Bab ed-Drah

**Bab ed-Drah**
Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Bab ed-Drah	Arabic	باب الذراع
Bab edh-Dhra'	Arabic	باب الذراع
Sedom	Hebrew	סְדֹם
Sódoma	Greek (Septuagint)	Σόδομα

**Zahrat adh-Dhra' 1 and 2**
Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Zahrat adh-Dhra' 1 (ZAD1)	Arabic
Zahrat adh-Dhra' 2 (ZAD2)	Arabic

**Dhra'**
Transliterated Name	Source	Name
Dhra'	Arabic

Introduction

Bab edh-Dhra' is located southeast of the Dead Sea and was occupied from ~3300-~2000 BCE during the Early Bronze Age when the local climate was wetter and the Dead Sea Level higher than today. It is one of several Early Bronze Age sites (e.g. Numeira, es-Safi, Feifa, and Khanazir) identified in the southeast of the Dead Sea which had cemeteries containing thousands of burials. Biblical scholars have speculated that Bab edh-Dhra' may have been in an area described in Genesis (e.g. 13:12 and 19:29) as "cities of the plain" where Lot is said to have settled until Abraham rescued him from the fiery destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

Rast and Schaub (2003:31) report that after extensive field work and examination of excavation records and profiles from Bâb edh-Dhrâ, they found no clear-cut evidence for significant earthquake damage at the site. They also report that within building structures at the site, the most plausible candidate for earthquake damage consists of tilted mud-brick wall lines in Stratum II. Rast and Schaub (2003:31) suggest that the tilting could have been caused by seismic activity or slow processes of sub-aerial weathering and erosion (A. M. Rosen 1986: 25–52; W. Ginell, personal communication, 1999) due to Field XIV's construction on top of a sloped and eroding surface.

In addition to the tilting and collapse layer found in Stratum II, Stratum IV, an older layer, contains a widespread burn layer accompanied by structural collapse which appears to have occurred after the fire. The burn layer appears to have been caused by an external event such as military activity however no evidence was found of an outside group taking over the site. The ensuing Stratum III layer was artifactually and architecturally similar to Stratum II suggesting that resettlement was at least in part, by people from the previous village (Rast and Schaub, 2003:130).

Identification

from R. Thomas Schaub in Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Bab edh-Dhra' is located on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, east of the Ghor el-Mazra'a and the Lisan peninsula at the southeastern end of the Dead Sea. It is situated about 240 m below sea level. The site includes a walled town on the south bank of Wadi Kerak, extramural occupation in the Sahl edh Dhra' to the south and east, and a large cemetery 500 m southwest of the town. The asphalt road from Kerak to Mazra'a and Safi passes between the town and the cemetery. A modern settlement of four hundred townhouses south of the cemetery has been built for employees of the Arab Potash Company.

The site of Bab edh-Dhra' has been discussed in connection with the "cities of the plain" (Gen. 13:10-13, 19:28-29) because of the traditional view that those cities were located at the southern end of the Dead Sea. W. F. Albright conjectured that Bab edh-Dhra' was a ceremonial site for the cities and that their ruins were probably located under the shallow waters of the southern basin of the Dead Sea. P. W. Lapp interpreted Bab edh-Dhra' as a cultic burial ground for the cities. The discovery of four other sites with Early Bronze Age cultural materials during a survey of the southern Ghor region in 1973 led W. E. Rast and R. T. Schaub to suggest a possible link to the biblical cities. W. C. Van Hattem carried this suggestion further by identify ing Bab edh-Dhra' as Sodom. In an article that analyzes the tradition of Sodom, Rast has revised the suggestion that all the Ghor sites were historically linked with the cities of the plain, arguing that the biblical tradition centered originally on a pair of cities, Sodom and Gomorrah. The two related Early Bronze Age towns of Bab edh-Dhra' and Numeira may thus have generated the popular biblical tradition.

Exploration

from R. Thomas Schaub in Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Although extensive ruins in the Sahl edh-Dhra' were noted by various nineteenth-century explorers, such as F. de Saulcy, C. L. Irby, J. Mangles, and J. W. Lynch, the walled town area was not discovered until A. Mallon noted it during the 1924 survey of the Ghor by the American Schools of Oriental Research and the Pittsburgh-Xenia Seminary, under the direction of W. F. Albright and M. G. Kyle. In the published reports on the survey, Albright and Mallon included descriptions of what they termed an enclosure, several structures outside it, a series of supposed cairn tombs scattered over the plain, and seven fallen monoliths east of the town. In 1964, further attention was drawn to the site when it was realized that pottery that had glutted the antiquities markets since 1958 had its origin in the cemetery area of Bab edh-Dhra'. A sampling of this pottery was published by S. J. Saller. In addition to the 1973 Rast Schaub survey mentioned above, there have been more recent explorations of the Sahl edh-Dhra' region. The area just south of the Bab edh Dhra' cemetery was surveyed in 1977, before the construction of the modern township site, by D. McCreery and V. Clark. McCreery published a report on the overall results of this survey, and Clark, in a later article, discussed the Chalcolithic tumuli. Farther to the east, on the banks of the Wadi edh-Dhra', a sounding at a Neolithic site was made by C. Bennett in 1980. Extensive surveys of the region have also been conducted in connection with the 1975-1981 excavations.

Excavations

Lapp's Campaigns

from R. Thomas Schaub in Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

The rediscovery in 1964 of the site's importance prompted a series of three excavations - two in 1965 and one in 1967 - sponsored by the American Schools of Oriental Research and directed by P. W. Lapp. Two field seasons, in March and April 1965 and in February 1967, focused on various cemetery areas. The majority of the tombs and funerary buildings examined were located in cemetery A. Cemetery B included a series of "tholoi" located on an east-west line along the modern road. Several tombs and a funerary building were excavated in cemetery C, on the western slopes of the cemetery area as it descends into the Ghor. Cemetery D contained only one tomb, approximately 500 m to the east of cemetery A.

Soundings in the settlement area were conducted during the second field season, in the fall of 1965. Seven fields were opened up, but four of them were very limited. The major fields (I and II on the east and IV on the west) were plotted in relation to the settlement's defense system. A major stone wall dating to the Early Bronze Age III was uncovered at the eastern and western ends of the town site. On the east end, an earlier mud-brick wall was exposed under the stone wall. The small probes within the settlement (fields III and V-VII) yielded only limited occupational data; however, on the basis of the debris indicating a settlement and the defensive walls, Lapp concluded that the site represented the ruins of a town, rather than a religious enclosure as proposed by Albright.

In addition to the preliminary reports on the three seasons, Lapp published two papers interpreting the overall significance of the finds at Bab edh Dhra'. One study linked the cemetery at Bab edh-Dhra' as a possible ceremonial burial ground to the cities of the plain. A second traced the origins of the first Early Bronze Age settlers of the area to southern Russia and connected their migration to Bab edh-Dhra' with the Kurgan movement theories of M. Gimbutas.

Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain (EDSP)

from R. Thomas Schaub in Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

After Lapp's untimely death in 1970, Rast and Schaub, both staff members of the 1967 expedition, took over the responsibility of publishing the final reports of the excavations. Their research on Bab edh-Dhra' prompted a new survey of the southern Ghor in 1973. The discovery of four additional Early Bronze Age sites (Numeira, Safi, Feifeh, and Khanazir) by the survey led to the organization of a new expedition, co-directed by Rast and Schaub and devoted to exploring the interrelationship of the sites.

The expedition is sponsored by the American Schools of Oriental Research. Four field seasons at Bab edh-Dhra' (1975, 1977, 1979, and 1981) and Numeira (1977, 1979, 1981, and 1983) have completed the first phase of the expedition. The Bab edh-Dhra' cemetery project is co-sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, with D. Ortner as coordinator. A second phase of the expedition, concentrating on the sites of Feifeh and Khanazir, began in 1989.

The EDSP has continued Lapp's numbering system. At the town site, thirteen new fields have been investigated. Two were located along the defenses: field VIII on the line of the southern wall and field XIII on the exterior side of the western wall. The earlier field IV on the interior of the western wall was also expanded. Four fields were plotted on the highest areas within the town: field XI in the northeast, fields XII and XVIII in the south west, and field XVI along the northern ridge. The interior slopes of the town were examined in fields XIV, XV, XVII, and XIX. Excavation in field IX to the south of the town site and field X to the northeast focused on extramural occupation. Area F, which contained tombs and occupation, was situated west of the defensive line.

A total of thirty-three shaft tombs and four funerary buildings-most of them in cemetery A - dating to the Early Bronze Age have been excavated during the expedition's four seasons. Among the tombs from other areas, one was excavated in cemetery B, three in cemetery C, and one in cemetery D. New areas of the cemetery that were explored were cemetery E, between cemeteries A and D, with a single surface burial; area F, west of the town, with four tombs; and cemetery G, between cemeteries A and C, with six tombs excavated. Two occupation areas were also discovered on the edge of the cemetery, designated areas H and J.

Locations of various sites in the plain of Dhra'

from Fall et al. (2023:4)

The ancient settlement of ZAD 1 lies at about–180 msl on the hyperarid Plain of Dhra‘, a highly eroded landscape perched above the eastern shore of the Dead Sea (−410 msl). ZAD 1 is marked by more than 40 semi-subterranean rectangular stone structures varying from single wall remnants to multiple room compounds with adjoining enclosure walls (Fall et al. 2019). The archaeological features of ZAD 1 cover about 6 ha along a narrow 600-m-long ridge bounded by the Wadi Dhra‘ and Wadi Wa‘ida (Figure 2), two spring-fed tributaries of the Wadi Kerak, which flows west from the Transjordanian Plateau to the Dead Sea. Truncated structural walls along the southwestern edge of this ridge, as well as 200 meters across the Wadi Dhra‘, suggest that ZAD 1 originally extended over roughly 12 ha prior to stream down cutting. Three earlier sedentary agrarian settlements on the Plain of Dhra‘ attest to the presence of springs on the Dead Sea Plain:

Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Dhra‘, upslope near the spring of ‘Ain Dhra‘ (Kuijt and Mahasneh 1998)
PPNA Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 2, just east of Zahrat adh Dhra‘ 1 (Edwards et al. 2001, 2002b; Edwards and House 2007)
Early Bronze Age Bab edh-Dhra‘, about 4 km downstream along the Wadi Kerak (Rast and Schaub 2003).

Maps, Aerial Views, Plans, Drawings, Sections, Plots, Tables, and Photos

Maps

Normal Size

Fig. 1 - Location Map

Fig. 1

Map of eastern Mediterranean showing Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 2, Dhra‘ and Bab edh-Dhra‘ on the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan, plus key sites that contribute radiocarbon ages for Levantine Bronze Age chronologies

Fall et al. (2023)

from Fall et al. (2023)
Fig. 1.1 - Early Bronze

Fig. 1.1

Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Ghor

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Age sites in the southern Ghor from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.4 - Topographic

Fig. 2.4

Topographic map of the Southeast Dead Sea Plain showing the location of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', Numeira, Safi, Feifa and Khanazir. Safi is an EB site that was surveyed but not excavated by the EDSP. The shoreline depicted is the one that existed in 1977. At the present time, because of development of potash works and the use of water for irrigation both from the Jordan River and wadis draining into the Dead Sea, the South Basin has become dry land

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of the Southeast Dead Sea Plain from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.6 - Fault map

Fig. 2.6

Map of Dead Sea area showing major faults. The Dead Sea Graben or trough has downdropped between the Western and Eastern Border Faults as much as 10 km since Miocene time. Cross-faults such as the Kerak Graben are sites where enhanced erosion has produced features such as the Wadi Kerak.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of the Dead Sea from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 1 - Map of Early

Fig. 1

Map of the EBA [Early Bronze Age] sites included in this study

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Bronze Age Sites in the southern Levant from Regev (2012)

Magnified

Fig. 1 - Location Map

Fig. 1

Map of eastern Mediterranean showing Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 2, Dhra‘ and Bab edh-Dhra‘ on the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan, plus key sites that contribute radiocarbon ages for Levantine Bronze Age chronologies

Fall et al. (2023)

from Fall et al. (2023)
Fig. 1.1 - Early Bronze

Fig. 1.1

Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Ghor

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Age sites in the southern Ghor from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.4 - Topographic

Fig. 2.4

Topographic map of the Southeast Dead Sea Plain showing the location of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', Numeira, Safi, Feifa and Khanazir. Safi is an EB site that was surveyed but not excavated by the EDSP. The shoreline depicted is the one that existed in 1977. At the present time, because of development of potash works and the use of water for irrigation both from the Jordan River and wadis draining into the Dead Sea, the South Basin has become dry land

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of the Southeast Dead Sea Plain from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.6 - Fault map

Fig. 2.6

Map of Dead Sea area showing major faults. The Dead Sea Graben or trough has downdropped between the Western and Eastern Border Faults as much as 10 km since Miocene time. Cross-faults such as the Kerak Graben are sites where enhanced erosion has produced features such as the Wadi Kerak.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of the Dead Sea from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 1 - Map of Early

Fig. 1

Map of the EBA [Early Bronze Age] sites included in this study

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Bronze Age Sites in the southern Levant from Regev (2012)

Aerial Views

Bab ed-Drah in Google Earth

Bab ed-Drah in Google Earth

click on image to explore this site on a new tab in Google Earth
Fig. 1.3 - Aerial Photo

Fig. 1.3

Aerial photo of Bâb edh-Dhrâ looking northwest; the town site is in the lower center above the Wadi Kerak which snakes around to the northwest and north; part of the Kerak road is at lower left (cf. fig. 1.2)

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of Bab ed-Dhra from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 2 - Site plan of

Fig. 1

Site plan of Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Jordan, showing visible wall lines, enumerated structures and lettered excavation units

Fall et al. (2023)

Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 from Fall et al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Map of area

Map close-up of the area around Bâb Edh-Dhrâʿ and Khirbet Qazone cemetery

Graves (2018)

around Bâb Edh-Dhrâʿ and Khirbet Qazone cemetery from Graves (2018)
Site plan from

Bab edh-Dhra': plan of the settlement and excavation areas.

Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Stern et al. (1993 v.1)
Fig. 1.2 - Site Map

Fig. 1.2

Map showing the relation of the town site and cemetery area (note Areas J and H)

Rast and Schaub (2003)

from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 1.4 - Site Map

Fig. 1.4

Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas

Rast and Schaub (2003)

with excavation areas from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.13 - Paleogeologic

Fig. 2.13

Paleogeologic map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' showing probable topography and geology of the surface on which Early Bronze people began their occupation during Early Bronze IA time. At this point in time, there is no evidence of construction of mud-brick or stone-wall structures. EB IA peoples were apparently pastoralists who occupied the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area on a temporary basis (see chapter 4).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the Early Bronze Age from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 2 - Site plan of

Fig. 1

Site plan of Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Jordan, showing visible wall lines, enumerated structures and lettered excavation units

Fall et al. (2023)

Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 from Fall et al. (2023)
Fig. 2 - Map of area

Map close-up of the area around Bâb Edh-Dhrâʿ and Khirbet Qazone cemetery

Graves (2018)

around Bâb Edh-Dhrâʿ and Khirbet Qazone cemetery fromGraves (2018)
Site plan from

Bab edh-Dhra': plan of the settlement and excavation areas.

Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Stern et al. (1993 v.1)
Fig. 1.2 - Site Map

Fig. 1.2

Map showing the relation of the town site and cemetery area (note Areas J and H)

Rast and Schaub (2003)

from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 1.4 - Site Map

Fig. 1.4

Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas

Rast and Schaub (2003)

with excavation areas from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.13 - Paleogeologic

Fig. 2.13

Paleogeologic map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' showing probable topography and geology of the surface on which Early Bronze people began their occupation during Early Bronze IA time. At this point in time, there is no evidence of construction of mud-brick or stone-wall structures. EB IA peoples were apparently pastoralists who occupied the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area on a temporary basis (see chapter 4).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the Early Bronze Age from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field Plans

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII

Normal Size

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum IV Field XII

Normal Size

Fig. 6.5 - Field XII

Fig. 6.5

Stratum IV mud-brick walls and hearth (Locus 50 in Field XII.4); later sanctuary wall lines of Strata III and II are shadowed in.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

plan in Stratum IV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 6.5 - Field XII

Fig. 6.5

Stratum IV mud-brick walls and hearth (Locus 50 in Field XII.4); later sanctuary wall lines of Strata III and II are shadowed in.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

plan in Stratum IV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum IIB Field XIV

Normal Size

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Drawings

Fig. 2.16 - Hypothetical

Fig. 2.16

A. Cross-section of probable configuration of exterior town wall at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. The lower unit, still preserved in some places around the site, consists of angular to subrounded small boulders (20 to 50 cm in diameter) of Paleozoic sandstone and Mesozoic limestone and dolo mite (see Natural Stratigraphy for descriptions of these units). The middle unit, the stippled rect angular blocks (5 to 10 cm thick by 20 to 30 cm in width and length) consist of Lisan Marl sands that are naturally cemented with calcium carbonate (calcite). These slabs were quarried and used to prepare a flat surface on top of the stone foundation for the wall. The upper, no longer preserved, portion of the town wall consisted of mud brick.

B. Diagrammatic longitudinal cross section showing wall construction on uphill slope north of Lapp’s 1966 trench which cut through the stone wall. Trench is parallel to Field II. Explanation is the same as for figure 2.16A.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Cross-section of town walls from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.17 - Present

Fig. 2.17

Present condition of town wall where the two lower rock construction units are still preserved in a few places at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. This can be seen at the northeast corner of the site, just north of Fields I and II. Both the interior and exterior slopes adjacent to the stone wall consist largely of eroded fragments of mud brick which were originally located on top of the stone wall as a mud-brick wall of unknown height.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

condition of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.15 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.15

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.18 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.18

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' at the present time with erosion into the interior of the site by the western and eastern tributaries.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during present time from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.19 - Aggradation and

Fig. 2.19

Diagrammatic cross-section of the Wadi Kerak at several different points in time. The left section shows the wadi in Chalcolithic times, when long, slow erosion had produced a bowl shaped valley. The middle two sections show conditions during EB I/III times when sediments began to accumulate in the wadi. Within the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', building construction caused the accumulation of both cultural and natural sediment. During and especially toward the end of this period, erosion was also occurring, both in the wadi and at the adjacent town site. The right cross-section depicts conditions after the large drop in the level of the Dead Sea. Extensive erosion occurred in the wadi, creating the lower, straight-sided portion of the wadi. Within Bâb edh-Dhrâ', erosion removed a significant portion of both cultural and natural material.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Erosion over time in Wadi Kerak from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Sections

Stratigraphic Sections (Geology)

Location Map

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.11

Location of measured stratigraphic sections at Bâb edh-Dhrâ. All three sections are measured from the floor of the Wadi Kerak.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratigraphic Sections

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.12

Diagrammatic illustration for three measured stratigraphic columns of pre-cultural lithologic units in the vicinity of Bâb edh-Dhrâ (see fig. 2.11 for their locations). Sections A and B are measured from the present floor of Wadi Kerak up into the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ. The tan, calcareous silt in both sections is actually post-occupational material produced by erosion and transport of in situ cultural material within Bâb edh-Dhrâ. Section C, measured from the floor of the Wadi Kerak and located on the north wall of the Wadi Kerak, consists entirely of non-cultural lithologic units.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Archaeological Sections

Normal Size

Fig. 6.1 - West Balk

Fig. 6.1

West Balk section of Area F 4

Rast and Schaub (2003)

section of Area F 4 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 6.8 - West Balk

Fig. 6.8

West Balk section in Fields XII.7 and 11

Rast and Schaub (2003)

section in Fields XII.7 and 11 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 8.32 - Elevation

Fig. 8.32

Elevation drawing of Wall 48/105 and associated loci in Trench 89/90

Rast and Schaub (2003)

drawing of Wall 48/105 and associated loci in Trench 89/90 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.17 - Section A–A'

Fig. 10.17

Section A–A' through Wall A in Fields XIII and IV (see fig. 10.12); artificially laid white marl Locus 6, white to green marl Locus 20, and bricks Locus 36 formed the base for the passage leading through the gate; blocking of the gate is found in Locus 117 with secondary mud-brick facing Locus 26 completing the blockage on the west.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

through Wall A in Fields XIII and IV from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.70 - West Balk

Fig. 10.70

West Balk Section in Field XIV.3 and 4

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Section in Field XIV.3 and 4 showing tilted walls from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 6.1 - West Balk

Fig. 6.1

West Balk section of Area F 4

Rast and Schaub (2003)

section of Area F 4 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 6.8 - West Balk

Fig. 6.8

West Balk section in Fields XII.7 and 11

Rast and Schaub (2003)

section in Fields XII.7 and 11 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 8.32 - Elevation

Fig. 8.32

Elevation drawing of Wall 48/105 and associated loci in Trench 89/90

Rast and Schaub (2003)

drawing of Wall 48/105 and associated loci in Trench 89/90 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.17 - Section A–A'

Fig. 10.17

Section A–A' through Wall A in Fields XIII and IV (see fig. 10.12); artificially laid white marl Locus 6, white to green marl Locus 20, and bricks Locus 36 formed the base for the passage leading through the gate; blocking of the gate is found in Locus 117 with secondary mud-brick facing Locus 26 completing the blockage on the west.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

through Wall A in Fields XIII and IV from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.70 - West Balk

Fig. 10.70

West Balk Section in Field XIV.3 and 4

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Section in Field XIV.3 and 4 showing tilted walls from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plots

Holocene Climatic fluctuations

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.8

Climatic fluctuation as suggested from three different data sets: Frumkin and others (1991), Horowitz (1992), and Neev and Emery (1995).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Lake Level Curves

Dead Sea Composite Lake Level Curve - Bookman et al (2004)

from Bookman et al (2004)

Figure 8

(A) The composite lake-level curve of the Dead Sea during the past 4000 yr. Calibrated radiocarbon dates with 1σ ranges are marked on the curve at the absolute elevation of the samples. Sample numbers marked by A, B, and D are referenced from Table 1 (Ze'elim A site), Table 2 (Ze'elim B site), and Table 3 (David site), respectively. The thick line at the bottom of the curve emphasizes the sediment accumulation at the Ze'elim site (see text). The inset at the top shows the measured historic lake-level curve since A.D. 1800 (modified from Klein, 1986, and extended to the year 2000 by using the Hydrological Service data)

(B) The Dead Sea lake-level curve reconstructed according to Mount Sedom caves (Fig. 1C) and assuming a diapir rising rate of 6 mm/yr (Frumkin, 1997; Frumkin et al., 2001). The radiocarbon dates adjusted to the calendar range are marked with horizontal bars and their sample number (Table 11.1 in Frumkin, 1992)

(C) Core DS 7-1 SC drilled offshore Ein Gedi in the deep northern basin (Fig. 1C). The horizontal extension of the core represents its depth in meters. Calibrated radiocarbon dates are marked with horizontal bars and the sample number (Heim et aL, 1997). Their locations in the core are marked with arrows, and they are adjusted to the calendar range of the Dead Sea curve.

Bookman et al (2004)

Dead Sea Lake Level Curve - Kagan et al (2015)

from Kagan et al (2015)

Figure 4

Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lake levels are based on previous works by Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. (2004) [Ze'elim and Nahal David (Ein Gedi) outcrops], Bartov (2004) [Arugot and Darga outcrops], Migowski et al. (2006) [DS cores], Stern (2010) [Ein Qedem outcrop], Kushnir and Stein (2010)'s interpretation, and on new data (Ze'elim outcrops) and interpretations from this study. References for some specific parts of the curve

Bartov et al. 2007
Frumkin et al. 1991; Migowski et al. 2006
Stern 2010
this study
Bartov 2004
Stern 2010
beach ridge, this study and Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004
Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004

For ages, see Table 1. Dashed part of the curve is based on relative lake-level fluctuations.

Kagan et al (2015)

Dead Sea Lake Level Curves - Bruins (1994)

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.14

Dead Sea level curve proposed by Bruins (1994). This curve shows a lake level high stand during EB II time with water levels being as high as -300 m asl. The curve is based mainly on the previous curve generated by Frumkin (1991).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Dead Sea and Sea of Galilee Lake Level Curves - Hazan et al (2005)

from Hazan et al (2004)

Figure 2

Comparison diagrams in the last 6,000 years.

Kinneret Lake level curve (Hazan, 2003)
Dead Sea level curve, made from lake sediments (Bookman et al., 2004)
Dead Sea level curve made from Mt. Sedom salt caves (Frumkin et al., 1991)
δ18O‰ of carbonate fraction in Lake Kinneret sediments (Stiller et al., 1984)
% CaCO3 in Lake Kinneret sediments (Stiller et al., 1984)

TBY = Tel Bet Yerach
GK = Galei Kinneret

Hazan et al (2004)

Sea of Galilee Lake Level Curve - Hazan et al (2005)

from Hazan et al (2005)

Figure 4

Reconstruction of the Lake Kinneret level curve during the past 40,000 yr. Filled diamonds mark lake level. They were determined by identification of beach sediments and ¹⁴C dating (see text). Open squares mark below-lake levels that were evaluated by the location and ages of lacustrine marls. Open circles mark above-lake levels. These points were determined by the occurrence of fluvial sediments and by archeological sites. The numbers on the diagram match those on the location map (Fig. 1) and the description of lake-level reconstruction in the text. During most of the last 40,000 yr, Lake Kinneret level was around 212 m bsl, with some prominent high-stand and low-stand excursions.

The two prominent high stands are:

at 26,000–24,000 cal yr B.P., lake level reached its highest stand of >174 m bsl and the Kinneret converged with the Southern Lake Lisan.
At 5200 cal yr B.P., lake level exceeded the altitude of 200 m bsl. The stands are reflected by several gaps in the curve.

Major dropped occurred:

Before 41,000 cal yr B.P.
between 40,000 and 36,000 cal yr B.P.
between33,000 and 27,000 cal yr B.P.
between 14,000 and 10,000 cal yr B.P.

The beach sediments from these low-stand periods are probably buried in the lake under younger sediments.

