.

Wikipedia pages

Byblos

from wikipedia

Byblos syllabary

from wikipedia

Sampling Info from Morhange et al. (2006a)

Table 1

Table

from Morhange et al. (2006a)
Caveat: Generated from GPT 5 - not fully QCed

Field Ref	Material	Elevation (cm)	Radiocarbon Age (BP)	Cal. BC/AD	Lab Ref	Latitude (°)	Longitude (°)
LIB 2000-23	Dendropoma petraeum	100 ± 20	2630±35	403–265 BC	Ly 10447	34.49667	35.76050
LIB 2000-22	Dendropoma petraeum	110 ± 20	5975±40	4514–4339 BC	Lyon 1467 (GrA 18402)	34.50000	35.75000
MC 146	*Vermetus sp.	60	1880±50	427–651 AD	MC 146	34.48333	35.76667
MC 145	*Vermetus sp.	220 (?)	3490±80	1596–1220 BC	MC 145	34.48333	35.76667
LIB 2000-21	Dendropoma petraeum	80 ± 10	1810±35	548–676 AD	Ly 10446	34.49583	35.77417
LIB 2000-24	Dendropoma petraeum	35 ± 15	2195±30	96–253 AD	Ly 10448	34.30000	35.66667
LIB 2001-11	Vermetus gigas	40 ± 15	1930±25	410–550 AD	Lyon 2090 (Poz)	34.29767	35.67017
LIB 2000-20	Vermetus sp.	20 ± 15	2075±35	235–414 AD	Ly 10445	34.28467	35.66033
LIB 2001-18	Dendropoma petraeum	50 ± 10	2615±25	400–250 BC	Lyon 2091 (Poz)	34.28467	35.66033
LIB 2000-19	Dendropoma petraeum	60 ± 15	2585±35	375–191 BC	Ly 10444	34.28367	35.65867
LIB 2000-18	Dendropoma petraeum	0 ± 15	2750±35	631–387 BC	Ly 10443	34.28367	35.65867
LIB 2000-18A	Dendropoma petraeum	0 ± 15	2600±30	381–214 BC	Ly 11580	34.28367	35.65867
LIB 2000-9	Dendropoma petraeum	100 ± 10	2485±35	270–70 BC	Ly 10439	34.20983	35.64733
LIB 2000-10	Dendropoma petraeum	110 ± 10	2340±30	62 BC–85 AD	Ly 10440	34.20800	35.64333
LIB 2000-10A	Dendropoma petraeum	110 ± 10	2410±45	180 BC–34 AD	Ly 11576	34.20800	35.64333
LIB 2001-27	Dendropoma petraeum	80 ± 10	1995±25	320–460 AD	Lyon 2092 (Poz)	34.20200	35.63717
F1	Dendropoma petraeum	50 ± 10	3020±35	896–776 BC	Ly 9832	34.09550	35.65100
LIB 2001-10	Vermetus sp.	60 ± 10	2065±40	237–429 AD	Ly 11575	34.05467	35.63733
LIB 2000-17	Neogoniolithon notarisii	80 ± 10	3195±35	1127–922 BC	Ly 10442	34.04983	35.63417
LIB 2000-11	Balanus sp.	80 ± 10	1160±30	1207–1302 AD	Lyon 1468 (GrA 18404)	34.04533	35.63050
LIB 2000-3	Dendropoma petraeum	60 ± 10	1960±35	380–548 AD	Ly 10386	34.03517	35.59183
LIB 2000-8	Dendropoma petraeum	80 ± 10	1975±45	328–550 AD	Ly 10438	34.03333	35.58333
MC 63	*Vermetus sp.	60	2035±130	65–563 AD	MC 63	34.03333	35.61667
MC 64	*Vermetus sp.	60	1960±40	363–555 AD	MC 64	34.03333	35.61667
LIB 2000-7	Dendropoma petraeum	60 ± 10	1970±35	364–533 AD	Ly 10437	34.02667	35.62267
LIB 2000-4	Dendropoma petraeum	80 ± 10	1585±35	729–906 AD	Ly 10387	34.02900	35.62350
LIB 2000-6	Algal crust	50 ± 10	2220±35	64–240 AD	Ly 10388	34.02699	35.62300
LIB 2001-8	Dendropoma petraeum	120 ± 10	1805±30	560–676 AD	Ly 11574	34.02417	35.62217
LIB 2001-27 (Tyre)	Pirenella conica	50 ± 20	2210±50	46–267 AD	Lyon 2007 (GrA 22126)	33.57317	35.36800
LIB 2000-1	Vermetus triqueter	50 ± 20	2230±35	58–230 AD	Lyon 1466 (GrA 18401)	33.46367	35.29317
LIB 2000-2	Vermetus triqueter	70 ± 20	2525±35	341–135 BC	Ly 10385	33.39883	35.25750
LIB 2002-19	Dendropoma petraeum	40 ± 10	1095±30	1259–1341 AD	Ly 11947	33.38333	35.26667
LIB 2002-20	Dendropoma petraeum	0 ± 5	450±50	Modern	Ly 11948	33.26667	35.16667

Table Image

from Morhange et al. (2006a)

Table 1

¹⁴C ages of uplifted marine organisms from the Lebanese coast

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Morhange (2006a)