Hazan et al (2005)

Sea of Galilee (SOG) vs Dead Sea (DS) vs Lisan Lake Level Curves - Hazan et al (2005)

from Hazan et al (2005)

Figure 8

Comparison between Lisan (black), Dead Sea (green), and Kinneret (red) level curves. Note the good agreement between the Lisan and Kinneret curves at periods of high or significantly low stands. Low stands are expressed as hiatuses in the Kinneret curve, and they coincide with the timing of H events in the North Atlantic. The difference between the amplitudes of lake level is significantly larger in the late Pleistocene period (Lisan and Kinneret diagrams) as compared to the Holocene period (Kinneret and Dead Sea diagrams). The Lisan diagram is after Bartov et al. (2003), the Dead sea diagram is after Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al., 2004 and Migowski et al. (2004).

Hazan et al (2005)

Table of Images

Image	Description	Source
Figure 8 (A) The composite lake-level curve of the Dead Sea during the past 4000 yr. Calibrated radiocarbon dates with 1σ ranges are marked on the curve at the absolute elevation of the samples. Sample numbers marked by A, B, and D are referenced from Table 1 (Ze'elim A site), Table 2 (Ze'elim B site), and Table 3 (David site), respectively. The thick line at the bottom of the curve emphasizes the sediment accumulation at the Ze'elim site (see text). The inset at the top shows the measured historic lake-level curve since A.D. 1800 (modified from Klein, 1986, and extended to the year 2000 by using the Hydrological Service data) (B) The Dead Sea lake-level curve reconstructed according to Mount Sedom caves (Fig. 1C) and assuming a diapir rising rate of 6 mm/yr (Frumkin, 1997; Frumkin et al., 2001). The radiocarbon dates adjusted to the calendar range are marked with horizontal bars and their sample number (Table 11.1 in Frumkin, 1992) (C) Core DS 7-1 SC drilled offshore Ein Gedi in the deep northern basin (Fig. 1C). The horizontal extension of the core represents its depth in meters. Calibrated radiocarbon dates are marked with horizontal bars and the sample number (Heim et aL, 1997). Their locations in the core are marked with arrows, and they are adjusted to the calendar range of the Dead Sea curve. Bookman et al (2004)	Dead Sea Composite Lake Level Curve	Bookman et al (2004)
Figure 8 (A) The composite lake-level curve of the Dead Sea during the past 4000 yr. Calibrated radiocarbon dates with 1σ ranges are marked on the curve at the absolute elevation of the samples. Sample numbers marked by A, B, and D are referenced from Table 1 (Ze'elim A site), Table 2 (Ze'elim B site), and Table 3 (David site), respectively. The thick line at the bottom of the curve emphasizes the sediment accumulation at the Ze'elim site (see text). The inset at the top shows the measured historic lake-level curve since A.D. 1800 (modified from Klein, 1986, and extended to the year 2000 by using the Hydrological Service data) (B) The Dead Sea lake-level curve reconstructed according to Mount Sedom caves (Fig. 1C) and assuming a diapir rising rate of 6 mm/yr (Frumkin, 1997; Frumkin et al., 2001). The radiocarbon dates adjusted to the calendar range are marked with horizontal bars and their sample number (Table 11.1 in Frumkin, 1992) (C) Core DS 7-1 SC drilled offshore Ein Gedi in the deep northern basin (Fig. 1C). The horizontal extension of the core represents its depth in meters. Calibrated radiocarbon dates are marked with horizontal bars and the sample number (Heim et aL, 1997). Their locations in the core are marked with arrows, and they are adjusted to the calendar range of the Dead Sea curve. Bookman et al (2004)	Dead Sea Composite Lake Level Curve big	Bookman et al (2004)
Figure 4 Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lake levels are based on previous works by Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. (2004) [Ze'elim and Nahal David (Ein Gedi) outcrops], Bartov (2004) [Arugot and Darga outcrops], Migowski et al. (2006) [DS cores], Stern (2010) [Ein Qedem outcrop], Kushnir and Stein (2010)'s interpretation, and on new data (Ze'elim outcrops) and interpretations from this study. References for some specific parts of the curve Bartov et al. 2007 Frumkin et al. 1991; Migowski et al. 2006 Stern 2010 this study Bartov 2004 Stern 2010 beach ridge, this study and Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004 Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004 For ages, see Table 1. Dashed part of the curve is based on relative lake-level fluctuations. Kagan et al (2015)	Dead Sea Lake Level Curve	Kagan et al (2015)
Figure 4 Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lake levels are based on previous works by Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. (2004) [Ze'elim and Nahal David (Ein Gedi) outcrops], Bartov (2004) [Arugot and Darga outcrops], Migowski et al. (2006) [DS cores], Stern (2010) [Ein Qedem outcrop], Kushnir and Stein (2010)'s interpretation, and on new data (Ze'elim outcrops) and interpretations from this study. References for some specific parts of the curve Bartov et al. 2007 Frumkin et al. 1991; Migowski et al. 2006 Stern 2010 this study Bartov 2004 Stern 2010 beach ridge, this study and Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004 Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004 For ages, see Table 1. Dashed part of the curve is based on relative lake-level fluctuations. Kagan et al (2015)	Dead Sea Lake Level Curve - big	Kagan et al (2015)
Figure 2 Comparison diagrams in the last 6,000 years. Kinneret Lake level curve (Hazan, 2003) Dead Sea level curve, made from lake sediments (Bookman et al., 2004) Dead Sea level curve made from Mt. Sedom salt caves (Frumkin et al., 1991) δ18O‰ of carbonate fraction in Lake Kinneret sediments (Stiller et al., 1984) % CaCO3 in Lake Kinneret sediments (Stiller et al., 1984) TBY = Tel Bet Yerach GK = Galei Kinneret Hazan et al (2004)	Dead Sea and Sea of Galilee Lake Level Curves	Fig 2 - Hazan et al (2004)
Figure 4 Reconstruction of the Lake Kinneret level curve during the past 40,000 yr. Filled diamonds mark lake level. They were determined by identification of beach sediments and ¹⁴C dating (see text). Open squares mark below-lake levels that were evaluated by the location and ages of lacustrine marls. Open circles mark above-lake levels. These points were determined by the occurrence of fluvial sediments and by archeological sites. The numbers on the diagram match those on the location map (Fig. 1) and the description of lake-level reconstruction in the text. During most of the last 40,000 yr, Lake Kinneret level was around 212 m bsl, with some prominent high-stand and low-stand excursions. The two prominent high stands are: at 26,000–24,000 cal yr B.P., lake level reached its highest stand of >174 m bsl and the Kinneret converged with the Southern Lake Lisan. At 5200 cal yr B.P., lake level exceeded the altitude of 200 m bsl. The stands are reflected by several gaps in the curve. Major dropped occurred: Before 41,000 cal yr B.P. between 40,000 and 36,000 cal yr B.P. between33,000 and 27,000 cal yr B.P. between 14,000 and 10,000 cal yr B.P. The beach sediments from these low-stand periods are probably buried in the lake under younger sediments. Hazan et al (2005)	Sea of Galilee Lake Level Curve	Fig 4 - Hazan et al (2005)
Figure 8 Comparison between Lisan (black), Dead Sea (green), and Kinneret (red) level curves. Note the good agreement between the Lisan and Kinneret curves at periods of high or significantly low stands. Low stands are expressed as hiatuses in the Kinneret curve, and they coincide with the timing of H events in the North Atlantic. The difference between the amplitudes of lake level is significantly larger in the late Pleistocene period (Lisan and Kinneret diagrams) as compared to the Holocene period (Kinneret and Dead Sea diagrams). The Lisan diagram is after Bartov et al. (2003), the Dead sea diagram is after Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al., 2004 and Migowski et al. (2004). Hazan et al (2005)	SOG vs DS vs Lisan Lake Level Curves	Fig 8 - Hazan et al (2005)

Pollen

Simplified pollen diagram of the Ze’elim composite sequence

from Langgut et. al. (2015)

Figure 2

Simplified pollen diagram of the Ze’elim composite sequence. A 10-fold exaggeration is used to show changes in low taxa percentages. Chronology and the division into historical periods are based on carbon-14 (¹⁴C) dates, calibrated in 2 σ-range. The Carduus-Centaurea group includes thistle taxa Crisium, Carduus, Carthamus, Xanthium and Echinops, and different species of Centaurea. The cereal-type pollen is distinguished from other grasses by its larger size (at least 37 mm; e.g. Beug 2004) and includes wild and cultivated cereals. However, a rise in the cereal curve with no ecological explanation might be connected to agricultural activities. At right: ZA-Pcomp, composite sedimentary profile from two nearby outcrops (FD/ZA3 and ZA2; more details in Kagan et al. 2015). The Late Bronze beach ridge has been reduced to about a third of its thickness for clarity of the pollen diagram. Ages at right of sedimentary section are given in Table 2. Ages for the Middle Bronze period are from Neumann et al. 2007a.

Langgut et al (2014)

Sea of Galilee during Bronze and Iron Ages

from Langgut et. al. (2015)

Figure 3

Simplified pollen diagram of the Sea of Galilee record during the Bronze and Iron Ages. A 10-fold exaggeration is used to show changes in low taxa percentages. he palynological diagram was divided into five main groups based on taxa geographical origin and on ecological and cultural characteristics (see online Appendix).

EB = Early Bronze Age
IB = Intermediate Bronze Age
MB = Middle Bronze Age
LB = Late Bronze Age
IA = Iron Age

Langgut et al (2015)

Pollen Diagram for a 220 km. long N-S transect during Bronze and Iron Ages

from Langgut et. al. (2015)

Figure 4

A north-south transect of 220 km along the southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages composed of the pollen records from Birkat Ram, Sea of Galilee, Ein Feshkha, and the Ze’elim Gully (references in Figure 1a). Four main pollen curves are given:

Quercus (oak)
Pinus halepensis (pine)
Olea europaea (olive)
total tree pollen of the Mediterranean maquis/forest

Langgut et al (2015)

Climate History Summary of southern Levant based on pollen during Bronze and Iron Ages

from Langgut et. al. (2015)

Figure 5

Summary of the climate history of the southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages based on the palynological evidence

Langgut et al (2015)

Vegetation Changes, Climate Fluctuations and Settlement History of the Southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages

The Early Bronze I (ca. 3600–3000 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:13)

Two palynological diagrams are available for this period (Fig. 1.3a,b)––Birkat Ram and the Sea of Galilee (the latter begins in ca. 3150 BCE, corresponding to the later phase of the period). The Mediterranean arboreal pollen curve, including olive trees, appears at its highest percentages, indicating that the Early Bronze I was the most humid phase of the Bronze and Iron Ages. Relatively wet climate conditions are similarly evident from the Sorek Cave isotopic record (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon 2011: Fig. 6) as well as from the Jezreel Valley geoarchaeological data (Rosen 2006: 468–469; Adams et al. 2014). Wet climate conditions in the Early Bronze I may have facilitated the initial phase of the wave of settlement in the Negev Highlands (for the chronology, see Avner and Carmi 2001; Sebbane et al. 1993). The picture is similar in the semi-arid regions of Transjordan, which feature more Early Bronze I than Early Bronze II–III sites (Philip 2008: 189; Bradbury et al. 2014: 211–214).

The Early Bronze I also features the highest frequencies of olive trees (at Birkat Ram ca. 10% and in the area of the Sea of Galilee up to 50% of the total pollen sum), representing the development of a specialized economy focused on olive orchards and their secondary products (Neumann et al. 2007b; Langgut et al. 2015; Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016). In the En-Gedi palynological record (mainly representing the situation in the Judean Highlands; Litt et al. 2012), high olive percentages were also documented, indicating that during the Early Bronze I large scale olive horticulture activity took place in the entire Mediterranean zone of the Southern Levant. Archaeobotanical evidence from excavations indicates that olive wood was exploited at a remarkably high level in this specific period (Benzaquen, Finkelstein and Langgut 2019, and see also the review of evidence in Genz 2003). As olive yields benefit more from an even pattern of rainy days over a long period of time than from rains that fall in sudden torrents (as is the situation today in the region), the high arboreal and olive pollen frequencies may reflect a different rain regime (Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016). A similar suggestion was raised by Rosen (1991: 197) based on her study in the Lachish area.

Olive grows best in its original natural habitat in hilly Mediterranean zones; it is no wonder then, that this period is characterized by large-scale settlement expansion into the hill country on both sides of the Jordan (Finkelstein and Gophna 1993; Finkelstein et al. 2006; Bradbury et al. 2014; Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016: Table 2). Many of the new highland settlements were located in the orchard niches of western Samaria (for the situation in the early 20th century CE, see distribution map of olive orchards in Palestine, 1935, available in Finkelstein and Langgut 2018: Fig. 4). Considering the intensity of olive growth in this period as indicated in the pollen records, olives and their oil must have been produced in quantities beyond local consumption as a “cash crop” (Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016). Evidence from the southern Coastal Plain and the Nile Delta attest to strong trade relations with Egypt; secondary products of the highlands’ olive horticulture activity must have played a major role in this network (e.g., Finkelstein and Gophna 1993; Braun 2002). Indeed, commercial contacts during the Early Bronze I are evident from material culture items found in both the Levant and Egypt (Braun 2002; de Miroschedji 2002; Sowada 2009). Egyptian demand for Southern Levantine goods during the Early Bronze IB (Naqada IIB–IIIC1; 3500– 3000 BCE) must have accelerated the expansion of the settlement system into the hill country, intensified production in the olive orchards, encouraged the development of Egyptian marketing stations along the southern Coastal Plain (in Naqada IIIC1) and stimulated the growth of social and political complexity in the Southern Levant (Finkelstein and Gophna 1993; de Miroschedji 2002; 2009; Regev et al. 2014; Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016).

The Early Bronze II (ca. 3000–2900 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:13-14)

The high olive pollen frequencies that characterize the Early Bronze I were followed by a dramatic decline in olive pollen percentages during the transition to the Early Bronze II, as is evident in the Birkat Ram and especially the Sea of Galilee pollen records (from a peak of more than 50% to a low of only 5% of the total pollen sum; Fig. 1.3a–b). Decreased olive pollen frequencies around 2900 BCE were also documented in the Lake Ḥula record (van Zeist, Baruch and Bottema 2009: Fig. 5).

A slight reduction in the arboreal vegetation was recorded in the Early Bronze II (from a range of 46.1– 59.5% to 36.5–40.4% in the Sea of Galilee record for example), which might signal a minor shrinkage of the natural Mediterranean forest/maquis. Still, relatively humid climate conditions continued to prevail in the region, as is also evident by the Sorek Cave isotopic record (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon 2011: Fig. 6; Laugomer 2017). Reconstruction of the Dead Sea levels shows high stands during the Early Bronze II (lake levels reached 385 m below msl—Migowski et al. 2006: Fig. 3), indicating wet climate conditions not only in the area of the lake, but also in the northern parts of its drainage basin (for the drainage basin of the two lakes, see Fig. 1.1a). Continued wet climate conditions were especially significant for the marginal regions of the Southern Levant in the south and east. In the Early Bronze II, the wave of settlement in the Negev Highlands peaked (Cohen 1999) and the town at Arad in the Beersheba Valley reached its zenith, probably becoming a gateway community for southern trade (Finkelstein 1991; Finkelstein et al. 2018 and references therein).⁵

The Early Bronze I/II transition ca. 3000 BCE witnessed significant change in the organization of society and the distribution of settlements in the Southern Levant, which seems to be unrelated to climate conditions, but rather to territorio-political or economic circumstances (Langgut et al. 2015; Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016; Laugomer 2017). The decline in olive pollen (Fig. 1.3a–b) was also probably linked to changes in geopolitical (rather than climatic) conditions in the region. Based on the archaeological evidence, overland transportation between the Southern Levant and Egypt had waned, while maritime links between Egypt and the northern Levant were intensified (Marcus 2002). This explains the decline in settlement activity across northern Sinai, which served as the 5. In addition to the Mediterranean climate system, precipitation in these regions is influenced by the Red Sea Trough. 6. The differences between the pollen and the isotopic records lay only within the fluctuations of the general trends, since both records point to relatively humid climate conditions. The slight discrepancies may derive from differences in sampling resolution (the Sorek Cave record was sampled at a higher resolution), and/or differences within the dating methods (14C versus Uranium-Thorium). They may also be related to the slower response of the vegetation in comparison to the more sensitive isotopic proxy. overland route between Egypt and the Levant. Botanical and archaeological data from the northern Levant corroborates this picture (Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016 and references therein). In general, the Southern and Northern Levant olive pollen curves show a “mirror image” throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages, reflecting shifts in balance between the two regions from which olive oil was exported, mainly to Egypt (Fig. 1.4).

Footnotes

5. In addition to the Mediterranean climate system, precipitation in these regions is influenced by the Red Sea Trough

The Early Bronze III (ca. 2900–2500 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:14-15)

Based on the Sea of Galilee pollen record, the Early Bronze III is also characterized by relatively high arboreal percentages (reaching up to 46.2%), indicating the continuity of relatively wet climate conditions. The minor increase in oak pollen documented in the Birkat Ram and Sea of Galilee records signals a slight expansion of the natural Mediterranean forest/maquis (Fig. 1.3a). The Sorek Cave isotopic record also indicates humid climate conditions in the region, with estimated annual rainfall above 520 mm (the mean annual rainfall today; Bar-Matthews and Ayalon 2004 2011), though a slight gradual decline was documented over the course of this period.⁶ The Olea pollen values retain their low frequencies. Still, in the Sea of Galilee record slightly higher olive pollen percentages were recorded in the early phase of this period (ca. 2900– 2650 BCE) in comparison to the later phase (ca. 2650–2500 BCE), reaching maximum of olive pollen values of 11.3% versus 5.4% (of the total pollen sum) respectively. This means that neither the decline in the number of sites in the central hill country nor the southward expansion of urban settlement in the lowlands were climate-related (Langgut, Adams and Finkelstein 2016: Table 2). New radiocarbon dates and other lines of evidence from the copper mining districts in the Arabah, the Negev Highlands and Arad also reveal activity in the arid regions during the Early Bronze III, contra previous theories (Ben Yosef et al. 2016; Finkelstein et al. 2018). While the wet climate conditions which are reconstructed for this period may have facilitated activity in the arid lands of the Southern Levant, it seems that other factors were more influential, first and foremost the demand for copper in Egypt (Finkelstein et al. 2018).

Footnotes

6. The differences between the pollen and the isotopic records lay only within the fluctuations of the general trends, since both records point to relatively humid climate conditions. The slight discrepancies may derive from differences in sampling resolution (the Sorek Cave record was sampled at a higher resolution), and/or differences within the dating methods (14C versus Uranium-Thorium). They may also be related to the slower response of the vegetation in comparison to the more sensitive isotopic proxy.

The Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 2500–1950 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:15-16)

At both Birkat Ram and the Sea of Galilee, this period shows no major change in the distribution of the Mediterranean arboreal vegetation (Figs. 1.3a–b). Therefore, it seems that the crisis in the urban system, which started at the end of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2500 BCE; Regev et al. 2012) and lasted through the entire Intermediate Bronze Age, was not a result of climate change. Yet, two short events pointing to drier conditions were recorded: at ca. 2350 BCE (based on the Sea of Galilee record) and at the end of the Intermediate Bronze/beginning of the Middle Bronze I (Sea of Galilee and Zeʾelim; Fig. 1.3b,d; Langgut et al. 2015). These dry events were also documented by the declining level of the Dead Sea (Kagan et al. 2015). The latter dry event was also identified in the new pollen record from Tel Dan (Kaniewski et al. 2017). The Intermediate Bronze Age features evidence for strong settlement activity in the Negev Highlands (Cohen 1999; Dunseth et al. 2017), which was related to the copper industry in the Arabah Valley south of the Dead Sea (Ben-Yosef et al. 2016; Finkelstein et al. 2018). The humid climate conditions did not stimulate dry farming in the region but could have supported pastoral nomadic activity (Rosen 2017; Dunseth, Finkelstein and Shahack-Gross 2018). The cessation of activity in the region during the middle of the Intermediate Bronze Age, ~2300–2200 BCE, is probably related to diminishing demand for copper as a result of the decline of the Old Kingdom in Egypt (Finkelstein et al., 2018).

The Intermediate Bronze Age is a period traditionally associated with a more pastoral mode of subsistence in the Southern Levant. However, the northern pollen records (Birkat Ram and the Sea of Galilee) indicate that no major shift took place in human exploitation of the environment, that is, olives were probably still cultivated to the same extent as during the previous period—the Early Bronze II–III.⁷

More arid conditions at the end of the Intermediate Bronze Age are also evident in the lithology of the Zeʾelim section, which points to accumulation of sediments in a shore environment (sands and a thin beach ridge were deposited from ca. 2000 to 1800 BCE; Langgut et al. 2014; Kagan et al. 2015). Drier climate conditions were also documented in: 1) other Southern Levant pollen records (Litt et al. 2012; Kaniewski et al. 2017); 2) declining level of the Dead Sea (from 380 m below msl to 400 m below msl; yet, the drop began slightly earlier ca. 2200/2100 BCE and lasted about 200–300 years) (Migowski et al. 2006; Kagan et al. 2015); 3) isotopic composition of tamarisk wood from the Mount Sedom Cave (southern Dead Sea), which points to a prolonged drought (of more than 100 years) at the end of the Intermediate Bronze Age (Frumkin 2009); as well as the Sorek Cave speleothems isotopic record, which indicates a decrease in precipitation during ~2200–1900 BCE (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon 2004, 2011; Laugomer 2017). The magnitude and duration of the event (within each respective profile) is more or less similar; these observations suggest a regional event rather than a localized one. Indeed, this dry episode was also identified in isotopic records from northern parts of the eastern Mediterranean (Finné et al. 2017; Kaniewski et al. 2018).

Footnotes

7. Since Olea pollen production has a strong response to cessation of cultivation (a dramatic decrease in pollen production was documented in deserted orchards after several decades of abandonment—Langgut, Lev-Yadun and Finkelstein 2014), the olive pollen that was identified during the Intermediate Bronze Age represents well-maintained orchards.

The Middle Bronze I (ca. 1950–1750 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:16)

During the Middle Bronze I, olive tree percentages appear at the same magnitude as in the Intermediate Bronze Age in both records (Sea of Galilee and Zeʾelim), representing olive production likely sufficient only for local consumption From the beginning of the period until about 1800 BCE, Mediterranean tree values remain low. It seems that the dry period that began at the end of the Intermediate Bronze Age lasted about two centuries (ca. 2100–1800 BCE). Based on other paleoclimate records already mentioned, this event may have lasted slightly longer—about 300–400 years, between 2200–1800 BCE (Langgut et al. 2015; Laugomer 2017). Can this dry event be associated with the much discussed 4.2 BP event, suggested by Weiss et al. (1993; Weiss 2012; 2017) as the region-wide “mega-drought” that brought about the collapse of the Akkadian Empire (see critique in, e.g., Wanner et al. 2008; Finné et al. 2011)? The answer is that climatic proxies of the Southern Levant cannot be easily projected onto Mesopotamia, at the very least because the latter is influenced by parameters other than just the Mediterranean climate system (Finkelstein and Langgut 2014 and references therein).

The ca. 2100–1800 BCE dry phase may explain changes in settlement patterns in the entire Levant and beyond, from the Beersheba Valley in the south (Fig. 1.5) to the upper Euphrates in the north. These include withdrawal of permanent settlement activity from semi-arid zones in southern Canaan and a demographic low in steppe zones in the north, such as the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon and the Jezirah. These were the result of the shift in the 400 mm rainfall isohyet (marking the boundary between the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian vegetation zones), to the north and to the west. For this reason, significant numbers of people may have moved to “greener” parts of the Levant (Finkelstein and Langgut 2014). This dry phase in the Levant could have been one of the reasons for the beginning of Asiatic settlement in the northeastern Nile Delta during the 19th century BCE (ibid.).

The Middle Bronze II–III (ca. 1750–1550 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:16-17)

Based on the three pollen records available for the Middle Bronze II‒III (Birkat Ram, Sea of Galilee and Zeʾelim; Fig. 1.3), wetter climate conditions, which are recognized by the increasing percentages in Mediterranean trees around 1800 BCE, prevailed throughout this period (Langgut et al. 2015), in comparison to the previous period. During this timespan the Zeʾelim sediments accumulated in a lacustrine environment, representing an increase in Dead Sea levels and more humid conditions (as opposed to the beginning of Middle Bronze I, when sediments accumulated in a shore environment; Langgut et al. 2014; Kagan et al. 2015). Indeed, according to the reconstruction of the Dead Sea levels, it was in the Middle Bronze II–III, that the lake reached its highest level during the last four millennia—up to 370 m bmsl (Migowski et al. 2006; Kushnir and Stein 2010).

The archaeological evidence points to an increase in settlement activity in the central highlands during the Middle Bronze II–III (Finkelstein 1995; Ofer 1994). Along the coast, the wetter climate conditions of the Middle Bronze II–III that followed the dry phase seem to have enabled the settlement system to recover and re-expand southward into the Naḥal Besor area and the Beersheba Valley (e.g., Finkelstein et al., 2018). Settlement of Asiatics in the Nile Delta continued and intensified—this time mainly for economic reasons (Finkelstein and Langgut 2014).

The Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550–1150 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:17-19)

According to the northern pollen diagrams (Birkat Ram and Sea of Galilee; Figs. 1.3a, b) during the beginning of the period, the Mediterranean arboreal pollen percentages remain relatively high, representing continuity of a well-developed Mediterranean forest/ maquis. The ʿEin Feshkha record begins in the middle of the Late Bronze Age; it exhibits high values for arboreal pollen, which decline toward the end of the period, reflecting drier climate conditions (Fig. 1.3c). No pollen data for the Late Bronze Age is available from the Zeʾelim record (Fig. 1.3d) due to sedimentary erosion and unfavorable conditions for pollen preservation in sandy sediments (Langgut et al. 2014; 2015).

During the 14th century BCE, ca. 1350 BCE, high frequencies of Mediterranean pollen trees were recorded in the Sea of Galilee pollen diagram, which most likely indicate relatively wet climate conditions (Fig. 1.3b); this is consistent with the fact that the Amarna tablets,dated to ca. 1360–1330/35 BCE, do not mention droughts or famine in the region. Yet, the values of olive pollen remain in their low frequencies, indicating a limited spread of olive horticulture (Figs. 1.3a–c). The En-Gedi palynological record (Litt et al. 2012) is consistent with this picture.

The Late Bronze Age was marked by a dramatic decrease in settlement activity in the hill country of the Galilee, Samaria and Judea (Bunimovitz 1994; Ofer 1994; Finkelstein 1995). The relatively high percentages of the arboreal pollen indicate that in much of the period the settlement crisis was man-induced rather than a result of a climate change.

According to all four pollen records, the most striking feature in the Bronze and Iron Age pollen transect appeared at the end of the Late Bronze Age. This phase is characterized by extremely low arboreal vegetation percentages (for both Mediterranean trees and olive trees) in the Sea of Galilee and ʿEin Feshkha, while in the less-sensitive Birkat Ram record only a slight reduction in arboreal pollen was documented. Based on the En-Gedi (Litt et al. 2012) and Sea of Galilee pollen records, the beginning of decline in Mediterranean elements can be dated to the mid-13th century BCE. The dryness is also made evident by a dramatic drop in the Dead Sea levels (Kagan et al. 2015). Litt et al. (2012) report that around 1300 BCE a thick sand unit accumulated in the En-Gedi core while Neumann et al. (2007a) describe a sedimentological unconformity in the ʿEin Feshkha record at about the same time. In the Zeʾelim Gully, a beach ridge was deposited in a shore environment around 1200 BCE (Langgut et al. 2014; Kagan et al. 2015). The occurrence of a shore depositional environment in these western Dead Sea margin sites represents a drop in the Dead Sea lake levels that was most likely the result of reduced precipitation, primarily in the area of the northern sources of the Dead Sea drainage basin. Low settlement activity at that time indicates that the shrinkage of the Mediterranean forest was most likely the result of climate rather than man-induced change (Langgut et al. 2015).

Severe dryness during the end of the Late Bronze Age and into the Iron I transition was identified in three other high-resolution palynological profiles from nearby regions: the northern Syrian coast (Kaniewski et al. 2010), Cyprus (Kaniewski et al. 2013) and the Nile Delta (Bernhardt, Horton and Stanly 2012). A dry event is also observable in eastern Mediterranean isotopic records (e.g., Finné et al. 2017). This data suggests that the dry spell at the end of the Late Bronze Age took place across a vast geographical area (Langgut, Finkelstein and Litt 2013; Kaniewski et al. 2015 and references therein; Langgut et al. 2015).

Harsh long-term droughts may have been the prime mover, then, for the collapse in the eastern Mediterranean basin during the “crisis years” at the end of the Bronze Age (Carpenter 1966; Weiss 1982; Neumann and Parpola 1987; Alpert and Neumann 1989; Ward and Joukowsky 1992; Issar 1998). Destruction layers at Levantine sites seem to indicate that the crisis in the eastern Mediterranean took place from the mid-13th century until the end of the 12th century BCE—during the same time interval when drier climate conditions were prevalent in the region. In the Levant, the crisis years are represented by the destruction of urban centers, shrinkage of other major sites, hoarding activities and changes in settlement patterns. Textual evidence from several places in the Ancient Near East attests to drought and famine starting in the mid-13th century BCE and continuing until the second half of the 12th century BCE (Astour 1965; Klengel 1974: 170‒174; Naʾaman 1994: 243‒245; Zaccagnini 1995; Singer 1999: 715‒719; 2000; 2009: 99; Cohen 2021).

The Iron I (ca. 1150–950 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:19-20)

All four pollen records for the Iron I show an increase in oak, total Mediterranean trees and olive pollen percentages. In the Birkat Ram record, where only two samples fall within the Iron I, a minor increase of Mediterranean tree pollen is visible in the transition from the previous period (Fig. 1.3a). In the Sea of Galilee record, a significant Olea pollen peak is notable; a similar peak appears in the ʿEin Feshkha and Zeʾelim pollen diagrams, together with a rise in oak pollen (Fig. 1.3b,d). As a result of the increase in moisture following the severe dryness at the end of the Late Bronze Age, both the Mediterranean forest/maquis and olive orchards expanded (Langgut et al. 2015). This is also evident in the En-Gedi pollen record starting from ca. 1000 BCE (Litt et al. 2012).

The improved climate conditions during the Iron I enabled the recovery of settlement activity. This is demonstrated by the revival of the urban system in the northern valleys (Finkelstein 2003) and in the settlement wave which took place in the highlands, including areas which are amenable to olive cultivation (Gal 1992; Finkelstein 1995; Frankel et al. 2001; Zertal 2004, 2007). The growth of settlement activity in the highlands is the backdrop for the rise of Ancient Israel and other Iron Age groups—the Arameans, Ammonites and Moabites (Finkelstein 1995; Joffe 2002). Especially noteworthy are settlement developments on the margin of the settled lands: the spread of activity in the Beersheba Valley (Herzog 1994), the rise of an early Moabite territorial polity south of the Arnon River (Finkelstein and Lipschits, 2011) and the appearance of Iron I sites on the Edomite Plateau (Finkelstein 1992). Wetter climate conditions than what we see in the arid region today could have helped the daily subsistence economy, which was probably based on dry farming and herding. Copper mining in the Wadi Faynan area (for Khirbet en-Naḥas, see Levy et al. 2004; 2008) would have likely been made easier by increased water flow in the ravines that run from the Edomite Plateau to the Arabah. An exception to this picture may be observed in the Judean Highlands, where settlement activity during the Iron I remained sparse. This highlights the fact that demographic expansion during the Iron I must have also been influenced by factors other than climate; the harsh rocky terrain of the region demanded considerable effort to clear land for agriculture and this could have deterred settlement activity in a period when more hospitable areas were still sparsely settled (Finkelstein and Langgut 2018).

The peak in olive pollen is notable mostly in the Sea of Galilee record, starting in the very late 12th century and climaxing during the first half of the 10th century BCE. This is the highest representation of olives since the Early Bronze I. What could have caused this development?

The collapse of urban centers in northern Canaan at the end of the Late Bronze Age was followed by slow settlement recovery. In the Late Iron I, between the late 11th and the middle of the 10th centuries BCE (Toffolo et al. 2014), some of these places—in the valleys and Lower Galilee—grew to become prosperous urban centers; this process may be interpreted as a revival of the Late Bronze city-state system (Finkelstein 2003). The main centers were Tel Megiddo, Tel Yoqneʿam, Tel Keisan, Tel Kinrot and Tel Rekhesh. Most of these sites feature olive-oil presses and strong evidence of olive cultivation in the botanical assemblages (Finkelstein and Langgut 2018).⁸ It can therefore be assumed that the regions near the Sea of Galilee, as well as other areas in the north such as the Jezreel Valley, were devoted to intense olive horticulture. Olive oil was likewise produced in the Shephelah during this timeframe (Bunimovitz and Lederman 2009). The overall production in the region seems to have been beyond the needs of the local population. As for export, the primary venue for Southern Levantine olive oil during the Iron I seems to have been Egypt (Finkelstein and Langgut 2018).

Footnotes

8. Evacuations at Megiddo have revealed olive presses dating to the Late Bronze III and Iron I (Frankel 2006) Yoqneʿam’s “Oil Maker’s House” dates to the late Iron I (Zarzecki-Peleg 2005). In addition, Megiddo’s Iron I strata have produced an exceptionally high percentage of olive charcoal remains (Benzaquen, Finkelstein and Langgut 2019). Olives were also cultivated in the Beth-Shean Valley. The largest percentages of olive charcoal and olive pits were documented at Tel Reḥov from the Iron IIA (Liphschitz 2020). At Tel Beth-Shean the Iron IB features high frequencies of olive charcoal remains (Baruch 2006; Liphschitz 2020: Table 52.4). At Tel Kinrot an olive-oil press was found in Area U, where olive cultivation played a significant role in the economy. In Tel Rekhesh, an extraordinary number of five Iron I oil presses were discovered (Onozuka 2012). It seems, then, that the areas around both Tel Kinrot and Tel Rekhesh included significant territory devoted to olive orchards. The proximity of these two sites to the Sea of Galilee may account for the exceptional percentage of olive pollen recorded in the sediment core extracted from the lake. This is especially true for Tel Kinrot, located relatively close to the place where the Sea of Galilee sediment core was extracted (Finkelstein and Langgut 2018).

The Iron II (ca. 950–586 BCE)

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:20)

During the Iron IIA (ca. 950–780 BCE), pollen from Mediterranean trees maintained relatively high ratios, reflecting a developed Mediterranean forest/maquis and relatively wet climate conditions, while the Iron IIB (ca. 780–680 BCE) and the Iron IIC (ca. 680–586 BCE) were characterized by a slight reduction in Mediterranean trees as evident in all three northern pollen records (Birkat Ram, Sea of Galilee and ʿEin Feshkha; Fig. 1.3a–c). The slight decline in arboreal percentages may represent moderate climate conditions but may also have been the result of anthropogenic activity such as tree clearing, spread of agriculture and grazing activities (Langgut et al. 2014; 2015). Indeed, a surge in human activity that had started in the Iron I, and increased in the Late Iron IIA, reached its zenith during the Iron IIB–IIC. The picture is less clear in the southernmost record (Zeʾelim; Fig. 1.3d): Mediterranean arboreal pollen appears in relatively low values starting from the end of the Iron I and continuing through the entire Iron II; at the same time, the lithology of this sequence has shown that sediments were deposited in a lake environment, and therefore represent relatively high Dead Sea lake levels (ca. 408 m below msl) (Langgut et al. 2014; 2015).

The almost total disappearance of olive pollen from both the Sea of Galilee and Zeʾelim records ca. 700 BCE may be the outcome of the depopulation that resulted from the deportations by Assyria and the ensuing abandonment of olive orchards (Finkelstein and Langgut 2018). Archaeological data indicates strong olive-oil industries in the Shephelah of Judah, highlands around Samaria and the western Galilee in the Iron IIB–IIC (Finkelstein, Gadot and Langgut 2021). Yet, as pollen in the Southern Levant is transported mainly by westerly and northwesterly winds, and because of the barrier formed by the mountains of the Lower Galilee and Judea, pollen from these regions is not represented in the record extracted from the Dead Sea Rift Valley.

With the rise of territorial kingdoms and the later domination of the region by empires, climate was only one factor in shaping settlement processes, even in the marginal areas of the Southern Levant (Greener, Finkelstein and Langgut 2018). The transformation of the Kingdom of Judah, beginning in the late 8th century BCE, from a typical mixed Mediterranean subsistence agriculture to a high-risk/high-gain specialized, region-based economy, with viticulture in the highlands and olive oil industry in the Shephelah, was an outcome of the incorporation of Judah as a vassal into the Assyrian global economy (Finkelstein, Gadot and Langgut 2021).

Summary

from Langgut and Finkelstein (2023:20-21)

This review presents the role of climate fluctuations in shaping south Levantine human history ca. 3600–600 BCE (the Bronze and Iron Ages) as evidenced in four palynological archives. Three of the four show similar vegetation fluctuations (Sea of Galilee, ʿEin Feshkha and Zeʾelim), indicating that at least during the Bronze and Iron Ages different regions of the Southern Levant were characterized by similar climate patterns. The Birkat Ram record does not point to any dramatic vegetation and climate fluctuations because of its northern location within an area that receives more than 1,000 mm of annual rainfall, which makes it a less sensitive climate recorder.

The climate history of the Southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages, as derived from the high-resolution pollen diagrams, can be summarized as follows: The wettest period was identified during the Early Bronze I (ca. 3600–3000 BCE). Though a reduction in the arboreal pollen percentages was documented during the Early Bronze II–III (ca. 3000–2500 BCE), the region was still typified by humid climate conditions. The Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 2500–1950 BCE) was also characterized by relatively wet climate conditions. From ca. 2000 BCE and through the beginning of the Middle Bronze I, drier climate conditions were prevalent, while the Middle Bronze II–III (ca. 1750–1550 BCE) was characterized by wetter climate. During the early phases of the Late Bronze Age humid conditions continued. The driest conditions during the entire Bronze and Iron Age timespan were recorded toward the end of this period, starting ca. 1250 BCE and continuing until the end of the 12th century BCE. An increase in arboreal percentages was documented between ca. 1100–750 BCE, which therefore covers most of the Iron I (ca. 1150–950) and the Iron IIA (ca. 950–780 BCE), representing humid conditions after the severe dryness. During the Iron IIB (ca. 780–680 BCE) and IIC (ca. 680–586 BCE), the region experienced moderate climate. These climatic trends were evaluated with regard to the regional archaeological picture of the Bronze and Iron Ages. Based on this study, it is clear that climate is only one of the factors that influenced settlement processes and economic trends in antiquity.

Two relatively profound dry periods were identified based on the significant decrease in oaks and total Mediterranean arboreal pollen during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The more severe event occurred at the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1250 BCE) and lasted until the end of the 12th century BCE. This arid phase is characterized by the lowest arboreal percentages in the Bronze and Iron Ages. The dry climate conditions at the end of the Late Bronze Age seem to correspond to references in Ancient Near Eastern texts to a period of droughts and famine and thus political instability, which is also reflected in the archaeological record by the destruction of cities. All this contributes to a better understanding of the “crisis years” in the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age.

The second dry episode was dated to ca. 2100–1800 BCE, and may be associated with the mega drought suggested by Weiss (2017 and references therein) between 2200–1800 BCE (also known as the 4.2 BP event). This dry phase resulted in a shift of the border between the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian vegetation zones to the north and west. Permanent settlements withdrew from the margins of southern Canaan. It is assumed that while these settlements were abandoned as a result of water stress, other sites, located in the greener parts of the region, became more populated. This is mostly true for sites which were located near marshes and/or springs; these sources buffered the fluctuations in precipitation and water supply. Sites like Tel Dan and Tel Aphek had a permanent source of water for irrigation—a key for food supply and human health. The migration of people from the semi-arid regions may have created competition for resources and tensions between groups.

The migration of 1.5 million people from rural farming areas to the peripheries of urban centers was witnessed in modern Syria during the three-year drought from 2007 to 2010. Social conflicts and demographic disturbances were among the main factors behind the onset of the subsequent Syrian civil war (e.g., Kelley et al. 2015). Overuse of groundwater in the years prior to the drought dramatically increased Syria’s vulnerability. When the severe drought began in 2007, the agricultural system in the northeastern “breadbasket” region, which typically produced over two-thirds of the country’s crop yields, collapsed. In contrast, almost no contemporaneous reduction of crop yield was documented in southeastern Turkey, on the other side of the border, which had likewise suffered from decreased rainfall. The difference between the two countries stems from the fact that in Turkey the government practiced a much more organized and targeted economy, which could successfully handle the environmental deterioration. This means that the sociopolitical structure of a given region should also be taken into consideration when evaluating the impact of severe droughts on ancient societies.

Primary Loci Tables

Stratum II

Table 10.1 - Primary Loci of Stratum II in Field XI

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Table 10.2 - Primary Loci of Stratum II in Fields XIII and IV

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Table 10.6 - Primary Loci of Stratum II in Field XIX

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Table 10.8 - Primary Loci of Stratum II in Field XI

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Photos

Fig. 3 - Photo of Wadi

Fig. 3

Photo of Wadi adh-Dhra‘, Jordan showing Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 illuminated at top of photo and down cutting of wadi; see crew member crossing wadi bed at bottom of photo.

Fall et al. (2023)

adh-Dhra‘ from Fall et al. (2023)
Fig. 6.2 - Stratum IV

Fig. 6.2

Stratum IV ash layers (Loci 4, 16) below later Stratum II Wall 63 with its posthole; fallen mud bricks of Stratum IV structures lie in the burn; corner of the fallen ledge of Tomb F 4C is on left and Tomb F 4B is below the ash layers; the west balk section (fig. 6.1) is on right looking south.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

ash layers and mudbrick collapse from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 6.7 - Wall 29 in

Fig. 6.7

Wall 29 in Field XII.9 left of meter stick, with posthole Locus 35; Wall 22 of Field XII.10 is right of meter stick; remnants of later brick pavement above posthole continuing in upper part of photo; looking southeast.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field XII.9 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 8.25 - Fallen stones

Fig. 8.25

Photo of Field XVII.1 looking east and showing earliest phases excavated; Wall 121 is to the right, Wall 141 with meter stick in the center, Wall 131 at upper left, and Locus 150 at lower left; lowest surface reached during the EDSP excavations was Locus 161 with fallen stones, but deeper levels of cultural debris are indicated below this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

in Locus 161 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 8.33 - Fractures in

Fig. 8.33

Photo of Wall 48/105 in Field XIX looking east; unexcavated fill under Locus 106 is in right foreground; meter stick rests on Wall 108; note ash layers Loci 92–106 in east balk in XIX.2 north of meter stick.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Wall 48/105 in Field XIX from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 8.35 - Fractures in

Fig. 8.35

Photo of Wall 97/110 looking west; Wall 91 of Stratum IID cuts Wall 97/110 on the north; Wall 48/105 is in the foreground.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Wall 97/110 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.13 - East face of

Fig. 10.13

Photo of east face of Wall A (Locus 7) in Field IV.6, looking southwest.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Wall A (Locus 7) in Field IV.6 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.14 - Fallen

Fig. 10.14

Mud bricks fallen from the super structure of Wall A in Field XIII.2 (Locus 29); mortar can be seen clinging to some of the bricks.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

mudbricks from the super structure of Wall A in Field XIII.2 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.44 - Broken

Fig. 10.44

Fragments of large storage jar (Locus 39) north of Wall 66 of Stratum IIB1 in Field XVII.1, looking south.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

pottery from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.53 - Fractured

Fig. 10.53

Field XIX.1 looking east; meter stick rests on lower courses of Wall 46 which cuts across north–south buttress extension Wall 10 on upper right; note the header-stretcher construction of Wall 46; stone foundation courses of Stratum IIB–A Wall 5 are in east balk south of Wall 46 (see figs. 10.51 and 10.55).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.56 - Fractured

Fig. 10.56

Photo showing Stratum II occupation in Field XIX.1, looking east; vertical meter stick rests against remnant of the north–south buttress extension Wall 10 of Stratum IID–C; conglomerate mortar (Locus 44) of Stratum IID–C is in center; horizontal meter stick is at junction of lower courses of east–west Wall 5 of Stratum IIB–A which was built across Wall 10; meter sticks show the slope in this field.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.69 - Tilted Wall

Fig. 10.69

Field XIV.4 looking west; tilted Wall 10 is to the south with north–south Wall 36 in the center of the photo; cooking area 63/43 is at the join of Walls 10 and 36

Rast and Schaub (2003)

in Field XIV.4 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.71 - Tilted Wall

Fig. 10.71

Field XIV.3 looking at the West Balk; meter stick rests at the join of Walls 281 (in balk) and Wall 269.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

in Field XIV.3 from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 10.72 - Tilted Wall

Fig. 10.72

Field XIV.4 looking south at retaining Wall 14; stone Wall 4 under the meter stick is above mud-brick Wall 10 in the foreground.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

14 in Field XIV.4 from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratigraphy and Radiocarbon Dating

Strata at Bab edh-Dhra'

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Strata at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Excavation Results at Bab edh-Dhra'

from R. Thomas Schaub in Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Excavation Results

Stern et al. (1993 v.1)

Radiocarbon Dating at Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 (ZAD1)

Modeled Results

from Fall et al. (2023)

Fig. 4

Bayesian sequencing of 20 calibrated ¹⁴C ages for seed samples from Phases 4–2 at Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Jordan. A_model = 101.9. Light gray curves indicate single-sample calibration distributions; dark curves indicate modeled calibration distributions. Calibrations and Bayesian modeling based on OxCal4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey 2009) using the IntCal20 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al.2020; van der Plicht et al. 2020). Phase 2 (the latest phase). Samples are tabulated by phase and ordered chronologically according to conventional ¹⁴C age within each phase.

Fall et al. (2023)

Table 3 - Modeled and Unmodeled Results

from Fall et al. (2023)

Table 3

Unmodeled and modeled calibrated AMS radiocarbon seed ages from Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Jordan. Uncalibrated ¹⁴C ages areindicated in BP with their 1σ uncertainty. Calibration based on OxCal 4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey 2009, 2017) using the IntCal20 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2020; van der Plicht et al. 2020). Stratigraphic phases at Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 run from Phase 4 (the earliest phase) to Phase 2 (the latest phase). Samples are tabulated by phase and ordered chronologically according to conventional ¹⁴C age within each phase.

Fall et al. (2023)

Table 2 - Sample Inventory

from Fall et al. (2023)

Table 2

Seed samples from Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1, Jordan submitted for radiocarbon analyses. Excavation context shown according to Excavation Unit, Locus and Bag, (e.g., A.012.41 =Unit A, Locus 012, Bag 41).

Fall et al. (2023)

Table 4 - Structures at Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 shown according to phases

from Fall et al. (2023)

Table 4

Structures at Zahrat adh-Dhra‘ 1 shown according to phases of occupation and numbers of radiocarbon dates in each phase, based on three-phase Bayesian model of 20 AMS ages (see Figure 4).

Fall et al. (2023)

Chronological Divisions

Fall et al. (2023)

from Fall et al. (2023)

Table 1

Traditional and revised Early and Middle Bronze Age chronologies for the Southern Levant. (Traditional chronology based on Dever 1992; Levy 1995:fig. 3; revised chronology based on Regev et al. 2012; Fall et al. 2021; Höflmayer and Manning 2022.)

Fall et al. (2023)

Stern et al (1993)

Age	Dates	Comments
Early Bronze IA-B	3300-3000 BCE	‎
Early Bronze II	3000-2700 BCE	‎
Early Bronze III	2700-2200 BCE	‎
Middle Bronze I	2200-2000 BCE	‎EB IV - Intermediate Bronze
Middle Bronze IIA	2000-1750 BCE	‎
Middle Bronze IIB	1750-1550 BCE	‎
Late Bronze I	1550-1400 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE	‎
Iron IA	1200-1150 BCE	‎
Iron IB	1150-1100 BCE	‎
Iron IIA	1000-900 BCE	‎
Iron IIB	900-700 BCE	‎
Iron IIC	700-586 BCE	‎
Babylonian & Persian	586-332 BCE	‎
Early Hellenistic	332-167 BCE	‎
Late Hellenistic	167-37 BCE	‎
Early Roman	37 BCE - 132 CE	‎
Herodian	37 BCE - 70 CE	‎
Late Roman	132-324 CE	‎
Byzantine	324-638 CE	‎
Early Arab	638-1099 CE	Umayyad & Abbasid‎
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE	‎
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE	Fatimid & Mameluke‎
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE	‎

Meyers et al (1997)

Phase	Dates	Variants
Early Bronze IA-B	3400-3100 BCE	‎
Early Bronze II	3100-2650 BCE	‎
Early Bronze III	2650-2300 BCE	‎
Early Bronze IVA-C	2300-2000 BCE	Intermediate Early-Middle Bronze, Middle Bronze I‎
Middle Bronze I	2000-1800 BCE	‎Middle Bronze IIA
Middle Bronze II	1800-1650 BCE	‎Middle Bronze IIB‎
Middle Bronze III	1650-1500 BCE	‎‎Middle Bronze IIC
Late Bronze IA	1500-1450 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1450-1400 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIA	1400-1300 BCE	‎
Late Bronze IIB	1300-1200 BCE	‎
Iron IA	1200-1125 BCE	‎
Iron IB	1125-1000 BCE	‎
Iron IC	1000-925 BCE	Iron IIA‎
Iron IIA	925-722 BCE	Iron IIB‎
Iron IIB	722-586 BCE	‎Iron IIC
Iron III	586-520 BCE	Neo-Babylonian‎
Early Persian	520-450 BCE	‎
Late Persian	450-332 BCE	‎
Early Hellenistic	332-200 BCE	‎
Late Hellenistic	200-63 BCE	‎
Early Roman	63 BCE - 135 CE	‎
Middle Roman	135-250 CE	‎
Late Roman	250-363 CE	‎
Early Byzantine	363-460 CE	‎
Late Byzantine	460-638 CE	‎
Early Arab	638-1099 CE	‎
Crusader & Ayyubid	1099-1291 CE	‎
Late Arab	1291-1516 CE	‎
Ottoman	1516-1917 CE	‎

Stratum IV Destruction - Early Bronze IB - 3200-3100 BCE

Discussion

Stratum IV ended in fire and destruction. Rast and Schaub (2003:129) report that in most of the areas where Stratum IV structures were found, the remains of these structures were accompanied by a thick layer of dark ash. Because plant remains were absent in the examination of many samples taken from the ash, the burned debris in the Stratum IV structures appears not to have been occupational - i.e. it wasn't due to a kitchen fire. Something external appears to have burned the site. In Area F, demolished brick structures were found along with a thick ashy burn layer, 25 cm. thick in some places (Rast and Schaub, 2003:102-103). In Area F4, bricks from the stratum IV buildings were found settled into the ash indicating that fire preceded collapse. In Area XII, the ashy deposit was widespread, as thick as 50 cm., and accompanied by mud-brick debris and pottery sherds (Rast and Schaub, 2003:115-116). Rast and Schaub (2003:155) suggested a date range for Stratum IV, based on pottery, between 3200 and 3100 BCE in Early Bronze IB. This date assessment was found to be compatible with three Stratum IV ¹⁴C dates.

Rast and Schaub (2003:130) suggested that the cause of destruction may have been an Egyptian attack - an explanation they found preferable to other explanations such as a natural calamity or local conflict. That said, Rast and Schaub (2003:130) noted that if an Egyptian attack against the Stratum IV village had been carried out, the former left no evidence of having taken over the site, which seems to have been resettled in Stratum III, at least in part, by people from the previous village as following EB I, the artifactual and architectural data speak for some measure of continuity in the population.

References

Excavation Report - Rast and Schaub (2003)

Volume 1

Chapter 1 - The 1975–1981 Excavations at the town site of Bab edh-Dhra'

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:1)

Lapp’s excavations in 1965 were the first to show that Bâb edh-Dhrâ was an Early Bronze Age settlement rather than a specialized ceremonial site, as many had speculated prior to his work (P. Lapp 1966: 560–61; for references to the prevalent interpretation of the site as a distinctive one accompanied by cultic activities see Schaub and Rast 1989: 17–18).

... Bâb edh-Dhrâ takes its place within the discussion of the social and political events occurring on both sides of the Jordan Rift during the late fourth and third millennia B.C.

The Southern Ghor Survey of 1973

from Rast and Schaub (2003:4)

The Early Bronze Age remains identified in the 1973 survey were mainly cemeteries, although one site, Numeira, was a crucial discovery for future investigation, since it turned out to be an EB III town with clear parallels to Bâb edh-Dhrâ (Rast and Schaub 1974: 8–9, pl. 8). By contrast, the remains at es-Sâfî consisted of an extensive EB I cemetery with no accompanying evidence of settlement (Rast and Schaub 1974: 9–11). The situation at Feifa was similar—an EB I cemetery was identified but no definite Early Bronze settlement remains were indicated. On a small tell at Feifa, Iron II, Roman, Nabatean and Arabic potsherds were found (Rast and Schaub 1974: 11–12; limited excavations were carried out on the tell during 1989–90). At Khanazir the survey recorded cist burials dating to EB IV (Rast and Schaub 1974: 13, 18; some of these were excavated along with Feifa during 1989–90). It was also apparent from survey around Khanazir that the latter site was not occupied during EB II and III, but that EB I burials were present nearby.

... Bâb edh-Dhrâ was now to be set in a regional context and investigated as a major unit within the course of occupation of the southern Ghor from approximately 3300 to 2000 B.C.

The Town Site and Its Surroundings

from Rast and Schaub (2003:5-7)

The town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ is located east of the Lisan peninsula (35˚ 32' 50" E, and 31˚ 15' 15" N UTM; Palestinian Grid 200.750—073.500) on terrain similar to that of the Lisan peninsula but at an elevation more than 100 m higher than the latter. It lies approximately 400 m northeast of the Cemetery area (fig. 1.2). Its Stratum IV village and Stratum III and II towns were built on a number of marl and gravel knolls created during the time of the ancient Lake Lisan (see chapter 2). The ruins of the town site are 10 to 15 m above the surrounding Sahl edh-Dhrâ on the east and south sides of the site, and 60 m above the Wadi Kerak on the north side. During Stratum II the major defensive wall, parts of which have all along been visible on the surface, was constructed around the rim of these knolls (chapter 10). A mud-brick defensive system seems also to have been built around the site in Stratum III (chapter 8). The area encompassed by the Stratum II town wall provides an approximate size for the town at around 4.5 ha., but the severe erosional depressions on the north suggest the actual size may have been somewhat larger.

In comparison with other Early Bronze Age sites west and east of the Jordan River, Bâb edh-Dhrâ is of medium size. With an area of approximately 11 ha., 'Ai was almost three times larger (Callaway 1972: 9), while Arad at 9 ha. was twice as large (Amiran 1978: 3). Given the limited space and resources of the Dead Sea region, however, the size of Bâb edh-Dhrâ was impressive. Based on the various parts of the site excavated, it can be concluded that the area under use at the town site was roughly the same from Stratum IV through Stratum II, with a good deal of settlement occurring outside the walls in Stratum II. During Stratum I, settlement was concentrated mostly outside the town site, with only Field XVI showing stratified evidence of occupation within the confines of the former town site. The earliest phase, Stratum V, was represented by temporary camping remains discovered near the cemetery rather than in the area of the town site (chap. 4).

Despite the marl and gravel terrain at Bâb edh-Dhrâ, which provided its own difficulties for town construction (see chap. 10), sufficient natural features were available to induce the Early Bronze Age inhabitants to choose this location. One was the site’s dominating view over the Lisan plain to the west, the Dead Sea littoral to the north and south, and the flatland of the Sahl edh-Dhrâ to the east and south. Water was available in natural springs, with outlets into the Wadi Kerak. The availability of lands of the surrounding plains, along with natural resources for the cultivation of fruits and grains, also offered incentives to settlement (chap. 3). Fruit-bearing trees, such as the date palm, were also native to the area. On the whole, the greater number of trees at that time in comparison with the present offered opportunity for various building projects.

The 1973 survey outside the walled town also showed that substantial settlement had occurred south and west of the town. Most of the large monoliths noted in 1924 (Albright 1924–25: 59) were still lying in the same locations at the time of the 1973 survey. Unfortunately, by 1977 they had been bulldozed away along with the flint material. The 1973 survey also noted numerous wall remains and much pottery on the northeast, east and south sides of the town site, indicating that settlers had built many structures outside the town. Much of this settlement seems to have occurred during the time of Stratum II, the period that witnessed the greatest expansion at Bâb edh-Dhrâ resulting in the establishment of a new town at Numeira (see chapter 23). In recent visits to Bâb edh-Dhrâ we have observed a great amount of occupation west of the town site as well, much of it dating apparently to the Stratum II horizon.

No remains have come to light indicating that the town site was occupied earlier than Stratum IV. A number of EB IA tombs were discovered in Area F outside the town wall on the west (chap. 4), suggesting that occasional tombs were also cut near where the later town was to be located, although not within what was to become the walled area. Most tombs from all phases, however, were concentrated in Cemeteries A and C southwest of the town site. During the last phase at the site (Stratum I), EB IV shaft tombs were also cut west of Area F on the slope above the Lisan plain.

Definitions and Terms

from Rast and Schaub (2003:16-7)

Locus System. The discussions in chapters 4–13 are based on the consolidation of all loci excavated and recorded by the EDSP in the various fields and areas excavated. The EDSP employed the method commonly followed by projects affiliated with the American Schools of Oriental Research through the latter’s Committee on Archaeological Policy. All three-dimensional features (layers of soil, walls, pits, cisterns, etc.) are assigned separate locus numbers. Pottery and objects are not viewed as loci but as situated within loci (most commonly, soils). Occasionally, as will be noted, a field volunteer may have misunderstood this principle, recording an object or two under a locus number. We have included these few exceptions in the Master Locus List (MLL) despite the fact that they deviate from the standard practice. Architectural features such as a room or building are usually not referred to as a locus, but are made up of many loci within the room or building. The report below includes drawn plans and sections, and wherever possible loci are included on the drawings.

Primary Loci. The locus system means that many hundreds of locus numbers are employed and, whereas all contribute to the total picture, specific loci are especially determinative for interpretation. It is these latter that are presented below as Primary Loci (PL). PL are isolated in post-season study of all loci, rather than during the fieldwork (cf. Braun 1997: 15 for the opposite). The PL are printed as tables within the text and are normally referred to in the discussion of the architecture and stratigraphy, while the MLL is found on the CD-ROM. The MLL also correlates all information for phasing, pottery readings, objects recorded, bone material, flotation results, and any other specific data for each locus. The locus method facilitates a check and balance system in which data uncovered can be viewed from various perspectives, according to the daily field books and top plans, pottery reading record, the photographic registry, and records of the geology, flotation, palynology and zoology.

Pottery. On the basis of the locus method which stresses stratification, the pottery for each phase is presented in relation to soil layers, including cases where it was found within structures. Drawings and descriptions of pottery from all loci excavated are stored digitally and are available for further research. The digital system used in cataloguing the pottery in chapters 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 is similar to that used in the previously published volume on tombs (see Schaub and Rast 1989: 4–9 for details), facilitating valuable comparisons between the tomb and town site pottery (for details on the conventions used in the presentation of the pottery see the preface to part 2 of this volume).

Field and Area. The term field is used according to the meaning commonly found in current excavation, that is, to refer to the large units of excavation. Fields I–VII were excavated by Lapp, while Fields VIII–XIX were opened by the EDSP. The term field is used for excavation units within the town site and units to the south (IX) and to the east (X), while the term area refers to excavation units outside the town site, such as Area H 1 on the northern ridge of Cemetery A, and Area F 4 west of the town site. The use of area as a defining unit served well for places where tombs were either discovered or were thought to be present, but where settlement evidence then came to light. In these cases, the entire unit was designated an area. Roman numerals are used to designate fields, while Arabic numerals are used for squares (e.g., Field I.1). Uppercase alphabetic letters specify areas, followed by Arabic numerals for squares or trenches in an area (such as Area F 4)

Site Map And Elevation. Due to the severe erosion of parts of the site, an architectural grid of the entire site was not made. A site map was produced, and each field or area was positioned on the site map (fig. 1.4). Elevations were determined from the bench mark established by Lapp east of the town site. The EDSP found an error of-32 m in the elevations used by the earlier expedition (see Schaub and Rast 1989: 3). The elevations used in the present volume are those determined by the EDSP, and their below-sea-level location is indicated by the minus sign.

Town Site. The term town site refers to the evidence found specifically within the walled town of Strata III and II. It should be noted, however, that in the case of each of the five strata, some remains were also found outside the area defined by the walled town. Thus the bulk of the remains of the village of Stratum IV were within the area encompassed by the later town wall, but remains of the same stratum were also found in Areas F 4 and J2 outside the town site. Fields IX and X were also outside the town site, and contained evidence dating mostly to Stratum I. Survey also showed that Stratum II occupation occurred outside the town site on the west, south and east.

The use of the term town rather than city is intentional since in our view Early Bronze urbanism, if it can be called that, was not of the same magnitude as the intensive urbanization found in Mespotamia or Syria during the third millennium B.C. The term village is the designation used for the first permanent settlement at the site during Stratum IV.

As in the case of the first volume of these series, we have presented in the printed volume all of the synthesized evidence that most clearly interprets the development of settlement at Bâb edh-Dhrâ through the various phases of the Early Bronze Age. Other databases are found on the CD-ROM. The present volume offers a descriptive report of the EDSP excavations at Bâb edh-Dhrâ and an interpretation of what we can know about the people who occupied this region for a period of more than a thousand years from the late fourth to the end of the third millennium B.C.

Strata at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Chapter 2 - Geology and Geomorphology

Lake Level Plots, Plans, and Drawings

Dead Sea Lake Level Curve - Kagan et al (2015)

from Kagan et al (2015)

Figure 4

Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lake levels are based on previous works by Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. (2004) [Ze'elim and Nahal David (Ein Gedi) outcrops], Bartov (2004) [Arugot and Darga outcrops], Migowski et al. (2006) [DS cores], Stern (2010) [Ein Qedem outcrop], Kushnir and Stein (2010)'s interpretation, and on new data (Ze'elim outcrops) and interpretations from this study. References for some specific parts of the curve

Bartov et al. 2007
Frumkin et al. 1991; Migowski et al. 2006
Stern 2010
this study
Bartov 2004
Stern 2010
beach ridge, this study and Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004
Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004

For ages, see Table 1. Dashed part of the curve is based on relative lake-level fluctuations.

Kagan et al (2015)

Dead Sea Lake Level Curves - Bruins (1994)

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.14

Dead Sea level curve proposed by Bruins (1994). This curve shows a lake level high stand during EB II time with water levels being as high as -300 m asl. The curve is based mainly on the previous curve generated by Frumkin (1991).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plans and Drawings

Fig. 2.13 - Paleogeologic

Fig. 2.13

Paleogeologic map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' showing probable topography and geology of the surface on which Early Bronze people began their occupation during Early Bronze IA time. At this point in time, there is no evidence of construction of mud-brick or stone-wall structures. EB IA peoples were apparently pastoralists who occupied the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area on a temporary basis (see chapter 4).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the Early Bronze Age from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.16 - Hypothetical

Fig. 2.16

A. Cross-section of probable configuration of exterior town wall at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. The lower unit, still preserved in some places around the site, consists of angular to subrounded small boulders (20 to 50 cm in diameter) of Paleozoic sandstone and Mesozoic limestone and dolo mite (see Natural Stratigraphy for descriptions of these units). The middle unit, the stippled rect angular blocks (5 to 10 cm thick by 20 to 30 cm in width and length) consist of Lisan Marl sands that are naturally cemented with calcium carbonate (calcite). These slabs were quarried and used to prepare a flat surface on top of the stone foundation for the wall. The upper, no longer preserved, portion of the town wall consisted of mud brick.

B. Diagrammatic longitudinal cross section showing wall construction on uphill slope north of Lapp’s 1966 trench which cut through the stone wall. Trench is parallel to Field II. Explanation is the same as for figure 2.16A.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Cross-section of town walls from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.17 - Present

Fig. 2.17

Present condition of town wall where the two lower rock construction units are still preserved in a few places at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. This can be seen at the northeast corner of the site, just north of Fields I and II. Both the interior and exterior slopes adjacent to the stone wall consist largely of eroded fragments of mud brick which were originally located on top of the stone wall as a mud-brick wall of unknown height.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

condition of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.15 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.15

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.18 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.18

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' at the present time with erosion into the interior of the site by the western and eastern tributaries.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during present time from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.19 - Aggradation and

Fig. 2.19

Diagrammatic cross-section of the Wadi Kerak at several different points in time. The left section shows the wadi in Chalcolithic times, when long, slow erosion had produced a bowl shaped valley. The middle two sections show conditions during EB I/III times when sediments began to accumulate in the wadi. Within the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', building construction caused the accumulation of both cultural and natural sediment. During and especially toward the end of this period, erosion was also occurring, both in the wadi and at the adjacent town site. The right cross-section depicts conditions after the large drop in the level of the Dead Sea. Extensive erosion occurred in the wadi, creating the lower, straight-sided portion of the wadi. Within Bâb edh-Dhrâ', erosion removed a significant portion of both cultural and natural material.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Erosion over time in Wadi Kerak from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Discussion

Regional Setting

from Rast and Schaub (2003:21-23)

The site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ, like three other Early Bronze Age remains investigated by the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain (Numeira, Feifa and Khanazir), is located on an alluvial terrace surface along the eastern side of the Dead Sea (fig. 2.4). Like Bâb edh-Dhrâ' all three of these sites, two of which are cemeteries and one a settlement, are also situated adjacent to major wadis that drain water from the 1000 m high rift escarpment immediately to the east. The terraces are erosional remnants of alluvial fans deposited during the earlier existence of Lake Lisan; gravels, sands and silts were transported from the eastern rift escarpment down the wadis and deposited along the shores of Lake Lisan. Bâb edh-Dhrâ itself is located immediately south of an entrenched segment of the Wadi Kerak where the wadi stream has eroded a narrow valley into the terrace surface. The site and the alluvial fan occur just east of the Lisan Peninsula (fig. 2.4) which separates the larger, deep north basin from the smaller, presently emergent south basin of the Dead Sea.

Tectonics

from Rast and Schaub (2003:29-30)

Simply described, tectonics is the movement or deformation of rock units after they have been deposited. Deformation often consists of the folding or large-scale bending of rocks, faulting where rocks are fractured and movement occurs on one or both sides of the fracture, or, in many cases, a combination of both. If an area is downdropped or subsides, a sedimentary basin can form where sediments accumulate. In contrast, when rock units are uplifted above lake or sea level, erosion can occur with the removal of previously deposited rock units. As described previously, only under conditions of subsidence or stability will archaeological sites be preserved.

The Dead Sea over the last ten million years has been and still is one of the world’s most tectonically active areas. Deformation in this area is dominantly produced by fault movement along the Dead Sea–Jordan transform fault (Niemi and Smith 1999: 792; Niemi and Ben Avraham 1997: 73). This is a complex fault zone with development of several parallel north–south faults bounding the narrow, actively subsiding Dead Sea basin. Figure 2.6, a greatly simplified diagram of the Dead Sea area, shows the position for the Western and Eastern Border Faults. The Dead Sea basin, a down dropped segment between the two border faults, has been the depositional basin for up to 10 km of sediments since its initiation in Miocene (24 myBP) time (Garfunkel 1997: 453–48). East-southeast trending cross faults such as the Kerak Graben and Amazyahu Fault (fig. 2.6) are significant in determining the positions of wadis on both the east and west side of the basin as well as its southern terminus (Amazyahu Fault). The presence of faults such as the two defining the Kerak Graben causes a weakness in Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithified rocks that becomes more rapidly eroded to form a wadi; in the case of the Kerak Graben, the Wadi Kerak.

The Lisan Peninsula, a high-standing feature, is underlain by a salt diapir. Salt, a relatively light or less dense, plastic material has flowed upward in the area of the Lisan Peninsula, causing it to maintain a higher elevation than the south basin and especially the deep north basin of the Dead Sea.

Earthquakes

from Rast and Schaub (2003:30-32)

There is a question about whether earthquakes have caused damage to any of the Early Bronze sites within the Dead Sea valley. Earthquakes are almost always caused by fault movement, with the quake being produced by vibrations generated during fault movement. Figure 2.6 illustrates the abundance of both north–south and, to a lesser extent, east–west faults. Repetitive and cumulative movement along these faults or fractures in the bedrock resulted in the development of the Dead Sea as we know it today. Only major faults are included on the figure. Examination of information contained on a geologic map such as the Kerak Sheet (Powell 1988) demonstrates the existence of numerous minor faults in the area, again with a dominant north south and east–west orientation. Since the Dead Sea area has been tectonically active since at least Miocene time, fault movement or slippage with a resultant earthquake is a common event (Ben-Avraham 1997: 28–33; Garfunkel 1997: 36–41; Neimi and Ben-Avraham 1997: 76–80).

... The actual documentation of earthquakes or earthquake damage at an archaeological site or within its vicinity is extremely difficult to obtain. Damage or disruption observed within an excavation wall can have causes other than seismic activity. For example, wall collapse during warfare or rapid erosional events such as landslides could easily resemble earthquake damage. One reasonable suggestion that has been made is that, when stone building columns found in Roman ruins have all fallen in the same direction and apparently at the same time, an earthquake is the most likely cause (Niemi, personal communication, 1999).

After extensive field work and examination of excavation records and profiles from Bâb edh-Dhrâ, we found no clear-cut evidence for significant earthquake damage at the site. A likely candidate for earthquake-induced disruption is present in the precultural Lake Lisan/Lisan Marl facies within the walled perimeter of Bâb edh-Dhrâ. An exposure of Lisan Marl (see section on natural stratigraphy above) contains contorted bedding at the base of the marl sequence that resembles soft sediment deformation. The two most likely causes for this are either sediment movement caused by earthquake or seismic vibrations or flow of sediment down a gentle slope with result ant deformation. Of course, an earthquake could well have been responsible for initiation of the soft sediment flow. Neev and Emery (1995: 29, fig. 2.12) illustrate a very similar deformation in Lisan Marl at Nahal Parazim near Mount Sedom and state that the deformation was caused by an earthquake.

Within building structures at the site, the most plausible candidate for earthquake damage consists of tilted mud-brick wall lines (see the west balk in Field XIV, fig. 10.70, chapter 10). The tilting could have been caused by seismic activity but it is just as likely if not more so that damage occurred from the slow processes of sub-aerial weathering and erosion (A. M. Rosen 1986: 25–52; W. Ginell, personal communication, 1999). This profile contains a large amount of eroded, transported and redeposited cultural debris. For example, significant percentages of the profile are of mud-brick detritus and slope debris consisting of fragments of mud-brick and other construction material. Field XIV is located where the pre-cultural surface was sloping so that erosional processes would have been intensified

Dead Sea Levels

from Rast and Schaub (2003:33-35)

Fig. 2.8

Climatic fluctuation as suggested from three different data sets: Frumkin and others (1991), Horowitz (1992), and Neev and Emery (1995).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

The Dead Sea is a terminal lake in that there is no external drainage from the lake basin. All freshwater surface inflow from the Jordan River and the Wadis Yarmouk, Mujib and Hasa, as well as other smaller wadis draining into the lake basin, is mainly removed by evaporation. Since the Dead Sea is situated well below sea level (-410 m asl in 1999) and is surrounded by highlands in an arid climatic setting, temperatures are high and evaporation rates extreme. It is presently one of the most saline water bodies in the world (ca. more than 276 gm/liter or parts per thousand [‰] average salinity [Niemi, Ben-Avraham and Gat 1997: 3]). This is in contrast to normal ocean water which has a salinity of 35‰.

There is a direct relationship between climate, especially the amount of rainfall, and both Dead Sea level and salinity. Under more humid conditions, the elevation of the lake surface will increase while its salinity will decrease. This is well illustrated by Lake Lisan sediments where gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is found in the marl facies, but not halite (NaCl). Lake Lisan was much larger than the present Dead Sea, with lake levels reaching at least as high as -180 m asl (Neev and Emery 1967: 25; 1995: 58). Under less saline conditions, the mineral gypsum will crystallize from lake waters while halite (rock salt) will not. Rising or falling lake levels with associated high or low shoreline stands will cause significant changes not only in the Dead Sea itself, but also over the entire Dead Sea valley.

Shoreline Position. The Dead Sea water surface is the local base level for erosional processes in the Dead Sea valley. In other words, erosional down-cutting will not extend below the Dead Sea lake level. World ocean level is the base level for most erosion occurring on continents, but in the case of the Dead Sea valley, a feature some 400 m below sea level, the Dead Sea is the controlling local base level. With rising and higher lake levels, erosional rates in peripheral land areas will decrease, while with falling and lower Dead Sea levels, erosion and active down-cutting will occur. Down cutting within a tributary very often results in the migration of a knick point or erosional scarp that moves headward or up gradient along the course of the tributary.

Lake Stratification. Lake water can exist in one of two states. Monomictic or holomictic lakes are relatively uniform with no sharp changes in water temperature, density or salinity from water surface to lake bottom. The Dead Sea is presently in this condition. Meromictic lakes, in contrast, are stratified or layered with sharp changes or pycnoclines in temperature and/or density. Prior to 1979, the Dead Sea was meromictic with a shallow, less dense and less saline layer from the lake’s surface down to a depth of 40 meters (Neev and Emery 1995: 39–43). With the present day falling lake levels, an overturn and mixing of the two layers occurred in 1979, converting the Dead Sea to a monomictic condition, with mixing and loss of the less saline upper layer.

A rapid rise in Dead Sea level may well result in the development of a less saline upper level (Neev and Emery 1995: 39–43). With increasingly humid climatic conditions, the upper water mass should freshen and become a relatively stable feature unless the climate reverts to a more arid condition with falling lake levels. Another significant consequence of rising Dead Sea lake levels would be higher standing and fresher groundwater adjacent to the lake. At the present time, the only freshwater spring near Bâb edh-Dhrâ occurs slightly above the floor of Wadi Karak at the contact between the Dana Conglomerate and the overlying Lisan Formation gravels. With a more humid climate, higher Dead Sea levels and an increase in meteoric freshwater infiltration, freshwater springs would occur at higher elevations and, more importantly, become more abundant.

Salinity. Finally, there appears to be a direct relationship between lake level and degree of salinity. As noted above, with Lake Lisan levels up to at least -180 m asl, no halite was crystallizing from lake waters as it is in the Dead Sea today. In fact, the thin dark layers within the Lisan Marl sediments reflect deposition under the most humid conditions at that time. The dark laminae consist of clay minerals, quartz, diatom frustules and aragonite and calcite (CaCO3). Neev and Emery (1967: 25) also recognized a tufa or semi-consolidated calcium carbonate which they suggested may be organic deposits from calcareous algae. There are no evaporite minerals such as gypsum or halite being crystallized during these more humid times. This would suggest that Lake Lisan waters during these times were somewhat closer to normal ocean salinities.

In the opposite direction, with lake levels at or below -400 m asl, Neev and Emery (1995: 44–45) state that halite or rock salt will be crystallized. Halite crystallization is an ongoing process in the modern Dead Sea with water surface levels at -410 m asl (Gavrieli 1997: 161; Stiller and others 1997: 171).

When I joined the EDSP in 1977 and returned for a second field season in 1979, it became obvious that both Bâb edh-Dhrâ and Numeira had undergone severe erosion at some point during or after EBIII occupation. It was possible to determine that ca. 28 m of erosional down-cutting had occurred at Bâb edh-Dhrâ (Donahue 1985: 134) and about 50 m at Numeira (Donahue 1985: 138). With a difference of ca. 22 m in the amount of erosion between Bâb edh-Dhrâ and Numeira, the most likely mechanism for generating down-cutting seemed to be fault movement (Donahue 1985: 136–39).

The other mechanism that could account for rapid erosional down-cutting at Bâb edh-Dhrâ is a relatively fast drop in the level of the Dead Sea resulting in a decrease in base level for Wadi Kerak and upland areas adjacent to the wadi. The response to this change would be headward erosion, not only along the Wadi Kerak, but also along any tributaries emptying into the wadi.

Any information that can be gained on either fault movement or Dead Sea lake levels during Early Bronze time becomes critical in understanding deposition of sediments or the presence of stable conditions with possible soil development versus erosion and corresponding loss of the archaeological record.

Determination of the time and amount of fault movement that may have occurred in the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area during Early Bronze time is a daunting task. Neev and Emery (1967: 104), in their excellent work on the Dead Sea, state that vertical fault movement occurred at Mount Sedom and along northwest trending faults which now separate the Dead Sea into the North Basin, Lisan Peninsula and South Basin. Field evidence strongly suggests that this fault movement did not occur until after the time of Lake Lisan. In fact, this tectonic movement may well have caused the termination of Lake Lisan. As mentioned above, the 22-m difference in erosional downcutting between Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (28 m) and Numeira (50 m) also demonstrates a significant difference between the Lisan Peninsula and the Dead Sea’s South Basin. An exciting new research direction being taken by Niemi and associates in the northern Wadi 'Arabah will attempt to recognize fault movement within archaeological sites where such movement occurred during occupation (Niemi, personal communication, 2000).

The first attempts to document and describe lake-level changes within the Dead Sea basin were made by Klein (1961, 1982, 1986), Neev (1964), Neev and Emery (1967) and Neev and Hall (1977, 1979). Klein worked with historic records, documenting changes back to 2000 yrs. BP. In contrast, Neev, Neev and Emery, and Neev and Hall carried out extensive geologic and geophysical studies on the Dead Sea and its surroundings with a detailed examination of the last ca. 10,000 years of time.

In the last decade, as summarized by Niemi and Smith (1999), three individual and different data sets have been used to estimate changes in Dead Sea levels. Horowitz (1992), in an examination of pollen records for the Dead Sea region (fig. 2.8), suggests that a more humid climate prevailed in Chalcolithic and Early Bronze time with more arid conditions during EB III and especially EB IV time. Neev and Emery (1995: 44–72, fig. 3.2) show a high stand for the Dead Sea during EB II, III and IV time although they do not estimate the elevation of this high stand (fig. 2.8). They also have a high stand during Late Bronze time. Finally, Frumkin and others (1991) and Frumkin (1997: 340) in a fascinating study of the solution of salt caves in Mount Sedom, suggest a Dead Sea high stand in EB II and III time (fig. 2.8). In the earlier paper (Frumkin and others 1991), it is suggested that the Early Bronze high stand may have reached -280 m asl which would mean that the Wadi Kerak would become a water-filled embayment. The later paper (Frumkin 1997), on the other hand, does not attempt to give a definite elevation for the high stand. Finally, Bruins (1994), using Dead Sea level changes proposed by Frumkin and others (1991), presents a lake level curve with a high stand of -300 m asl during EB II time (fig. 2.14)

Both Neev and Emery (1995: 73–74) and Frumkin (1997: 242) cite our work on Bâb edh-Dhrâ' and Numeira (Donahue, 1985) to support their Early Bronze high stand. The depositional and erosional sequence that occurs at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see below) can best be explained by a rise and then fairly rapid drop in Dead Sea level. Unfortunately, none of the field data I have can be used to estimate accurately either the time or the elevation for the Early Bronze high stand. The small bluffs located immediately west of the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' could conceivably be wave-cut features along the shore of a higher stand of the Dead Sea, but at the present time, with the field data available, this can only be a tenuous suggestion.

Depositional and Erosional Events Prior to Early Bronze Occupation

Pre-occupation Erosion

from Rast and Schaub (2003:41-42)

Prior to Early Bronze occupation of the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area, the waters of Lake Lisan retreated, probably caused by development of a more arid climate as well as fault movement as described above in the section on Dead Sea Levels. The result was a low stand for water in the Dead Sea Basin with resultant erosion (Neev and Emery 1995: 62, Fig. 3.6). The area around the site probably underwent a period of slow erosion from Pottery Neolithic through Chalcolithic to Early Bronze I time. The period of slow erosion produced gentle rounded slopes in the upper portion of the Wadi Kerak as well as the land surface that was going to be occupied by Early Bronze people. Figure 2.13 illustrates my estimate of both topography and pre-cultural geology when Early Bronze people began their occupation of the site.

Another important point must be made here. With the termination of Lake Lisan, the stream flowing from the Wadi Kerak eroded a gentle valley into the alluvial fan surface. Thus, in contrast to smooth or planar alluvial fan surfaces where a stream flowing across the fan will move laterally back and forth across the fan surface, both eroding and depositing sediments, the entrenchment of the Wadi Kerak stream stabilized its position in one place. This means that the Early Bronze people establishing the town site could construct buildings on a surface which was not subject to yearly flooding. The entrenched stream next to their town would contain all except the most severe flooding. They would still, however, be adjacent to a relatively reliable water supply.

Town Site Setting during Occupation (EB I, II, III, and IV)

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:43)

Field data at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' do not allow me to establish the time or the height of Dead Sea level rise. The Dead Sea lake level curve (fig. 2.14) constructed by Bruins (1994) calls for a maximum, perhaps as high as -300 m asl, during EB II with a progressive and rapid fall in level during EB III and IV time. It is useful to keep this curve in mind when discussing changes at Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Early Bronze time.

Early Bronze I [Strata V and IV]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:43-44)

Early Bronze I is divided into earlier EB IA and later EB IB. As discussed in chapter 4, an EB IA presence is represented by shaft tombs outside what became the EB III walled perimeter of the town site. There is no preservation of EB IA habitation. It seems quite likely that at this time, the Dead Sea level was at -400 m asl as a response to a very arid climate. Freshwater supplies were probably minimal at this time so that occupation consisted of temporary camps that are not well preserved. In EB IB time, year-round occupation began at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see chapter 6). This is evidenced by construction of mud-brick buildings at Fields XI, XII and XIII as well as mud-brick debris at Area F and Fields I and II. The mud-brick structures had largely collapsed by the end of EB IB time. In Area F, and Fields I, II, IV, XII, and XIII, up to 0.5 m of an ashy burn layer are also present.

Geologic information suggests that Dead Sea level was probably beginning to rise by EB IB time. The rise would be in response to improving climatic conditions and could also be one of the reasons for a change from temporary campsite occupation (EB IA) to a permanent village occupation (EB IB). Geologic data do not offer any explanation for the extensive burn layer found west of and in the western half of the town site.

Early Bronze II [Stratum III]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44)

Early Bronze II time represents a period of extensive mud-brick wall and building construction (see chapter 8). Fields XVII and XIX, located in the town interior, probably had the greatest amount of vertical mud-brick construction. This is in contrast to Fields XI and XII, located on topographically high areas. Although mud-brick construction existed at the latter two fields, it did not add significantly to elevation around the town site’s periphery. Finally, at Field XIV, where construction took place on a sloping surface, the profiles show relatively thick sequences of erosional debris intercalated with mud-brick construction. In Field XIV, a continual battle with erosion continued through EB II and EB III time.

The interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', with human construction of mud-brick walls on originally sloping surfaces, was an aggradational process with increasing elevation in the site’s interior. Human construction of vertical mud-brick walls resulted in either intentional fill or natural sedimentation between the mud-brick structures (Wain wright 1994: 199–200). The net result was to raise and flatten the interior of Bâb edh Dhrâ'.

Early Bronze II people probably became more advanced in terms of mud-brick and stone-wall construction than earlier peoples. However, the change to a more humid climate with rising Dead Sea levels and an increased availability of freshwater, both in surface runoff and increased spring activity, undoubtedly promoted the establishment of the EB II town site.

Early Bronze III [Stratum II]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44)

Early Bronze III occupation occurred over the entire area of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see chapter 10). As in EB II time, mud-brick construction continued with the greatest vertical extent being in Fields XIV, XVII, and XIX. Since these fields are located on sloping surfaces, they continued to be the areas most subject to erosion. In all three fields, mud-brick construction was oriented parallel to the natural slope in order to minimize downslope movement of sediment. Figure 2.15 shows an artist’s sketch of the area around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' after construction of the EB III town wall but before the extensive erosion that later affected the site.

Town Wall Line [ Strata III and II?]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44-47)

Remnants of a continuous EB III stone wall are present on the east, south and west sides of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (fig. 2.11). At the northeast corner of the site the wall turns west but disappears before reaching Field XI. It has been removed by post-occupational erosion. At the northwest corner of the site the wall turns east and, again, has been removed by post-occupational erosion.

Composition of the rocks used in wall construction was determined at a number of points along its extant length. During this examination, a definite pattern of wall construction was discerned. A broad base, 3–4 m or greater in width and 1–1.5 m in height, was established for the wall by placing boulders taken from the surrounding terrace surface. Even today, the number of larger rock pieces shows a significant decrease as you approach the EB III town wall line. The wall width varies and increases to a maximum of 7 m along the south edge of the site. The subrounded to subangular boulders vary in size from 0.1 to 0.5 m in diameter, a size that allows them to be transported by one or two persons.

The base of the wall is exposed near the northeast corner of the site in a trench initially excavated by Lapp in 1965. Here, the base of the wall is placed on a flat surface that has been designated as EB II mud brick (fig. 2.16 A). Northward from Lapp’s trench, the wall is constructed on a gentle uphill slope, eroded into the Lisan Marl (Lacustrine Facies), up to the northeast corner of the site. The outer or east side of the wall exposes a series of broad steps cut into the Lisan Marl (fig. 2.16 B), a relatively soft and easily excavated material. A similar “step-like” construction can be seen on the northwest corner of the site where the wall goes uphill. At these two locations it is obvious that a flat surface was prepared before stonewall construction was started. It seems likely that a similar process was carried out for the entire wall. A flat surface would result in a more stable wall structure.

The lower 1–1.5 m of the stone wall is built with 0.1 to 0.5 m diameter, generally sub-rounded to sub-angular boulders. The boulders are composed of a number of different lithic types. Two sandstones are relatively common in the wall line. The most abundant is a tan to reddish, calcareous, weakly-lithified, fine-grained sandstone that probably consists of fragments of Kurnub Sandstone (see Natural Stratigraphy above) that have been transported some 7 to 10 km down the Wadi Kerak before reaching the terrace surface at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. A less common sandstone type in the wall line are fragments of Umm Ishrin Sandstone which is a red brown, medium to coarse grained well-lithified sandstone. With fluvial transport, it tends to break into smaller, angular fragments that are not as common as the Kurnub Sandstone on the alluvial fan surface or in the wall line. The Naur Limestone, a white, micritic to fine-grained lime stone that can be fossiliferous, is also a very common rock type used in wall construction. Less common in the wall is the Amman Silicified Limestone. Rounded basalt boulders are also less common in the wall.

The upper portion of the rock wall involves a distinct change in construction style. This is only preserved at two points along the present wall—immediately north of Lapp’s trench at the northeast corner of the site (fig. 2.16 A and B), and immediately east of Field VIII near the center of the southern wall segment. At these two points, tabular slabs of sand and gravel, weakly lithified with calcium carbonate, form an upper layer to the stone wall. These are Lisan Marl, alluvial fan facies sediments that are cemented with calcium carbonate. The blocks were probably quarried from the slopes leading down into the Wadi Kerak. The rectangular, tabular blocks, 40 to 60 cm in length and 20 to 40 cm in width, are placed to form a relatively smooth surface for the top of the stone wall base (fig. 2.16 A). The present condition of the top of the stone wall east of Field VIII shows that fine gravel and sand were used to fill the spaces between the slabs. The end result is a smooth pavement-like surface.

The complete stone wall base only has an average height of 1.5 m. Although no preserved segments remain, I am certain that a substantial mud-brick wall existed on top of the stone wall to complete a defensive structure. A continuous debris slope exists on both sides of the stone wall line. A trench placed into this slope revealed the presence of numerous weathered fragments, as well as whole mud bricks (fig. 2.17). The mud-brick debris forming this slope could only have come from the top of the stone wall line. Secondly, the stone wall line consists of straight line segments rather than curved (fig. 2.11). The stone wall was built with straight line segments so that straight line segments of mud brick could be built on top of them. Early Bronze mud brick wall lines are consistently straight rather than curved. It is easier to build mud brick wall in a straight line.

Early Bronze IV [Stratum I]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:47-48)

The preservation of Early Bronze IV occupation is quite limited (see chapter 12). Within the walled perimeter of the site, only Field XVI contains in situ structures The same is found at Field X, a short distance east-northeast of the town site, and in Field IX south of the town. A small number of EBIV sherds were found in Fields XIV, XVII and XIX in the interior of the site, but it is not clear whether these can be taken as indicating EBIV settlement within the former walled town interior. What is clear is the EBIV settlement in Field XVI on the north edge of the former town, and in Fields IX and X outside the former EBIII town.

Post-occupational Erosion

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:48-50)

Field examination of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' indicates that the site has been heavily eroded with the loss of a large amount of building structure and cultural material, especially along its northern edge and in the area of the western and eastern tributaries located within the site (fig. 2.18). The critical questions are when and where this erosion occurred at the town site. Perhaps less importantly is how long and how persistently erosional conditions have existed since Early to Middle Bronze time.

Prior to and during Early Bronze occupation, the Wadi Kerak was shallower by ca. 28 m. This can be documented at two points: with a cross section of the wadi itself, located 500 m east of the town site, and across the western tributary that drains a large portion of the interior of the site along two east–west trending branches (fig. 2.18). The western tributary as well as a much smaller eastern tributary drain into the Wadi Kerak.

A cross section of the Wadi Kerak (fig. 2.19) shows a gentle bowl shape down to an elevation of ca. -276 m asl and then vertical walls to ca. -304 m asl, the approximate elevation of the present wadi floor.

A similar relationship occurs at the interior western tributary where it drains into the Wadi Kerak. The tributary has a gentle bowl-shaped cross-section down to an elevation of ca. -265 m asl while below that elevation the tributary is a narrow, deep and rapidly eroded valley with nearly vertical walls (fig. 2.11). Since the tributary is at the same grade as the Wadi Kerak, it demonstrates the same geometry as the Wadi Kerak.

Summarizing the above relationships, we have a slow, long-continued erosion producing the gentle upper slopes of the Wadi Kerak and its tributary. During Early Bronze time, we also have the construction of both stone and mud-brick vertical walls within the area of the town site. The lower vertical valley walls for the Wadi Kerak and its western tributary represent a change to rapid erosional downcutting. The western tributary is now eroding into EB II, III and IV structures. We do have some evidence for erosion of some structures, at least in Field XIV, during EB III time. The Dead Sea level curve (fig. 2.14) constructed by Bruins (1994) appears to fit our field data reasonably well. Optimum climatic conditions would exist during EB II time with a falling Dead Sea level and increasing erosion during EB III and especially EB IV time. Figure 2.18 is an artist’s sketch of the town site after erosion of the western and eastern tributaries within the town site. The sketch is based on present topographic conditions and, at this point, I am not prepared to describe or quantify erosional rates. Suffice it to say that erosion at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is an active, ongoing process that was initiated some 3,000 to 4,000 years ago

Post-occupational Facies

Boulder Fields

from Rast and Schaub (2003:50-52)

There are numerous large cobbles to small boulders distributed either as lines up to 10 m long and 2 to 3 m wide or as patches up to 100 m long and 20 to 30 m wide (fig. 2.20). At first glance, these appear to be natural accumulations of coarse rock fragments on the land surface within the boundaries of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', somewhat similar to those seen on the alluvial fan surface peripheral to the site. Once the preoccupational natural topography and stratigraphy (fig. 2.13) within the town site are examined, however, it becomes obvious that there is no natural source for coarse rock fragments in the area of the site. The only two natural units cropping out within the town site consist of the upper portion of the Lisan Marl Alluvial Fan Facies (fig. 2.12C) at elevations below -251 m asl or the Lisan Marl Lacustrine Facies, consisting predominantly of clay to silt-sized sediments, at elevations above -251 m asl. It should be noted that the elevations along Wadi Kerak in figure 2.13 are estimated elevations before the 28 m downcutting that occurred after EB III and IV time. The areas with boulder and cobble accumulations, all above -251 m asl, represent material carried by Early Bronze people into the site for stone-wall and building construction.

Field examination reveals several types of accumulations. The boulder concentration around and downslope from Fields XI, XII, XIV and XV represents stone foundations and buildings that have been disrupted and transported downslope. In addition, the cobble and boulder patches on the hill slopes east of Field XII, south and west of Field XV and north and west of Field XIV, probably represent disrupted walls and buildings; erosion and transport have been so extensive in these cases that original wall lines are no longer detectable.

The extensive boulder field that occurs on the northwestern portion of the site, just east and northeast of Fields IV and XIII, probably represents boulders transported into the site during erosion of the former town wall, which had extended along the north edge of the site. The northeast termination of the wall is located just north of Field XI, where an extensive boulder field does not occur. Boulders from the north east portion of the former wall have been entirely removed by extensive erosion, with transport of wall material such as mud brick and boulders into the Wadi Kerak. This was a slow process, which has been ongoing to the present time, rather than a collapse caused by some catastrophic event. The dashed line in figure 2.19 shows the hypothetical position of the northern town wall.

Finally, along the east-northeast trending ridge that has Field XV at its eastern end, a number of small boulder fields have a distinct north–south lineation. Field examination shows them to be obvious stone wall foundations, although excavation in Field XV was sterile.

The boulder concentrations, especially in the eastern half of the site, must represent stone foundations and buildings that have been disrupted and transported downslope. Erosional transport has been so extensive that, in many cases, the original wall line is no longer present. In the northern portion of the site, erosion has been so extensive and deep along the western and eastern tributaries that nothing is preserved. The only exception is Field XVI

Mud-brick Detritus

from Rast and Schaub (2003:52-53)

Mud-brick detritus results from the weathering and disaggradation of mud-brick walls. This is a heterogeneous, generally non-stratified white- to cream-colored deposit consisting largely of mud-brick fragments floating in a fine-grained matrix. The amount of mud-brick fragments present depends on the age and degree of weathering for the deposit. If any secondary transport has occurred, after collapse of a mud-brick wall, further disintegration and perhaps complete disappearance of mud-brick fragments can occur. In these cases the deposit may be difficult to recognize as mud-brick detritus.

Mud-brick detritus commonly occurs in two settings. Within Bâb edh-Dhrâ', where mud-brick walls have weathered and disintegrated, mud-brick detritus can be found on one or both sides of remaining intact mud-brick walls. If the mud brick is entirely decomposed, then detritus can be found by itself. Where mud-brick walls are still intact, detritus may be found on only one side of the intact mud brick. The wall has served as a dam with buildup of detritus on only one side of the wall. The upper surface of a detrital zone typically slopes away from the originating mud brick, whereas its lower boundary can be horizontal if mud-brick collapse occurred on a living surface. Mud-brick detritus is characterized by a lack of stone, ash layers or pottery fragments, and generally consists exclusively of mud-brick fragments and disaggregated mud-brick matrix. If disaggradation has gone to completion, no fragments will be recognizable and the mud-brick collapse may be difficult to recognize. This type of deposit occurs to a greater or lesser extent in all interior fields. It is especially pronounced at Field XIV which was constructed on a slope, making erosion and weather ing of mud-brick structures more prominent.

Where excavation has been done adjacent to the EB III stone wall around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (Fields I, II, IV, VIII and XIII), a distinctive degradational facies can be seen. This consists of whole and fragmented mud bricks contained within a fine grained matrix that represents degraded mud-brick wall. Over most of the area of the extant stone wall, and especially on the outer side, a gentle slope exists; excavation into this slope reveals the existence of a degraded mud-brick facies (fig. 2.16). As discussed above (see Town Wall Line) the stone wall around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' was undoubtedly capped by mud brick to make a higher protective structure. Since abandonment of the site, erosion by intermittent rain storms and, perhaps, human destruction have resulted in removal of the mud brick from the stone wall and its redeposition as mud-brick detritus, especially on the outside of the stone wall. Since working at Bâb edh-Dhrâ', I have had the opportunity of visiting coastal Peru, where a similar type of construction was used by pre-Inca cultures (Moche and Chemu). In Peru, however, a mud-brick wall is still often in position on a stone foundation. Where the mud-brick wall is eroded, a mud-brick detrital slope is often present along the edge of the stone wall foundation.

Sheetwash

from Rast and Schaub (2003:53)

These are fine- to coarse-grained, poorly sorted and crudely stratified deposits that typically contain pottery sherds, cobbles and mud-brick fragments. They are surface deposits on top of any field situated on a slope. The layering is typically at an angle rather than horizontal with the upslope, being in the direction of the source for the sheetwash sediment. Sheetwash sediments are generated by downslope movement of sediments over degraded mud-brick building structures during intermittent rain storms. The sediments cap the intermediate and lower slopes in the interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' and result in a relatively smooth slope that covers in situ building structures at the site (fig. 2.21). The deposits are typically 10 to 100 cm thick and must be removed to begin excavation of in situ cultural material. They are, of course, absent on hilltops and tend to increase in thickness downslope except where vertical slopes exist such as in the lower parts of the western tributary.

Present Distribution of Cultural Material at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'

from Rast and Schaub (2003:53-54)

This section is an attempt to predict distribution of unexcavated in situ cultural material at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. This should assist in planning the location of potential fields in future excavations. The prediction is based on field observations made during the 1977, 1979 and 1981 field seasons and the insight gained of the pre-cultural stratigraphy and topography as well as nature and distribution of in situ cultural material exposed by excavation of the present fields.

There are several key areas where unexcavated material still remains at Bâb edh Dhrâ' (fig. 2.21). As noted above, the northern edge of the site has suffered extensive erosion. The area around Field XI contains a thin veneer of cultural material. Moving westward, the eastern tributary is post-occupational in nature and its head is presently cutting into the north edge of the site; the erosion caused by the tributary has removed all cultural material from this small area (fig. 2.21). The ridge terminated by Field XVI at its western end contains cultural material in the vicinity of Field XVI. The western tributary has eroded and removed an extensive amount of cultural mate rial in the northwest portion of the site. The lower slopes of the western tributary are non-cultural below elevations of -265 m asl where it enters the Wadi Kerak. The upper reaches of the tributary, near Fields XI and XIV, contain a thick wash of transported cultural debris and non-cultural sediment.

Along the central and southern portions of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', the higher elevations may have thin cultural veneers (Field XII). These areas have been subject to continued erosion, both during and after Early Bronze occupation. The most likely areas for thicker in situ cultural deposits are along the slopes leading down to the western tributary and especially at lower elevations near the tributary itself. The entire slope area is covered by sheetwash deposits, but excavation on both the north and south slopes during the 1979 and 1981 seasons revealed the presence of significant in situ cultural material (Fields XVII and XIX, as well as other areas).

Finally, the depositional flats inside the east and west walls offer an excellent potential for cultural sequences. Excavation of Field IV showed the presence of 3.5 m of post-occupational sediment in the center of the western depositional flat before reaching occupational material. The eastern depositional flat is presently unexcavated.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:54-55)

Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is situated on the surface of an alluvial fan terrace located on the Lisan Peninsula just east of the present Dead Sea shoreline. The Early Bronze site was built adjacent to an entrenched or deepened valley of the Wadi Kerak. The entrenchment reduced the likelihood of flooding of the town site since most high water would be contained in the entrenched valley.

The Early Bronze site is constructed from easily obtained local resources. Stone walls (i.e., wall foundations of which the upper parts are mud brick, such as the town wall) are built from limestone, dolomite, sandstone and basalt boulders and cobbles present on the terrace surface. Mud brick is probably made from abundant Lisan Marl lacustrine deposits at or immediately adjacent to the site. Pottery is probably made from clay deposits also available from Lisan Marl lacustrine deposits. No local sources for copper or tin, used in the manufacture of bronze, were found in the eastern Dead Sea region. Early Bronze copper works are present however, in the Wadi Araba, south of the southeast Dead Sea Plain.

Occupation during EB I, II, III and IV time coincides with development of a progressively more humid climate. As a response to increased rainfall, Dead Sea levels may have risen as much as ca. 60 to 100 meters. Abundance of freshwater springs probably also increased during this time. It is not possible to determine when a climatic optimum was reached, although it seems likely it was during EB II or III time.

The Dead Sea valley and its surroundings is a region with high earthquake activity. Within the exposures of the present archaeological excavations at Bâb edh Dhrâ', however, there is no good evidence to support the idea that any severe earthquake damage affected the town site.

A climatic reversal with greatly increased aridity occurred either during or shortly after EB IV time, resulting in a rapid fall in Dead Sea level. The drop in lake level resulted in erosional downcutting both in the Wadi Kerak valley and in the east ern and especially the western tributary within the town site. At this point, erosion began to remove the northwestern portion of the interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. Climatic deterioration resulted in the abandonment of the town site before Middle Bronze time.

Erosion has probably removed most of the upper levels of EB III building structures from the interior of the site. It may also have removed EB IV structures although, as noted above, the use of the town area by the EB IV people is unclear apart from the remains in Field XVI. Complete loss of Early Bronze material has occurred at the head of the eastern tributary and along the lower slopes of the western tributary where it drains into the Wadi Kerak.

Chapter 6 - The Stratum IV Village

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102)

In contrast to the temporary settlers of Stratum V, the occupants of Stratum IV put in place a new pattern of year-round settlement. The Stratum IV remains exhibit many of the characteristics usually associated with village life—scattered as well as clustered mud-brick dwellings, absence of a defensive system, and the production of a variety of foods as attested by the seeds and plant remains in the Stratum IV dwellings. The tombs from EB IB have also been noted as bearing the marks of permanent settlers, specifically with the new practice of primary burial in contrast to the preceding secondary burials of the Stratum V occupants (Schaub and Rast 1989: 204).

The following areas or fields provided the main data for Stratum IV.

Area F4 contained vestiges of demolished brick structures and a thick ashy burn layer.
In Field XII there were scanty mud-brick wall remains of various structures also with burn across the area.
Stratum IV evidence in the form of occupational layers or fragmentary architecture was also present in the lowest level of Fields I, II, IV, XI, XIII and XIV.

In addition, Stratum IV dwellings were found at some distance from the town site, in particular in Area J, so village activity covered an area not only within the later town site but also in areas outside the town site.

Stratum IV in Area F

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102)

Area F is located on a gentle slope directly west of the town site (fig. 1.4). The area is part of the marl and gravel hillocks on which the walled town was later built, except that Area F is somewhat lower in elevation than the town site (see fig. 1.3). As discussed in the previous chapter, the earliest remains here were a number of EB IA shaft tombs, which led at first to the supposition that the area was a burial ground parallel to that of Cemetery A. As clearance proceeded, however, EB IB pottery began to appear, and this was interpreted as a subsequent reuse of the shaft tombs (Rast and Schaub 1978: 5). Work in subsequent seasons showed that no such reuse had taken place but rather that an EB IB settlement had occurred above the tombs. Area F 4 contained the best preserved and most complete evidence for the stratigraphy, while Areas F 2 and F 3 were badly disturbed by the tomb robbing. The discussion here concentrates on Area F 4

Area F4

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102-107)

Apart from the shaft tombs that had been cut into its Lisan soils, the landscape of Area F was virtually free of disturbance when the Stratum IV settlers constructed their mud-brick buildings in this area. Whether the Stratum IV settlers knew of the earlier shaft tombs in the area is a problem taken up below. As they began to settle, the Stratum IV occupants leveled the marl surface in places to make it more suitable for occupation, and they also shaved down a part of the marl slope above the tombs on the south side of Area F 4 (note the vertical cutting above the tombs in fig. 4.1). Later the townsfolk of Stratum II built several structures here, as evidenced by Wall 63 of Stratum II (fig. 6.1).

The most notable feature discovered in Area F 4 was a 25 cm layer of ash that covered most of the southern part of the area (Locus 16 in fig. 6.1). Other locus numbers were assigned to this same feature (Loci 4, 5, 16–20, 43–45, 48–53, 57, 68–69, 79, 81 84, 86, 89–90, 92, 94, and 95). All of these are combined here as an extensive burn across Area F 4 (table 6.1). The ashy soil was also found under the marl ledges of the earlier Tombs F 4A, B, and C, which had collapsed by the time of the burning, and the burn trickled down among the human bones and objects of the earlier tombs.

No intact buildings were found in Area F 4, but that there were Stratum IV structures here was clear from the mud bricks strewn within the ashy debris. Mud-brick Wall 64 may originally have dated to Stratum IV, although Locus 8 abutting it contained mixed pottery. Either at the time when the burning took place or somewhat later, the Stratum IV walls fell apart or were dismantled, with the bricks settling into the soft ash. The mud bricks in these ash layers were concentrated in front of and even unexplainably under the ledges of the earlier shaft tombs, such as in the ashy debris of Locus 90 in Tomb F 4C (fig. 6.2). Displaced mud bricks were also in the ashy debris above Tomb F 4A, and various examples were placed to the side during excavation (see on the surface above the tombs in fig. 4.1). The bricks were of small to medium size, measuring on average 14 x 20 x 6 cm. Two blocking stones originally from Tomb C were also found in the ashy debris.

Whether the ashy debris in Area F 4 belonged to occupational surfaces or whether it came from destruction of the Stratum IV buildings is a problem. Two features point to the latter. First, the thickness of the ash and pell-mell scatter of mud bricks seemed to indicate destruction of the structures. Second, examination of ash layer samples showed that very few plant remains were present (see under Loci 57, 58, 60, 78–79, 81, 83, 86, 91, 102), whereas many small and larger pieces of charcoal were in these loci. The ashy debris in Area F 4 is paralleled in Area J 2 and Field XII, and the the burning of Charnel House G 1 may be related to the same event that produced it (Rast and Schaub 1981: 62–65).

Were the EB IB occupants aware of the shaft tombs below the surfaces on which they founded their structures? The condition of these earlier tombs, all of which apparently had collapsed by the time the Stratum IV settlers came to this area, may offer a solution to that problem. Of the three tombs in Area F 4, only Tomb F 4A contained a fairly complete inventory of tomb goods such as pottery. Although both the tomb goods and burials in Tomb F 4A were badly damaged, the number of burials rep resented by the skeletal remains (6 adults) was in the average range or even higher for the number of people buried in tombs of the EB IA phase. On the other hand, the number of pottery vessels in Tomb F 4A (9 pieces identified) was far below the average found in the typical EB IA tomb, especially one having as many as six burials. Thus, although the burials were not greatly disturbed, the small amount of pottery in Tomb F 4A suggests that vessels had been taken from the tomb. None of the tombs in Area F 4 had been touched by the recent tomb robbing, so the disturbances must date back to antiquity.

Tomb F 4B had a much smaller amount of pottery than usual (only 2 pieces were identified), and human skeletal material was virtually nonexistent, suggesting that the tomb had been mostly cleared out. Tomb F 4C was the most empty of all. No human skeletal remains or pottery was identified, but the construction was clearly an other shaft tomb chamber.

Tombs F 4B and C consequently point to intrusion by the Stratum IV settlers. If this were the case, it suggests that these settlers did not have compunctions about moving previously interred human remains. It should be recalled, however, that the overall results of the cemetery excavations of both Lapp and the EDSP have shown practically no disturbance by the Stratum IV settlers of previous EB IA tombs. The EDSP found only one example of an EB IA shaft tomb being reused in Stratum IV times (Tomb A 100N), and notably in this case it seems the Stratum IV occupants moved the earlier burials of Tomb A 100N into the adjacent east chamber (Rast and Schaub 1981: 58–61). Judging also from the continuity in cultural material between EB IA and EB IB, as has been indicated in the carryover of Plain Ware vessels of EB IA to the Line-Group Painted wares of EB IB (Schaub and Rast 1989: 271), it seems that the populations of the two phases were related. Consequently it would not be expected that the disturbance of earlier tombs by the later occupants would be the normal practice.

Field XII

from Rast and Schaub (2003:109, 115-116)

Field XII is located at the southwest end of the interior of the walled town site. Its elevation of -240 m makes it the second highest area of the town site, with only Field XI at -235 m being at a higher elevation. A feature of Field XII was the thick layer of natural, water-laid gravel and sand across the area (fig. 2.13). The same type of gravel was traced in the nearby Field XVIII, which did not produce any cultural remains. As will be seen, the Stratum IV and later builders had to contend with this gravel in order to make the area usable for construction.

Field XII was selected for excavation because of its high location, and also because several stone lines were visible on the surface. When these stone lines were first excavated, their function was difficult to ascertain, and they were interpreted as parts of a platform (Rast and Schaub 1978: 15–16). Further excavation produced the remains of two superimposed rectilinear buildings, apparently sanctuaries belonging to Strata III and II (chapters 8, 10). Below the phases represented by these structures were the remains of mud-brick structures from Stratum IV.

Eleven 5 x 5 m squares (XII.1–11) were plotted in Field XII. Work was carried out in ten of these, while XII.3 was not excavated. Stratum IV remains were found in all but two of the squares excavated in Field XII. The two features that characterized the Stratum IV settlement in Field XII were mud-brick walls representing remains of structures, and thick ashy layers abutting these walls (table 6.3). As can be seen in figure 6.5, the orientation of the Stratum IV structures was different from the later Stratum III and II sanctuaries which are lightly sketched in to show the difference in layout. Walls 78/51 in XII.5 and XII.4, Wall 35 in XII.4, and Wall 8 in XII.8 belonged to mud-brick dwellings below the later sanctuaries (see Section A–Au in fig. 10.58). At the corner of Wall 78/51 and Wall 35 in XII.4 was a hearth (Locus 50), made of medium to large, smooth stones formed in a circle (fig. 6.6). The hearth rested on the natural gravel, and was covered by the charcoal debris of Locus 39. From this well stratified evidence it can be concluded that this type of cooking facility was in use already in the early part of the Early Bronze Age. A similar cooking hearth dating to Stratum II was found in a building in Field XIV.6 where it was made of smooth wadi stones (Locus 43). The same type was employed at Numeira during EB III (to be published in the Numeira volume).

The corner of Wall 12 in XII.4 and Wall 33 in XII.1 belonged to another Stratum IV mud-brick building below and outside the later sanctuaries. Wall 33 was poorly preserved with only a bare line of desiccated bricks remaining. Another corner of a building was uncovered where Wall 29 in XII.9 intersected with Wall 22 in XII.10. A posthole (Locus 35) was traced at this corner (fig. 6.7), where a wooden beam apparently had been placed.

Wall 7 in XII.7 and Wall 4 in XII.11 formed the corner of a further Stratum IV structure. Wall 7 was partly uncovered during the 1977 season (Rast and Schaub 1981: 31), and excavation during a later season showed that these two walls were part of a common structure. The mass of fallen mud brick in Locus 25 (fig. 6.8) belonged to the collapsed walls of this building, while the pottery from the debris in Loci 22 and 25 had clear Stratum IV types (see under Locus 22 in figs. 7.1–3 of chapter 7). Figure 6.8 shows how the gravel on the south side of Field XII rises almost to surface level, with only the later Stratum II mud-brick pavement (see chapter 10) being placed over it. On the north the gravel was cut and Walls 7 in XII.7 and 4 in XII.11 were placed back against it (cf. Locus 10 in fig. 6.8). The ten courses of Wall 4 in XII.11 reached to nearly a full meter below the present surface. By contrast, Wall 7 was placed on the natural gravel at a much higher level, but again on the west side of Wall 7 the gravel had been cut and was retained by the stones of Locus 30 (fig. 6.5). This method of cut ting into the natural gravel or soils in order to position the walls of buildings against them was a technique observed elsewhere in the town site as well as the cemetery (Schaub and Rast 1989: 340). Such construction was effective because it prevented erosion while also strengthening the buildings.

Most buildings in Field XII had a thick ashy deposit associated with them. Loci 68 and 69 in XII.5 abutting Wall 78 was an ashy deposit of approximately 50 cm depth. The same ashy deposit was found in Locus 21 of XII. 2, and Loci 39 and 56 of XII.4, as well as in the darkened material below the steps and stone pedestal (Locus 62) of the Stratum III sanctuary (for most of these loci, see fig. 8.2). It was also found in Loci 23, 57, and 58 in XII.7, Locus 3 in XII.9, Locus 11 in XII.10, and Locus 5 in XII.11 (fig. 6.8)

Thus the ashy level belonging to Stratum IV was widespread in Field XII as in Areas F and J, and it will be found again in Fields IV and XIII discussed below. This ashy material was usually a deposit on the natural sterile layers of the site, whether marl in Area F 4 or gravel in Field XII. Only in the case of the bricky surface of Locus 22 in XII.7 was a prepared floor found in these buildings. Locus 22 was a paved surface with many sherds lying on it, whereas the ashy debris of Locus 23 embedded in the bricky debris of Locus 25 (= Locus 16) lay over this surface and its pottery sherds. Since the Stratum IV floors belonged to the first full-time settlement, they also were commonly founded on the natural surface.

In summary, Field XII contained evidence of a complex of Stratum IV mud-brick structures built on or into the sterile gravels of the area. Bricks were commonly rectangular, measuring approximately 40 x 25 x 9 cm, somewhat smaller than the rectangular bricks used in the Stratum III and II structures. The Stratum IV evidence in Field XII and the other areas shows that rectangular bricks were used during the EB IB phase as pointed out in regard to the Proto Urban B structures at Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1982: 125). The Field XII mud-brick buildings were all oriented on a northwest–southeast or northeast–southwest axis, and thus differed from the axis of the sanctuary complexes that followed them. The orientation of the Stratum IV structures suggests a degree of planning of the village site. It also indicates that the area in Stratum IV was not considered a sacred area, but was apparently a group of dwellings sharing common walls. The substantial number of animal bones suggested domestic use, as did also the hearth in Field XII.4. The pottery from various Stratum IV loci of Field XII also suggests vessels for household use (chapter 7)

Field IV

from Rast and Schaub (2003:116)

Field IV is located inside town Wall A, the Stratum II defensive system, on the west side of the town. This field was first opened in 1965 under Lapp, when a narrow trench was cut on the east side of town Wall A (see chapter 8). The EDSP plotted five new squares (Field IV.1, 3–6). The largest amount of Stratum IV material was uncovered in Locus 5A of Field IV.5 where a 1 x 2 m trench was cut in the southeast corner of the square and taken to virgin soil (Locus 9). Locus 5A was a thick layer of ash rest ing on the natural gray sand of Locus 9. Above this locus were 4 m of silted mud-brick debris and collapsed stone of town Wall A (Loci 3, 4, 5, 6 in fig. 6.9). Although no building remains were discovered in Locus 5A, the ashy material mixed with silted mud-brick debris could have come from desiccated structures of Stratum IV.

The other squares opened in Field IV (IV.1, 3, 4, and 6) produced only occasional Stratum IV sherds and most of these were from mixed contexts. No clear stratified evidence or architectural features of this phase were uncovered at these levels of the squares. It is possible that this earliest evidence had been disturbed or removed when the Stratum II wall construction took place.

Field XIII

from Rast and Schaub (2003:116-117)

Field XIII (XIII.1, 2, 2A) was located on the opposite side of town Wall A from Field IV. Although the trench in Field XIII was on a slightly different axis than the one in Field IV, it was possible to carry an excavated section through both fields (fig. 10.17). The Stratum IV evidence in Field XIII matched the lowest levels of Field IV.5 in containing evidence from Stratum IV. Burning was again attested (Loci 74, 93 95, 111, 112), and several partial remains of mud-brick walls were distinguished (table 6.4). A section of mud-brick Wall 75 was uncovered in the lowest level of Field XIII.2A (fig. 6.10). This wall was oriented approximately east–west, while Wall 38 above it followed close to the same wall line. It was not clear whether Wall 38 was a rebuild during Stratum IV or whether it was first built in the following Stratum III. Only a small part of Walls 75 and 38 were exposed, since they continued below Stratum II town Wall A and could not be excavated to make connections with other Stratum IV walls to the east. The poorly preserved remains of Walls 16 and 18 in Field XIII.1 probably belonged to Stratum IV, and they may have comprised the corner of a Stratum IV building west of the western town wall. The results in Area F and Field XIII showed that the Stratum IV village not only occupied much of the town site but also spread across the marl area west of the latter.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:125-126)

The Stratum IV data show that the first permanent settlement was an open village dating to EB IB. Judging from the evidence of the occupation and construction in Area F and Fields IV, XII, and XIII at the west end of the site, in XIV in the center, and Fields I, II and XI at the far eastern end, as well as Area J at some distance to the southwest, the EB IB village was quite large, encompassing an open area actually larger than the later walled town of Stratum II. The dwellings of Stratum IV were constructed of bricks made from marly clays at or near the site. The general absence of stone foundations, with the exception of the structures in Area J 2 that had stone foundations, indicated that erosion of the bases of mud-brick walls was not considered a serious problem. Most of the mud-brick structures had well-preserved foundations of brick, and this was true for the circular Charnel Housess of this phase as well. In contrast to the circular charnel houses of the same phase, the domestic structures were rectangular. No specialized buildings were discovered. Settlement remains on the whole pointed to a non-complex society living in dwellings adjacent to one another. Barley was the main crop grown and harvested, and wheat also began to be cultivated in this phase (chapter 14; Harlan 1981: 159). In addition to sheep and goats for dairy and meat products, other large mammals such as donkeys were used for labor and transport (Finnegan 1978: 53)

Comparison with Other Sites

from Rast and Schaub (2003:126-129)

The Stratum IV village at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is paralleled by EB I village sites in other parts of the country. 'En Shadud in Galilee was found to have two strata, both dating to EB I, and both interpreted as remnants of farming communities (Braun and Gibson 1984: 31, 36–37). A rectilinear building with pillar support bases and gray burnished ware was reported (Braun 1985: 68–69, fig. 28B). Stratum II curvilinear buildings at Yiftahªel were dated to EB I, and based on their pottery probably should be placed very early in EB IA (Braun 1984: 193). At Tel Kinrot, an EB I house containing mostly band-slip or grain-wash ware was excavated (Yakar 1982: 256), while at Meser a settlement was thought to have existed in association with gray-burnished pottery but with no line-group painted vessels (Dothan 1957: 221). Also in the north at Kabri were oval or partly oval buildings dated by the excavators to EB IA, and a burial with associated gray-burnished sherds of a bowl, along with holemouth jar decorated with band-slip (Scheftelowitz 1992: 1, fig. 11:1–14). Farther south, near Tel Aviv, an EB I settlement at Tel Dalit was described as an open village (Gophna 1981: 23; Gophna 1996).

Further evidence of EB I villages has been documented in the hill country, along the coast, and in the Negev. ºAi has long been known for its EB IB tombs (Callaway 1964), and excavations in the settlement showed an unfortified village in Phases I and II (Callaway 1972: 69–71). An imposing EB I open settlement, perhaps having a ceremonial purpose, was excavated at Hartuv near Beth Shemesh (Mazar and Miro schedji 1986: 109), while below the south slope of the EB III city at Tel Halif an extensive EB I village occupation following upon the Late Chalcolithic period has appeared (Seger and others 1990: 9). At Gezer the EB IB phase was well represented in an unusual tomb (Callaway 1962), although settlement remains of this period were poorly represented. Whereas the Stratum IV remains at Arad were mostly natural caves that were walled up and provided with floors (Amiran 1978: 17–19), these data also fit the picture of emerging village life in EB I.

A village culture during EB I is also represented at various sites in Jordan. The caves at 'Arqub edh-Dhahr adjacent to the Jordan valley were associated with a nearby settlement of 3 to 4 dunams, referred to as a village (Parr 1956: 61). At Tell Um Hammad esh-Sharqi in the Jordan valley mud-brick walls, either straight or curved and sometimes on stone foundations, were found in the open settlement of Stage 2 (Helms 1987b: 54). Tell Iktanu produced mud-brick walls of domestic structures along with EB IB pottery, including line-group painted wares, so that it can be assumed there was a small EB IB village also at this site (Prag 1989: 39–40, fig. 5). The first occupation at Khirbet Iskander was also an open village attributed to EB IB (Richard 1990: 35).

Because all the aforementioned sites have been excavated to one degree or the other, they represent the best examples of changes occurring during EB IB. Survey has recorded many more examples that point to a similar development (Joffe 1993: 40, map). Thus it appears that during EB I, particularly in EB IB, Palestine was experiencing an emergence of new village life on a grand scale. This new development in village establishment differed in significant ways, however, from that of the preceding Late Chalcolithic, which also had open villages, some of them like Ghassul being impressive in size and function. The pattern of village life during EB IB points to a greater intensity in the development of resources that were locally available. In contrast also to the evidence from Late Chalcolithic, where many sites were little more than sherd scatters or evidence of temporary sojourns, during EB IB a greater number of sites were permanently settled. Contacts with Egypt are attested by clearly identifiable EB IB Palestinian forms found there, although the level of trade argued for the coastal area in this phase (Gophna and Liphschitz 1996) may not have occurred in hinterland sites such as Bâb edh-Dhrâ' or es-Safi, for that matter.

Apparently this new village development of EB I appeared earlier in some parts of the country than others, but more precisely where the first inclinations occurred is not yet clear. It might be concluded that the people associated with the line-group painted wares were involved in some of the earliest villages of the EB IB phase, which would point to the southern regions of the country such as the lower Jordan valley or even around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' as the area where this shift first occurred (Schaub 1982). But it is also possible that those groups who produced predominantly red-slipped wares had begun the village expansion somewhat earlier and in the northern parts of the country

The Burning of EB IB Villages

from Rast and Schaub (2003:129-130)

The extensive burning of the Stratum IV buildings at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' has to be dealt with in explaining this phase. It was seen that in most of the areas where Stratum IV structures were found, the remains of these structures were accompanied by a thick layer of dark ash. As discussed above, the burned debris in the Stratum IV structures appears not to have been occupational, since plant remains were absent in the examination of many samples taken from the ash. Nor is it likely that such diverse areas of the site would have been used for burning garbage, which should have produced plant remains if this had been the case. The clean loci of burned debris and charcoal from these buildings thus point to some sort of disturbance. The upper layers of EB IB Charnel Houses G 1 are also interesting to consider in this regard, since these layers were filled with burned material. That this burning was due to cremation or even a different funerary practice seems questionable, given the fact that no other EB IB tombs had such evidence (Schaub and Rast 1984: 325–26). Thus it seems plausible that this tomb may have suffered from the same disturbance as that experienced by the Stratum IV village.

A similar kind of evidence may have been present at Jericho in Phase L in Squares III and IV. Phase L was described by Hennessy as “an enormous midden deposit,” and later by Kenyon as “a rubbish dump,” although no flotation evidence was presented to support this interpretation (Hennessy 1967: 10; Kenyon 1981: 325). According to the excavators no buildings were in use during this phase, but the following should be noted. An eroded wall stump ZN belonging to Phase L suggests that buildings had been present, although they were found in extremely poor condition, much like at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in Stratum IV. In addition, this small amount of wall had ashy layers on both sides (Kenyon 1981: 321, see Section C–D of Squares E III–IV), regarding which Kenyon drew the inference that these ashy layers belonged to a midden fill of Phase L (Kenyon 1981: 324). This conclusion could be questioned on the grounds that the ashy layers abutted the wall stump on both sides, while it would seem that a midden would more likely be outside a wall unless it had been deposited after the wall had gone out of use, which does not seem to have been the case here. In the second place, it would again be expected that plant remains would have come from the supposed midden none of which was recorded for this locus, although it is possible no efforts were made to retrieve plant information by sieving or flotation.

Recent excavations at Tel Yaqush have uncovered in many parts of the site a thick, ashy destruction dating to the end of the EB I village (Esse 1990: 223). Not far from Tel Yaqush on the west side of the Jordan River, Tel Kitan similarly contained the remains of an EB IB village that was completely destroyed (Eisenberg 1993: 880). Earlier excavations at Rosh Hanniqra along the coast of the Mediterranean had also shown that the Stratum II structures were all covered by 30 cm of ash (Tadmor and Prausnitz 1959: 77). Examples of this phenomenon are appearing at other EB I sites, and it appears that at least the southern Ghor and Jordan valley were involved in whatever events were the cause of this destruction.

The question is whether this evidence for burning at the EB I sites of Jericho, Tel Yaqush, Tel Kitan, and Rosh Hanniqra may also reflect some sort of disjuncture at the end of EB I, parallel to that found in Bâb edh-Dhrâ' Stratum IV. Phase L at Jericho apparently has to be put at the very end of Proto Urban B or EB IB (Hennessy 1967: 10–12; Esse 1984: 325–26), while Phase K is most likely EB II and from a new tradition. If Phase L at Jericho is contemporary with Stratum IV at Bâb edh-Dhrâ', and if the ash at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' suggests a disruptive event at the end of EB IB, it might be assumed that Jericho experienced something similar.

The phenomenon of disturbance at the end of EB IB at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' affects the conclusions about the termination of this phase. However they are to be interpreted, the data from various sites in addition to Bâb edh-Dhrâ' suggest some type of disturbance bringing the EB I phase to an end. An Egyptian attack is possible, and seems preferable to other explanations such as a natural calamity or local conflict. Egyptian “colonial” or imperial motives could have been behind efforts to secure a product or two from the southern Ghor (cf. Joffe 1993: 56–58) such as bitumen from the Dead Sea, although no evidence to substantiate this kind of activity was found by the EDSP. Following EB I, the artifactual and architectural data speak for some measure of continuity in the population. If an Egyptian attack against the Stratum IV village had been carried out, the former left no evidence of having taken over the site, which seems to have been resettled in Stratum III, at least in part, by people from the previous village

Chapter 7 - The Pottery of Stratum IV

Absolute Chronology

from Rast and Schaub (2003:152,155)

The extensive ceramic parallels with similar EB IB sites firmly position the Stratum IV cultural material of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the latter part of the fourth millennium B.C. The three Stratum IV C 14 dates (see chapter 22) offer a broad range extending from the mid–fourth millennium to the early third millennium. A suggested range for Stratum IV at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' between 3200 and 3100 B.C. does not seem to be out of line with the C 14 dates.

Chapter 10 - The Stratum II Town

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field Plans

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII

Normal Size

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field XIV

Normal Size

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Discussion

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:251)

Settlement at Bâb edh-Dhrâ reached its peak about 2550 B.C., the approximate date for the midpoint of Stratum II (see chapter 22 for radiocarbon dates). New buildings were constructed on unused areas and others were built incorporating parts of walls of the previous stratum. Engineering during Stratum II explored new uses of construction techniques to meet the challenges of the natural marl and gravel. A certain amount of town planning apparently also occurred during this stratum, because certain areas were marked out for special activities while others were set aside for domestic or industrial purposes (fig. 10.1). A new sanctuary was built over the remains of the previous one, and a defensive system with town wall and gate was constructed, again evidencing special planning. Occupation spilled over to areas beyond the walled town with suburbs coming into being on all three sides except the north. It is in this context that the EB III town of Numeira must be understood, for it was undoubtedly the growth in population along with the need for more foodstuffs, particularly grain, the specialty at Numeira, that accounted for the founding of this sister site 13 km south of Bâb edh-Dhrâ. Cemetery evidence along with that from the town also indicates that population numbers during this stratum reached the highest point attained during the Early Bronze Age. Pottery was abundant and many remnants from the daily life of the Stratum II occupants were recovered in the excavations. In all, the extent of the data for this stratum presents a challenge for understanding the occupation and occupants of this time of growth. Since Stratum II represented the apex of urban life at Bâb edh-Dhrâ, this part of the archaeological record has special significance for the Early Bronze Age culture east of the Jordan River. ...

Stratum II Defenses in Fields XI, XIII, IV, VIII, II, I, and XVI

The Northeast Towers in Field XI

from Rast and Schaub (2003:262-263)

... The space between the two towers was found to be empty in that neither the rows of foundation stones nor the bricks of the superstructures reached beyond the ill-defined interior edges of the towers. Although the evidence was so close to the surface as to make it difficult to trace, the empty space between the towers had a number of surfaces suggesting a floor or passageway. Loci 22, 45 and 56 in Field XI.2 were surfaces across the vacant space and they abutted the inner edges of both towers. Locus 22 was ashy occupational debris that appeared below mud-brick debris of the superstructure (Locus 21), while Loci 45 and 56 also were directly below the bricky debris of the superstructure. The presence of a number of animal bones in Locus 45 may have been caused by an occupant leaving behind parts of an animal, or perhaps an animal or two were killed when the town was destroyed — by earthquake or attack (chaps. 2, 22).

In addition to the Stratum II cultural material found on and within surfaces between the towers, pottery also came from the stone and cobblestone rows, as well as occasionally from the mud-brick superstructure and its collapsed parts. Pottery from the collapsed brick belonged stratigraphically to the latest use of the towers. This included Loci 4, 8, 12 and 16 in Field I.1 (pl. 45:1–6); Loci 7, 21, 22, 23, 24, 43, and 44 in Field XI.2 (pl. 45:7–20; pl. 47:10–19); Loci 2, 3, 7, and 8 in Field XI.3 (pl. 48:4–21); Loci 2, 5, and 11 in Field XI.4 (pl. 48:22–33); Loci 6, 10, and 11 in Field XI.5 (pl. 49:1 18); and Loci 2, 9, 10, and 12 in Field XI.6 (pl. 49:19–43; pl. 50:1–46; pl. 51:1–38).

The Stratum II Town Wall (Wall A)

Fields XIII and IV

from Rast and Schaub (2003:264-272)

Fields XIII and IV at the west end of the site were devoted to examining the main fortifications throughout Stratum II, most importantly the town wall, Wall A (for Primary Loci see table 10.2). Wall A was still visible at many points on the surface along the entire west end when excavation began in 1975. Earlier its estimated width of 10 to 12 m was emphasized by Lapp who investigated the west side in 1965 (figs. 10.11; 1.3; P. Lapp 1968: 5). This side of the town faced out to an open plain below it, and since a natural depression also existed here the builders added special strength to Wall A along its western line. The earlier work under Lapp was limited to small trenches in Field IV.1, where the inner face of Wall A was traced, and Field IV.2, where an exterior face was not firmly identified. The EDSP expanded Field IV by placing five squares against the interior of Wall A (Fields IV.1, 3, 4, 5, and 6) and by opening Field XIII outside Wall A on the west (fig. 1.4). The stratification on this west end was deeper than that next to Wall A on the south and east sides, providing a fuller picture. The outer and inner faces of the wall were exposed, a possible blocked-up gate and passageway were uncovered, and seven drawn sections were completed for the stratigraphy and architecture, including two through the gateway and areas beyond (fig. 10.12; sections A–A' and B–B').

Excavation in Field XIII.2 and 2A exposed the exterior face of Wall A, which was constructed here of boulders and medium-sized stones. Many of the round and smooth stones were undoubtedly from the Wadi Kerak, and were rounded and smoothed before they were carried up to the site by workers. The interior face of Wall A was first exposed in a small trench in Field IV.1 during the excavations directed by Lapp. An enlarged area in this square was cleared by the EDSP (fig. 8.8). The interior face of Wall A also appeared in Field IV.6 as the wall curved to the southwest (fig. 10.13).

The upper part of Wall A, or the superstructure, consisted of mud bricks such as those found in the boulder and stone rubble of Fields XIII and IV (fig. 10.14). Many of the bricks had been fired to a concrete-like hardness with a pink to orange color, while the unfired bricks were reddish, green or brown color. The whole or partly whole bricks preserved in the debris were more often those that had been fired. Unfired bricks had often crumbled into desiccated piles. Some fired bricks were square-shaped, measuring about 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.09 m; others were rectangular, measuring about 0.40 x 0.30 x 0.09 m. Many of the fired bricks had markings made with the finger or a tool (fig. 10.15). Field IV.1 evidence showed that such markings were made already during Stratum III, although the patterns in the two strata were sometimes different from each other. In figure 10.16 the unfired brick seen on the left came from Stratum III Wall 14 in Field IV.1 (see p. 172 and fig. 8.8), while the fired brick on the right came from a locus of fallen brick in Stratum II (Locus 3 in Field IV.3). Markings of the same type were found on the mud bricks of the EB II and EB III Charnel Housess (Schaub and Rast 1989: 385, figs. 239, 240). The differences in design on the cemetery examples as over against those from the town wall might again indicate that the masons were not the same at these two sites.

On the problem of the firing of the bricks, the geological investigation concluded that oxidation of the bricks occurred secondarily, and that exposure to fire concretized them with the pink to reddish color. The basis for this conclusion was the localized burning, in which a fire had climbed up part of the wall while other parts were untouched. Thus the original brick was unfired, while those that were fired had apparently not been prepared that way by the builders. A parallel case of burned bricks was discovered in Charnel Houses 22, which had experienced fire in the latter part of EB III, around the time the west end of Wall A was burned (Rast and Schaub 1980 34–39). Bricks from the walls of this Charnel Houses like those in Fields XIII and IV were fired to a pink or orange hue by the burning that took place in this tomb.

It was not clear whether the great amount of stone and mud-brick fall at the west end had occurred over time with successive erosion, or whether an intentional effort had been made during antiquity to topple parts of the wall at the time the burning took place. Such effacement apparently did occur in the case of Charnel Houses 22, where the walls gave evidence of having been pushed over intentionally when the charnel house was burned. The extensive burning at Numeira late in EB III has to be taken into account as another part of the broader context

Stratum II Structures in Fields XVII and XIX

Field XIX

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:305-306)

The challenges of the steep slope in Field XIX were some of the greatest in the town interior as noted already in connection with Stratum III (for Primary Loci see table 10.6). Despite the difficulties, the structures built here represented a sequence of creative efforts to adapt the slope for occupational and, perhaps, public use. Understanding the erosional processes (see chap. 2) is critical in interpreting the sequences in the area. Most of the walls built successively during Stratum II were east–west cross walls, intended to counter the continual erosion. Erosion affected the cultural remains in Fields XIX.1 and XIX.2 in different ways. In Field XIX.1 the cross-walls helped preserve the succession of surfaces so that it was possible to reconstruct a cultural sequence of occupational phases. In Field XIX.2 a stratigraphic sequence of walls was present but the occupational surfaces related to these walls were preserved only in patches, due to the severe erosion.

Stratum IID

from Rast and Schaub (2003:306,314,316)

A major reorientation of structures in this field took place in Stratum IID (fig. 10.48). In Field XIX.2 this phase was represented by mud-brick Wall 91, a rebuild along different lines of Stratum III Wall 108. The rebuild may have taken place in two stages. A four- to five-course wall of wadi stones was built directly over Wall 108. In the elevation drawing of Walls 108 and 91 (fig. 10.49) this stone segment is shown between the two mud-brick walls. On top of this stone repair, mud-brick Wall 91 was constructed with a different orientation to the northeast. Wall 91 was pre served 10 courses high and two rows wide. The wall was built of bricks 50 x 25 x 10 cm in alternating rows of headers and stretchers, and it cut across the surviving higher levels of buttress Walls 48/105 and 97/110 (see chap. 8). It thus appears to have filled the same role that Wall 108 did earlier, as a terrace cross-wall against which fill was used to level the area. The top courses of Wall 91 were heavily eroded and cut into by the stone foundation layer of later Wall 88.

The original rebuild of Wall 108 may have been occasioned by a collapse of its upper levels or by an erosional event. Such an incident may be suggested by the uneven height of this wall (fig. 10.49). The wadi stones, in fact, may have been used in an emergency repair of Wall 108.

Only a small area of surface connected with the use of Wall 91 was uncovered in the lowest part of trial trench Locus 89. Locus 107 was the lowest level reached in Locus 89. In Field XIX.1 a similar reorientation of walls took place with the construction of Wall 96 in a northwesterly direction, perpendicular to that of Wall 91 in Field XIX.2. Wall 96 was a mud-brick wall preserved two to four courses high for a 2 m stretch. The bricks were light yellowish brown, measuring 50 x 25 x 10 cm, and laid in rows of headers and stretchers with alternating position in successive rows. The wall was built on a stone foundation two courses high. It was laid on top of surfaces Loci 100/41 and at its northern end it was oblique to and across the upper levels of Stratum III buttress Wall 97. During its use a buildup of occupation occurred in surfaces Loci 98/40.

A secondary wall, Wall 108 in Field XIX.1, parallel to Wall 91 in Field XIX.2 and perpendicular to Wall 96, was located just east of Wall 10 (fig. 10.48). This wall may have been part of the reorientation during this phase, but the wall was not excavated to lower levels.

The southern extension of buttress Wall 48/105, Wall 10, continued in use with Wall 96 and its surface Locus 98/40, since Loci 98/40 abutted Wall 10. It seems likely that extension Wall 99 (figs. 8.36; 10.5) also continued in use, although the connection with Loci 98/40 was not established. Another east–west mud-brick feature, Locus 82, only one course high, appeared in the south balk (fig. 10.50) at approximately the same level as Wall 96.

Taken together, the complex of Walls 10, 96 and 82, and possibly Wall 108, appear to have been domestic structures, but the connection between the walls remained undefined. There may have been an enclosure or courtyard area within the area bordered by Walls 10, 96 and 82. The mortar (Locus 44) in surface Locus 40/98 supported this possibility, although evidence of cooking and other work-related activities was not found.

Stratum IIC

from Rast and Schaub (2003:316-319)

Considerable building activity took place during Stratum IIC, particularly in Field XIX.2. The sequence of walls in Field XIX.2 was clear but the connection of these walls with the occupational layers up the slope in Field XIX.1 was not as clear. The first stage of rebuilding in Stratum IIC was the construction of secondary Wall 84 north of earlier Wall 91in Field XIX.2 (fig. 10.51). Wall 84 was associated with surface Locus 87 which extended over the area to the north. This wall, with stone base and mud-brick superstructure, was built against the north side of Wall 91, probably to strengthen Wall 91. The stone foundation of Wall 84 was three to four courses high, with three rows of stones. The stones were wadi stones similar to those in the foundational course of Wall 91 over Wall 108. The mud-brick superstructure was mostly eroded. Bricks sizes were 50 x 25 x 10 cm. Wall 84 had a northern extension at the east end, as did many of the walls in Field XIX.2. Wall 84 was oriented east–west, thus reverting to the direction of earlier walls.

A similar direction was followed by mud-brick wall fragment, Wall 103, south of Wall 91 and east of the Wall 48 extension. This wall was not completely excavated. It survived four courses high and appears to have closed off Wall 48 in an L-shape. A foundation trench excavated on the south side of Wall 103 (Locus 99A) had cut through Stratum III occupational surfaces Loci 100, 101, 102, 105 and 106. Wall 103 was built against the south side of Wall 91 and provided a base for later Wall 88. The relation ship between Walls 103 and 91 can be seen in the East Balk Section (fig. 8.38).

The basic layout of Stratum IID structures in Field XIX.2 was followed during Stratum IIC, with Walls 96 and 10 continuing with the buildup of Loci 40/98. A thick ash layer mixed with mud-brick debris, Locus 50, belonged to the same or a similar buildup at the northern edge of Field XIX.1. East–west mud-brick Wall 46 was constructed on top of this layer. The photo (fig. 10.52) shows the relationship of Wall 46 to the underlying ash and bricky material of Locus 50. Wall 46 was the only new wall built in the area during Stratum IIC. It was also the only wall during this stratum to be built without a stone foundation.

Although eroded on its northern face and upper courses, Wall 46 was well preserved. It was built across Stratum III buttress Wall 48/105, separated from the latter by Locus 50. It also cut across and into Wall 10, the southern extension of Wall 48/105 (fig. 10.53). Wall 46 was 85 cm wide and 4.10 m long, and did not extend across the entire area. At its western end there appeared to be a possible edge but this was not certain. It was in this same area that a north–south erosional trench did severe damage to the whole area.

Six courses of Wall 46 survived, with two rows laid in header and stretcher alignment. Brick sizes were 55–60 x 23–25 x 10–12 cm. The bricks were white in color, and some contained two thick grooves, 2 to 3 cm wide and 4 to 5 cm apart in the center (fig. 10.54). The grooves were perpendicular to the long axis, which most likely served to give a better seat for the mortar between the bricks. Wall 46 inclined approximately 80 degrees to the south. Since this was the opposite inclination of the ordinary northern slump of most of the walls, it seems that the inclination of the wall was intentional in order to give better support against the predominant downward slope erosion.

Stratum IIB

from Rast and Schaub (2003:319-321)

This phase was marked by the construction of Wall 88 (fig. 10.55). A foundation trench, Locus 85 (Locus 95A in the East Balk; fig. 8.38) on the south side of Wall 91 was dug down to the upper mud-brick courses of Wall 91 on the south side, with the lower mud-brick courses of Wall 88 being laid into heavy mortar across Wall 91 in an east–west direction. At the east end it was provided with a foundation of stones above Wall 91, and as it veered south of Wall 91 it was built across earlier Wall 103. The easternmost section of Wall 88 was uncovered as Wall 16 during the 1979 season; its northern extension was designated Locus 19. The ash layer (Locus 92) in the east balk (see fig. 8.38) represented occupation connected with the first phase of Wall 88.

Wall 88 extended across the entire area of 5 m. It had 5–6 courses of bricks with stones used to level the eroded Wall 91 on the east. Wall 88 was 80 cm wide. The surviving courses were very irregular, with much slumping and cracking. The bricks were of two types in color and textures and were made in several sizes. Some bricks were square, measuring 24 x 24 x 10 cm. Others varied from 25 x 50 x 10 to 30 x 60 x 10 cm. The layout of the wall was not systematic. In some rows the wall was 3 square bricks across; in others a system of stretchers and headers was used. The irregularities in brick size, color and construction technique were similar to those found in Wall 5 of Field XIX.1

The Stratum IIB phase in Field XIX.1 included the building of a new east–west mud-brick cross-wall, Wall 5, parallel to Wall 46. Prior to the construction of the cross wall, a deep pit (Locus 97; fig. 10.51) was cut through earlier surfaces, exposing Wall 46 to the north and Wall 96 to the west. The pit sloped down to the north, with a series of black ash layers interspersed with mud-brick debris. It was 60 cm deep against Wall 46. A cylinder seal (reg. no. 2860) depicting a stick figure with a background of geometric design was found (fig. 18.16). A later buildup of mud-brick detritus and fill was represented by Loci 37/95 and 47. The foundation trench for Wall 5 cut through the debris layers, and the wall itself was built just inside the line of Wall 46. Wall 5 also cut through the upper courses of Wall 10 (fig. 10.56). A surface (Locus 36) with several closely connected layers (Loci 34, 33, 32, 31) was in use with Wall 5.

The construction of Wall 5 contained several anomalies similar to those described above for Wall 88 in Field XIX.2. Three brick sizes were noted, each associated with a different color. The largest bricks were 50 x 25 x 12 cm. A second range included half bricks varying in size from 28 x 25–32 x 30 cm, but also in different thicknesses. One group was 12 cm thick and a second group 8 cm. The long bricks were laid as stretches in some rows, with the rest of the row composed of square bricks. In the next course the long bricks were laid as headers and again were associated with the square bricks. In the lower courses some bricks were laid on end over the wider stone foundation. The varying sizes and colors of the bricks suggested that the builders may have reused bricks from an earlier phase.

The close positioning of Wall 5 to Wall 46 seems odd. Layers of fill and ash were found between the two walls. Wall 46 was still in good condition while Wall 5 was built only at a slightly higher level, so the purpose of Wall 5 was not clear. Perhaps the area was affected by serious erosion and Wall 5 was a rebuild to stop that process. Some of the largest bricks in Wall 5 were similar in color and size to the predominant bricks of Wall 46.

It was difficult to establish a stratified connection between Fields XIX.1 and XIX.2 because of the unexplained nature of the mud-brick segment, Locus 26 in Field XIX.2 (fig. 8.38). The mud-brick lines of this possible wall remnant were not clearly defined but they lay across Locus 92, from which the foundation trench, Locus 85 for Wall 88 was cut. Locus 26 appears to have been a collapsed section of a wall from above, from Wall 46 or Wall 108. The upper courses of the buttress Wall 48 were still visible to the west and separated from Locus 26 at a lower level by ash layers and a clayish surface (Loci 33, 35). Since the upper layers of Locus 48 had some square bricks it is possible the wall was repaired during this phase by the builders of Walls 5 and 88.

Stratum IIA

from Rast and Schaub (2003:321)

The latest phase in this area was connected with surface Locus 24 and an east–west mud-brick wall, Wall 80, which appeared clearly only in the south balk of Field XIX.1. Above this wall throughout the entire area was a series of slope and wash erosional layers (figs. 8.38, 10.50).

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:321)

The occupational history in Field XIX during Stratum II consisted of repeated attempts to counteract erosion. The cross-walls, especially those on the lower slope of Field XIX.2 attested to these efforts as well as to some lack of success. The original cross-wall of Stratum III, Wall 108, which closed off the area of the buttress walls, was rebuilt as Wall 91 with stone and mud-brick superstructure. Wall 91 was subsequently fortified by a heavy stone-wall structure on its northern side, Wall 84, and a mud-brick extension on the southeast with Wall 103. The top of the latest surviving cross-wall, Wall 88, built on top of Wall 91, was fairly close to the present surface. Later walls may have eroded downslope.

The builders were more successful in creating stable areas on the upper slope to the south in Field XIX.1. North–south Walls 10 and 96 continued in use over a considerable period and were supplemented by the well-built cross-wall, Wall 46. This wall, inclined against the slope, apparently worked well, preserving some of the best levels of earlier occupation in the town site, but it also was strengthened by the addition of Wall 5 to its south side.

The pottery of Stratum II from Field XIX is found in plates 76–80.

Stratum II Structures in Field XIV

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:341-342)

Familiarity with the topography in Field XIV is a necessary prelude to understanding the Stratum II building activities in this part of the interior of the town site (for Primary Loci see table 10.8). Field XIV was plotted on the lower slope of an east–west ridge. Only meager occupation evidence appeared on the upper part of this ridge, where excavations in Fields XV and XVIII quickly encountered sterile levels. Above Field XIV the crest of the ridge is at -244 m. Downslope from the crest the earliest occupation level was at -255 m in Field XIV.3, while the latest occupation levels were at approximately -249.50 m. These differences in levels forced inhabitants to build revetment and terrace walls to counteract the movement of sediment by erosion. Excavation uncovered evidence of these efforts but also revealed that they were less than successful.

Although Stratum II material was found in all three squares opened in Field XIV, the deepest levels reached were in Field XIV.4 and 6. In the deep trench of Field XIV.3 Stratum II levels appeared in the upper three meters of cultural deposit.

The differentiation between Stratum III and Stratum II in Field XIV proved to be problematic since the exposure of Stratum III loci was too limited to establish a clear transition. The only approach to solving the problem was to define the relationship of Wall 239 to Wall 230/237 to the south and Wall 269 to the west, both of the latter belonging to Stratum II. Wall 239, founded at -251.75 m (fig. 10.66), was the earliest of these three walls. The lower level of Wall 239 could allow it to be placed in Stratum III but the fact that it continues in use with Walls 230/237 and 269 supports the interpretation that all three walls belong to Stratum II. The ongoing use of Wall 239 is thus the major reason for placing the division between Strata III and II in connection with this wall’s founding.

The Stratum II material in Field XIV divides into two phases, Stratum IIB and IIA. A major erosional event consisting of up to one m of debris occurred between the two phases separating them stratigraphically. Severe tilting of several walls also belonged to the erosional event. Stratum IIB and IIA had several sub-phases.

Stratum IIB5

from Rast and Schaub (2003:342-343)

Belonging to the earliest sub-phase, Stratum IIB5, was Wall 239. A floor associated with this wall was more evident in the Excavated Loci than in the Section Loci (for an explanation of Excavated Loci [EL] and Section Loci [SL] see under Field XIV.3 in chapter 6). EL 259 was a fine-grained, compact light-brown material laid over the earlier occupational levels of Stratum III. EL 256 was a thicker band of detritus with some charcoal and ash over EL 259 (fig. 8.18). During the excavation of the upper levels of EL 256 at the south end of the trench, the bottom course of Wall 239 appeared (fig. 10.66). SL 333, a compact light brown layer with charcoal, pebbles, stones and mud-brick fragments shows this level as sloping downward from south to north and abutting the lower course of Wall 239 (fig. 8.18). Although a foundation trench for Wall 239 is not indicated in the East Balk Section it is clear that Wall 239 was cut into the upper levels of SL 333 and belonged to the earliest phase of Stratum II. The first occupational level associated with Wall 239 was Locus 255.

A second stage in the history of Wall 239, Stratum IIB4, was contemporary with a series of occupational surfaces exposed to the north. The occupational surfaces were related to the installation of a pottery bowl, SL 335, set into SL 329, a compact light brown layer, as well as into SL 327, a layer of loose gray burned material with charcoal, and into floor SL 328 (fig. 8.18). Continued access to this bowl was assured by constructing a hard white plaster surface, SL 352, around and above the bowl’s mouth. The pottery bowl installation continued in use with seven successive floors, several of which were plastered and separated by ash layers. The floors and ash layers together are represented in SL 326. Although the East Balk Section does not show SL 326 extending to Wall 239, it is clear from the plan made during the excavation of EL 251 that these surfaces were in use with Wall 239.

The relationship of Walls 269 and 272 to Stratum IIB4 is uncertain (fig. 10.67). The bottom level of Wall 269 on the north side was exposed in connection with plaster sur face Locus 274 (figs. 10.67, 10.68). This level corresponds to the third course of Wall 239 to the east (fig. 8.18). Both walls line up and were likely contemporary, perhaps as a terrace wall. Wall 272 is also associated with Stratum IIB4. The bottom level of Wall 272 was not reached, but the part exposed was preserved 10 courses to a height of 90 cm. The lowest level reached at -251.56 m was slightly below the plaster surfaces of SL 326 discussed above. Wall 272 in Field XIV.3 projected from the west balk on a different orientation from that of the other walls in this area (fig. 10.68). It did not continue to the east but could possibly have cornered to the north. Its relationship to the other walls and surfaces in the deep trench remains problematical.

Stratum IIB3

from Rast and Schaub (2003:343)

The major new element in this sub-phase was the construction of Wall 230/237, a thirteen-course wall exposed in the north end of the deep trench (fig. 8.18). The lower courses of Wall 230/237 were placed in a trench cut into Stratum IIB4 surfaces SL 326. Wall 230/237 rested on SL 350, a silt layer overlying the floors, suggesting there may have been a period during which the area was not used. The plan of the deep trench at this level in the composite map of Stratum IIB (fig. 10.67) illustrates the surfaces connected to Wall 230/237 and Wall 239. The line of Wall 230/237 was broken by an opening for a door in which appeared a green, plastered surface, EL 245. A door socket, EL 240, rested on a brown plaster surface, EL 246, on the south side of Wall 230/237. EL 246 and another plaster surface, EL 248, were covered in spots by ashy layer EL 247. Wall 239 continued in use as evidenced by the relationship of plaster surface EL 248 to Wall 239.

In the west half of Field XIV.3 Stratum IIB3 is represented by Walls 269 and 272, stone Wall 276, and several surfaces (fig. 10.68). Wall 276 was preserved two courses high. It rested on plaster surface Locus 274 which abutted mud-brick Wall 269 (fig. 10.67). To the north Locus 298 was a similar surface in use with Wall 272. The occupational debris of Locus 278 above Locus 298 is also associated with this sub-phase.

Stratum IIB2

from Rast and Schaub (2003:343-346)

This sub-phase is the first level at which it becomes feasible to correlate the structures from all the excavated areas of Field XIV. The correlation rests on two interpretations of the evidence. One is that the different levels of occupation encountered in Fields XIV.4, XIV.6 and XIV.3 represent adaptation to the natural slope in this area. The difference in the occupation levels in these areas is due to terracing and leveling. A similar adaptation to a steep slope with terracing and contemporary walls on different levels was found above in Field XIX. The second interpretation is that the two wall complexes in the southern area (Walls 10, 36) and northern area (Walls 269 and 281) were linked. The similar, severe tilts of the upper courses of the east–west walls (Wall 10 in Field XIV.4 and Wall 269 in Field XIV.3) were apparently caused by the same event that produced the downward tilt of the north–south walls (Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 and Wall 281 in Field XIV.3; figs. 10.69, 10.70). Although Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 and Wall 281 in Field XIV.3 were not connected in the course of the excavation, they are on the same direct line and manifest an exactly similar downward slope. The east–west walls on both the south (Wall 10) and the north (Wall 269) were bonded into the north–south walls (Walls 36 and 281, respectively) so that the tilt of the upper courses resulted from the downward tilt of Walls 36 and 281 (fig. 10.71).

Based on these interpretations, Stratum IIB2 would have included the following structures and features:

The extensive retaining wall consisting of mud bricks packed against the natural slope on the south (Wall 14 in Field XIV.3 and Wall 18 in Field XIV.6) was in use during this phase (fig. 10.67). At least 18 to 20 courses were still surviving when excavation uncovered them (fig. 10.72). Wall 14/18 may have been in use in an earlier phase but the lowest level exposed was associated with Stratum IIB2.

Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 was built against the retaining wall, and may have played the role of a buttress stepped down the slope and continuing in Wall 281 of Field XIV.3.

The east–west Wall 10 joined with Wall 36 to form a courtyard.

At the corner of these two walls was a cooking area (Locus 63 in Field XIV.4 and Locus 43 in Field XIV.6) constructed of medium-sized, rounded wadi stones. The stones were blackened from use (fig. 10.69). A similar cooking feature dating to approximately the same time was found at Numeira (see forthcoming volume on this site).

On the lower part of the slope, Wall 269/289 in Field XIV.3 was an east–west terrace wall, while Walls 230/237 and 272 were partial remains of a building on the terrace.

Due to major erosion during Stratum IIB1, the only occupational surfaces related to Stratum IIB2, apart from the cooking area in Fields XIV.4 and XIV.6, were north of Wall 230/237 in Field XIV.3. Locus 41 contained occupational debris, while EL 181 and 183 were ashy layers over lying EL 198, a surface abutting Wall 230/237. EL 198 is equivalent to SL 341 in the East Balk Section.

Stratum IIB1

from Rast and Schaub (2003:346-349)

The end of Stratum IIB in Field XIV was brought about by the collapse of a section of retaining Wall 18 in Field XIV.6. A large section of the retaining wall (Locus 23) either slipped or fell into a horizontal position in XIV.6, exposing the natural gravel and Lisan marl of the hillock to the south (figs. 10.67, 10.73). The collapse of the retaining wall along with massive erosion resulted in downslope transport and deposition of over one m of detrital sediment over the entire area from south to north. In Field XIV.6 the damage was so thorough that no later attempts were made to utilize this area. Key loci related to the collapse in Field XIV.6 included Locus 41, a soft mud-brick wash with rock rubble and boulders below the collapsed revetment Wall 23; Locus 42, mud-brick collapse at the juncture of Walls 36 and 45 above cooking area Locus 43; and Locus 29, mud-brick and mortar remnants between the collapse of the revetment wall and the natural Lisan Marl.

Evidence for the massive downslope transport is present in the East Balk Section in Field XIV.3 (fig. 8.18a). A mass of mud-brick detritus and occupational debris extends for one m from -250 m to -251 m (SL 312–321). Related debris representing possible ongoing erosion are found in SL 306–310 which spilled over Wall 237 (SL 70 and 75). Similar erosion is evident in 50 to 75 cm of cultural debris (Locus 234) that extended over the entire west half of Field XIV.3 (fig. 10.70).

The collapsed structures in Field XIV raise the question whether an earthquake may have caused these buildings to slump. The region is subject to earthquake and major fault lines exist in the immediate vicinity (see chap. 2). Specialists in earthquake damage who have examined photos of the walls in Field XIV have suggested that the tilt in the walls was more likely caused by slumping in connection with erosion rather than earthquake. Walls 10 and 69 were probably no more than 3 m high, and no wood supports or beams suggesting a second floor were found, the remains of which might suggest collapse by earthquake. The combined header and stretcher method of construction of the mud-brick walls remained in place and showed no signs of radical displacement. Thus the kind of damage earthquakes leave traces of on mud brick walls was not evident in the Field XIV structures.

Stratum IIA3

from Rast and Schaub (2003:349-350)

Although evidence exists for subsequent occupation, the ongoing problems with erosion during occupation and post-occupation create problems for correlating later phasing in Field XIV. Excavation of upper levels in Fields XIV.3 and XIV.4 encountered thick mud-brick detritus. Walls were exposed but surfaces connecting the walls were spotty. The earliest levels of Stratum IIA are visible in the East Balk Section (fig. 8.18). Wall 37/63, a mud-brick wall surviving two to three courses and built on a slightly downward slope, had been cut into earlier debris levels. A foundation trench was exposed in SL 67/68. The surfaces associated with this wall included localized areas of plaster.

A similar pattern is evident in the west half of Field XIV.3. Mud-brick walls were built on slopes with fragmentary plastered surfaces that cut into or overlay the debris of Stratum IIB1. East–west Wall 242, eight courses high, was associated with a brownish clay surface, Locus 287, which had traces of plaster and patches of black ash (figs. 10.70, 10.71). Locus 287 lay directly over the massive debris of Locus 234 of Stratum IIB1. A north–south wall, Wall 266, was exposed in the east balk of the west half of Field XIV.3. This wall stood five courses high and was also built over the debris of Locus 234.

No new architecture could be related to Stratum IIA3 in Field XIV.4, although it is possible that Wall 10 and the revetment Wall 14 were used for renewed occupation (fig. 10.67).

Stratum IIA2

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

Remains of Stratum IIA2 were found throughout Field XIV.3 and Field XIV.4. In Field XIV.3 a group of flat pavement stones (Locus 33) was associated with surfaces Loci 177 and 206. The latter appeared over most of Field XIV.3, and in an area also seen in the East Balk Section as the bottom level of SL 300 with flat-lying sherds. Remnants of mud-brick walls, including Walls 134, 207 and 225, were also related to this surface. In Field XIV.4, north–south mud-brick Wall 33 was built up against Wall 10. Wall 33 rested on top of a clay wash layer (Locus 59) and was related to a surface with flat-lying sherds that may be seen in the East Balk Section of Field XIV.4 (fig. 10.74, locus number not provided). Wall 33 had collapsed onto the surface to the north. Its relation to an underlying mass of mud-brick (Locus 61) was not determined. At some point during Stratum IIA2 an attempt was made to buttress revetment Wall 14 with a cross-wall between Walls 10 and 14. Square impressions on the south side of Wall 10 suggest that the cross-wall may have included wooden beams (fig. 10.75).

Stratum IIA1

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

This sub-phase is represented by several walls with stone foundation. Only one wall with stone foundation was recorded for the previous sub-phases of Stratum II, namely, Wall 276 in Field XIV.3 (figs. 10.66, 10.67). A long east–west stone wall in Field XIV.4, Wall 4/11, was built over the upper mud-brick courses of Wall 10 (fig. 10.67, 10.72). A second east–west wall with stone foundation and three upper courses of mud brick, Wall 26/32, was excavated north of Wall 10. It appears in the East Balk Section of Field XIV.4 (fig. 10.74). In Field XIV.3 a third east–west wall with stone foundation, Wall 34, is seen in the East Balk Section, with collapsed mud brick to the south. No surfaces related to these walls survived due to the later erosion in this area. Stratum II pottery from Field XIV is found in plates 101–8.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

Although there are problems in interpreting the stratigraphy of Field XIV, it is evident that this area of the town interior was extensively occupied through out the Early Bronze Age. Occupation in Strata IV and III, although limited to the deep trench, was clear, as seen in earlier chapters. Subsequently, the two phases of Stratum II dealt with here were clearly separated by a major erosional occurrence. Both Stratum II phases contained substantial architecture, and both reflected the ongoing efforts of inhabitants to adapt to the slopes in this area.

Pottery Production in Late Phases of Early Bronze 1 in the Southern Levant - Braun (2023)

Abstract

from Braun (2023)

Pottery in the Early Bronze 1 (EB1) (For numerous reasons I eschew the use of the terms EB IA and EB IB and their sub-periods purportedly representing the lengthy time span of ca 3700–3000 BCE (Braun E, Forging a link: evidence for a ‘Lost Horizon’ In: H Goldfus, MI Gruber, S Yona, P Fabian (eds) The Late Chalcolithic to EB 1 Transition in the Southern Levant. ‘Isaac went out to the field’: studies in Archaeology Ancient Cultures in Honor of Isaac Gilead. Archeopress, Oxford, pp 66–95, 2019). That is because of the extreme regionality of EB 1 material culture and the revealed archaeological record that has failed to yield a single sequence for the entire southern Levant, thus making chronological correlations between ceramic groups entirely dependent on the degree of validity of archaeological deposits’ associations with radiocarbon determinations (Regev et al., Radiocarbon 54(3–4):525–566, 2012: 528; Braun E, Early Megiddo on the East Slope (The “Megiddo Stages”). A Report on the Early Occupation of the East Slope of Megiddo–Results of the Oriental Institute’s Excavations, 1925 – 1933 (Oriental Institute Publications 139). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2013: 30–31). Our knowledge is too incomplete and regional differences too pronounced for such simplistic periodizations) was produced in two basic “modes,” in limited quantities by semi-skilled individuals or small groups, or on larger scales by numerous skilled potters. The former type of activity, known as Domestic Mode of Production or DMP indicates part-time potters plying their craft for local consumption, possibly on a household level. Although there is some limited evidence for DMP in early phases of EB 1, most pottery during this lengthy period appears to have been made by potters of greater skills and was disseminated through trade or in some instances by itinerant practitioners of the craft. This latter activity accounts for very significant degrees of standardization of ceramic types found at numerous sites. Those levels of standardization argue for regional centers of production from which wares were dispersed. This paper discusses some of the outstanding evidence for those modes of pottery production in the archaeological record, and their implications for trade and other types of social intercourse in diverse regions of the southern Levant. The time span is the late to very early third millennia (ca 3700–3000).

Chronology of the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant: New Analysis for a High Chronology - Regev et al. (2012)

Abstract

from Regev et al. (2012)

The chronology of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) in the southern Levant and the synchronization between the sites, considering seriation and radiocarbon dates, have shown large inconsistencies and disagreement. We have assembled 420 14C dates, most of them previously published and a few provided directly by the excavators. The dates have been re-evaluated on the basis of their archaeological context and using analytical criteria. Bayesian modeling has been applied to the selected dates in relation to the given seriation of the EBA subperiods (EB I, II III, IV). Sites with 2 or more sequential subphases were individually modeled in order to define the transitions between the subperiods. The new chronology indicates that the EB I-II transition occurred site-dependently between 3200-2900 BC, with EB II—III around 2900 BC, and EB III— IV -2500 BC.

Raphael and Agnon (2018)

from Raphael and Agnon (2018:774)

EB III (2700-2200 BCE)

mudbrick walls tilting at 45° probably caused by an earthquake. (Field XIV). Defensive wall built in sections with transverse faces at 7-15 m intervals , a possible earthquake protection device (Schaub 1993:134).

Stratum II Destruction -

Discussion

References

Excavation Report - Rast and Schaub (2003)

Volume 1

Chapter 1 - The 1975–1981 Excavations at the town site of Bab edh-Dhra'

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:1)

Lapp’s excavations in 1965 were the first to show that Bâb edh-Dhrâ was an Early Bronze Age settlement rather than a specialized ceremonial site, as many had speculated prior to his work (P. Lapp 1966: 560–61; for references to the prevalent interpretation of the site as a distinctive one accompanied by cultic activities see Schaub and Rast 1989: 17–18).

... Bâb edh-Dhrâ takes its place within the discussion of the social and political events occurring on both sides of the Jordan Rift during the late fourth and third millennia B.C.

The Southern Ghor Survey of 1973

from Rast and Schaub (2003:4)

The Early Bronze Age remains identified in the 1973 survey were mainly cemeteries, although one site, Numeira, was a crucial discovery for future investigation, since it turned out to be an EB III town with clear parallels to Bâb edh-Dhrâ (Rast and Schaub 1974: 8–9, pl. 8). By contrast, the remains at es-Sâfî consisted of an extensive EB I cemetery with no accompanying evidence of settlement (Rast and Schaub 1974: 9–11). The situation at Feifa was similar—an EB I cemetery was identified but no definite Early Bronze settlement remains were indicated. On a small tell at Feifa, Iron II, Roman, Nabatean and Arabic potsherds were found (Rast and Schaub 1974: 11–12; limited excavations were carried out on the tell during 1989–90). At Khanazir the survey recorded cist burials dating to EB IV (Rast and Schaub 1974: 13, 18; some of these were excavated along with Feifa during 1989–90). It was also apparent from survey around Khanazir that the latter site was not occupied during EB II and III, but that EB I burials were present nearby.

... Bâb edh-Dhrâ was now to be set in a regional context and investigated as a major unit within the course of occupation of the southern Ghor from approximately 3300 to 2000 B.C.

The Town Site and Its Surroundings

from Rast and Schaub (2003:5-7)

The town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ is located east of the Lisan peninsula (35˚ 32' 50" E, and 31˚ 15' 15" N UTM; Palestinian Grid 200.750—073.500) on terrain similar to that of the Lisan peninsula but at an elevation more than 100 m higher than the latter. It lies approximately 400 m northeast of the Cemetery area (fig. 1.2). Its Stratum IV village and Stratum III and II towns were built on a number of marl and gravel knolls created during the time of the ancient Lake Lisan (see chapter 2). The ruins of the town site are 10 to 15 m above the surrounding Sahl edh-Dhrâ on the east and south sides of the site, and 60 m above the Wadi Kerak on the north side. During Stratum II the major defensive wall, parts of which have all along been visible on the surface, was constructed around the rim of these knolls (chapter 10). A mud-brick defensive system seems also to have been built around the site in Stratum III (chapter 8). The area encompassed by the Stratum II town wall provides an approximate size for the town at around 4.5 ha., but the severe erosional depressions on the north suggest the actual size may have been somewhat larger.

In comparison with other Early Bronze Age sites west and east of the Jordan River, Bâb edh-Dhrâ is of medium size. With an area of approximately 11 ha., 'Ai was almost three times larger (Callaway 1972: 9), while Arad at 9 ha. was twice as large (Amiran 1978: 3). Given the limited space and resources of the Dead Sea region, however, the size of Bâb edh-Dhrâ was impressive. Based on the various parts of the site excavated, it can be concluded that the area under use at the town site was roughly the same from Stratum IV through Stratum II, with a good deal of settlement occurring outside the walls in Stratum II. During Stratum I, settlement was concentrated mostly outside the town site, with only Field XVI showing stratified evidence of occupation within the confines of the former town site. The earliest phase, Stratum V, was represented by temporary camping remains discovered near the cemetery rather than in the area of the town site (chap. 4).

Despite the marl and gravel terrain at Bâb edh-Dhrâ, which provided its own difficulties for town construction (see chap. 10), sufficient natural features were available to induce the Early Bronze Age inhabitants to choose this location. One was the site’s dominating view over the Lisan plain to the west, the Dead Sea littoral to the north and south, and the flatland of the Sahl edh-Dhrâ to the east and south. Water was available in natural springs, with outlets into the Wadi Kerak. The availability of lands of the surrounding plains, along with natural resources for the cultivation of fruits and grains, also offered incentives to settlement (chap. 3). Fruit-bearing trees, such as the date palm, were also native to the area. On the whole, the greater number of trees at that time in comparison with the present offered opportunity for various building projects.

The 1973 survey outside the walled town also showed that substantial settlement had occurred south and west of the town. Most of the large monoliths noted in 1924 (Albright 1924–25: 59) were still lying in the same locations at the time of the 1973 survey. Unfortunately, by 1977 they had been bulldozed away along with the flint material. The 1973 survey also noted numerous wall remains and much pottery on the northeast, east and south sides of the town site, indicating that settlers had built many structures outside the town. Much of this settlement seems to have occurred during the time of Stratum II, the period that witnessed the greatest expansion at Bâb edh-Dhrâ resulting in the establishment of a new town at Numeira (see chapter 23). In recent visits to Bâb edh-Dhrâ we have observed a great amount of occupation west of the town site as well, much of it dating apparently to the Stratum II horizon.

No remains have come to light indicating that the town site was occupied earlier than Stratum IV. A number of EB IA tombs were discovered in Area F outside the town wall on the west (chap. 4), suggesting that occasional tombs were also cut near where the later town was to be located, although not within what was to become the walled area. Most tombs from all phases, however, were concentrated in Cemeteries A and C southwest of the town site. During the last phase at the site (Stratum I), EB IV shaft tombs were also cut west of Area F on the slope above the Lisan plain.

Definitions and Terms

from Rast and Schaub (2003:16-7)

Locus System. The discussions in chapters 4–13 are based on the consolidation of all loci excavated and recorded by the EDSP in the various fields and areas excavated. The EDSP employed the method commonly followed by projects affiliated with the American Schools of Oriental Research through the latter’s Committee on Archaeological Policy. All three-dimensional features (layers of soil, walls, pits, cisterns, etc.) are assigned separate locus numbers. Pottery and objects are not viewed as loci but as situated within loci (most commonly, soils). Occasionally, as will be noted, a field volunteer may have misunderstood this principle, recording an object or two under a locus number. We have included these few exceptions in the Master Locus List (MLL) despite the fact that they deviate from the standard practice. Architectural features such as a room or building are usually not referred to as a locus, but are made up of many loci within the room or building. The report below includes drawn plans and sections, and wherever possible loci are included on the drawings.

Primary Loci. The locus system means that many hundreds of locus numbers are employed and, whereas all contribute to the total picture, specific loci are especially determinative for interpretation. It is these latter that are presented below as Primary Loci (PL). PL are isolated in post-season study of all loci, rather than during the fieldwork (cf. Braun 1997: 15 for the opposite). The PL are printed as tables within the text and are normally referred to in the discussion of the architecture and stratigraphy, while the MLL is found on the CD-ROM. The MLL also correlates all information for phasing, pottery readings, objects recorded, bone material, flotation results, and any other specific data for each locus. The locus method facilitates a check and balance system in which data uncovered can be viewed from various perspectives, according to the daily field books and top plans, pottery reading record, the photographic registry, and records of the geology, flotation, palynology and zoology.

Pottery. On the basis of the locus method which stresses stratification, the pottery for each phase is presented in relation to soil layers, including cases where it was found within structures. Drawings and descriptions of pottery from all loci excavated are stored digitally and are available for further research. The digital system used in cataloguing the pottery in chapters 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 is similar to that used in the previously published volume on tombs (see Schaub and Rast 1989: 4–9 for details), facilitating valuable comparisons between the tomb and town site pottery (for details on the conventions used in the presentation of the pottery see the preface to part 2 of this volume).

Field and Area. The term field is used according to the meaning commonly found in current excavation, that is, to refer to the large units of excavation. Fields I–VII were excavated by Lapp, while Fields VIII–XIX were opened by the EDSP. The term field is used for excavation units within the town site and units to the south (IX) and to the east (X), while the term area refers to excavation units outside the town site, such as Area H 1 on the northern ridge of Cemetery A, and Area F 4 west of the town site. The use of area as a defining unit served well for places where tombs were either discovered or were thought to be present, but where settlement evidence then came to light. In these cases, the entire unit was designated an area. Roman numerals are used to designate fields, while Arabic numerals are used for squares (e.g., Field I.1). Uppercase alphabetic letters specify areas, followed by Arabic numerals for squares or trenches in an area (such as Area F 4)

Site Map And Elevation. Due to the severe erosion of parts of the site, an architectural grid of the entire site was not made. A site map was produced, and each field or area was positioned on the site map (fig. 1.4). Elevations were determined from the bench mark established by Lapp east of the town site. The EDSP found an error of-32 m in the elevations used by the earlier expedition (see Schaub and Rast 1989: 3). The elevations used in the present volume are those determined by the EDSP, and their below-sea-level location is indicated by the minus sign.

Town Site. The term town site refers to the evidence found specifically within the walled town of Strata III and II. It should be noted, however, that in the case of each of the five strata, some remains were also found outside the area defined by the walled town. Thus the bulk of the remains of the village of Stratum IV were within the area encompassed by the later town wall, but remains of the same stratum were also found in Areas F 4 and J2 outside the town site. Fields IX and X were also outside the town site, and contained evidence dating mostly to Stratum I. Survey also showed that Stratum II occupation occurred outside the town site on the west, south and east.

The use of the term town rather than city is intentional since in our view Early Bronze urbanism, if it can be called that, was not of the same magnitude as the intensive urbanization found in Mespotamia or Syria during the third millennium B.C. The term village is the designation used for the first permanent settlement at the site during Stratum IV.

As in the case of the first volume of these series, we have presented in the printed volume all of the synthesized evidence that most clearly interprets the development of settlement at Bâb edh-Dhrâ through the various phases of the Early Bronze Age. Other databases are found on the CD-ROM. The present volume offers a descriptive report of the EDSP excavations at Bâb edh-Dhrâ and an interpretation of what we can know about the people who occupied this region for a period of more than a thousand years from the late fourth to the end of the third millennium B.C.

Strata at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Chapter 2 - Geology and Geomorphology

Lake Level Plots, Plans, and Drawings

Dead Sea Lake Level Curve - Kagan et al (2015)

from Kagan et al (2015)

Figure 4

Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lake levels are based on previous works by Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. (2004) [Ze'elim and Nahal David (Ein Gedi) outcrops], Bartov (2004) [Arugot and Darga outcrops], Migowski et al. (2006) [DS cores], Stern (2010) [Ein Qedem outcrop], Kushnir and Stein (2010)'s interpretation, and on new data (Ze'elim outcrops) and interpretations from this study. References for some specific parts of the curve

Bartov et al. 2007
Frumkin et al. 1991; Migowski et al. 2006
Stern 2010
this study
Bartov 2004
Stern 2010
beach ridge, this study and Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004
Bookman (Ken-Tor) et al. 2004

For ages, see Table 1. Dashed part of the curve is based on relative lake-level fluctuations.

Kagan et al (2015)

Dead Sea Lake Level Curves - Bruins (1994)

from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Fig. 2.14

Dead Sea level curve proposed by Bruins (1994). This curve shows a lake level high stand during EB II time with water levels being as high as -300 m asl. The curve is based mainly on the previous curve generated by Frumkin (1991).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plans and Drawings

Fig. 2.13 - Paleogeologic

Fig. 2.13

Paleogeologic map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' showing probable topography and geology of the surface on which Early Bronze people began their occupation during Early Bronze IA time. At this point in time, there is no evidence of construction of mud-brick or stone-wall structures. EB IA peoples were apparently pastoralists who occupied the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area on a temporary basis (see chapter 4).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the Early Bronze Age from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.16 - Hypothetical

Fig. 2.16

A. Cross-section of probable configuration of exterior town wall at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. The lower unit, still preserved in some places around the site, consists of angular to subrounded small boulders (20 to 50 cm in diameter) of Paleozoic sandstone and Mesozoic limestone and dolo mite (see Natural Stratigraphy for descriptions of these units). The middle unit, the stippled rect angular blocks (5 to 10 cm thick by 20 to 30 cm in width and length) consist of Lisan Marl sands that are naturally cemented with calcium carbonate (calcite). These slabs were quarried and used to prepare a flat surface on top of the stone foundation for the wall. The upper, no longer preserved, portion of the town wall consisted of mud brick.

B. Diagrammatic longitudinal cross section showing wall construction on uphill slope north of Lapp’s 1966 trench which cut through the stone wall. Trench is parallel to Field II. Explanation is the same as for figure 2.16A.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Cross-section of town walls from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.17 - Present

Fig. 2.17

Present condition of town wall where the two lower rock construction units are still preserved in a few places at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. This can be seen at the northeast corner of the site, just north of Fields I and II. Both the interior and exterior slopes adjacent to the stone wall consist largely of eroded fragments of mud brick which were originally located on top of the stone wall as a mud-brick wall of unknown height.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

condition of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.15 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.15

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during EB III time, after construction of town wall from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.18 - Artist’s sketch

Fig. 2.18

Artist’s sketch of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' at the present time with erosion into the interior of the site by the western and eastern tributaries.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

of landscape around Bab edh-Dhra' during present time from Rast and Schaub (2003)
Fig. 2.19 - Aggradation and

Fig. 2.19

Diagrammatic cross-section of the Wadi Kerak at several different points in time. The left section shows the wadi in Chalcolithic times, when long, slow erosion had produced a bowl shaped valley. The middle two sections show conditions during EB I/III times when sediments began to accumulate in the wadi. Within the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', building construction caused the accumulation of both cultural and natural sediment. During and especially toward the end of this period, erosion was also occurring, both in the wadi and at the adjacent town site. The right cross-section depicts conditions after the large drop in the level of the Dead Sea. Extensive erosion occurred in the wadi, creating the lower, straight-sided portion of the wadi. Within Bâb edh-Dhrâ', erosion removed a significant portion of both cultural and natural material.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Erosion over time in Wadi Kerak from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Discussion

Regional Setting

from Rast and Schaub (2003:21-23)

The site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ, like three other Early Bronze Age remains investigated by the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain (Numeira, Feifa and Khanazir), is located on an alluvial terrace surface along the eastern side of the Dead Sea (fig. 2.4). Like Bâb edh-Dhrâ' all three of these sites, two of which are cemeteries and one a settlement, are also situated adjacent to major wadis that drain water from the 1000 m high rift escarpment immediately to the east. The terraces are erosional remnants of alluvial fans deposited during the earlier existence of Lake Lisan; gravels, sands and silts were transported from the eastern rift escarpment down the wadis and deposited along the shores of Lake Lisan. Bâb edh-Dhrâ itself is located immediately south of an entrenched segment of the Wadi Kerak where the wadi stream has eroded a narrow valley into the terrace surface. The site and the alluvial fan occur just east of the Lisan Peninsula (fig. 2.4) which separates the larger, deep north basin from the smaller, presently emergent south basin of the Dead Sea.

Tectonics

from Rast and Schaub (2003:29-30)

Simply described, tectonics is the movement or deformation of rock units after they have been deposited. Deformation often consists of the folding or large-scale bending of rocks, faulting where rocks are fractured and movement occurs on one or both sides of the fracture, or, in many cases, a combination of both. If an area is downdropped or subsides, a sedimentary basin can form where sediments accumulate. In contrast, when rock units are uplifted above lake or sea level, erosion can occur with the removal of previously deposited rock units. As described previously, only under conditions of subsidence or stability will archaeological sites be preserved.

The Dead Sea over the last ten million years has been and still is one of the world’s most tectonically active areas. Deformation in this area is dominantly produced by fault movement along the Dead Sea–Jordan transform fault (Niemi and Smith 1999: 792; Niemi and Ben Avraham 1997: 73). This is a complex fault zone with development of several parallel north–south faults bounding the narrow, actively subsiding Dead Sea basin. Figure 2.6, a greatly simplified diagram of the Dead Sea area, shows the position for the Western and Eastern Border Faults. The Dead Sea basin, a down dropped segment between the two border faults, has been the depositional basin for up to 10 km of sediments since its initiation in Miocene (24 myBP) time (Garfunkel 1997: 453–48). East-southeast trending cross faults such as the Kerak Graben and Amazyahu Fault (fig. 2.6) are significant in determining the positions of wadis on both the east and west side of the basin as well as its southern terminus (Amazyahu Fault). The presence of faults such as the two defining the Kerak Graben causes a weakness in Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithified rocks that becomes more rapidly eroded to form a wadi; in the case of the Kerak Graben, the Wadi Kerak.

The Lisan Peninsula, a high-standing feature, is underlain by a salt diapir. Salt, a relatively light or less dense, plastic material has flowed upward in the area of the Lisan Peninsula, causing it to maintain a higher elevation than the south basin and especially the deep north basin of the Dead Sea.

Earthquakes

from Rast and Schaub (2003:30-32)

There is a question about whether earthquakes have caused damage to any of the Early Bronze sites within the Dead Sea valley. Earthquakes are almost always caused by fault movement, with the quake being produced by vibrations generated during fault movement. Figure 2.6 illustrates the abundance of both north–south and, to a lesser extent, east–west faults. Repetitive and cumulative movement along these faults or fractures in the bedrock resulted in the development of the Dead Sea as we know it today. Only major faults are included on the figure. Examination of information contained on a geologic map such as the Kerak Sheet (Powell 1988) demonstrates the existence of numerous minor faults in the area, again with a dominant north south and east–west orientation. Since the Dead Sea area has been tectonically active since at least Miocene time, fault movement or slippage with a resultant earthquake is a common event (Ben-Avraham 1997: 28–33; Garfunkel 1997: 36–41; Neimi and Ben-Avraham 1997: 76–80).

... The actual documentation of earthquakes or earthquake damage at an archaeological site or within its vicinity is extremely difficult to obtain. Damage or disruption observed within an excavation wall can have causes other than seismic activity. For example, wall collapse during warfare or rapid erosional events such as landslides could easily resemble earthquake damage. One reasonable suggestion that has been made is that, when stone building columns found in Roman ruins have all fallen in the same direction and apparently at the same time, an earthquake is the most likely cause (Niemi, personal communication, 1999).

After extensive field work and examination of excavation records and profiles from Bâb edh-Dhrâ, we found no clear-cut evidence for significant earthquake damage at the site. A likely candidate for earthquake-induced disruption is present in the precultural Lake Lisan/Lisan Marl facies within the walled perimeter of Bâb edh-Dhrâ. An exposure of Lisan Marl (see section on natural stratigraphy above) contains contorted bedding at the base of the marl sequence that resembles soft sediment deformation. The two most likely causes for this are either sediment movement caused by earthquake or seismic vibrations or flow of sediment down a gentle slope with result ant deformation. Of course, an earthquake could well have been responsible for initiation of the soft sediment flow. Neev and Emery (1995: 29, fig. 2.12) illustrate a very similar deformation in Lisan Marl at Nahal Parazim near Mount Sedom and state that the deformation was caused by an earthquake.

Within building structures at the site, the most plausible candidate for earthquake damage consists of tilted mud-brick wall lines (see the west balk in Field XIV, fig. 10.70, chapter 10). The tilting could have been caused by seismic activity but it is just as likely if not more so that damage occurred from the slow processes of sub-aerial weathering and erosion (A. M. Rosen 1986: 25–52; W. Ginell, personal communication, 1999). This profile contains a large amount of eroded, transported and redeposited cultural debris. For example, significant percentages of the profile are of mud-brick detritus and slope debris consisting of fragments of mud-brick and other construction material. Field XIV is located where the pre-cultural surface was sloping so that erosional processes would have been intensified

Dead Sea Levels

from Rast and Schaub (2003:33-35)

Fig. 2.8

Climatic fluctuation as suggested from three different data sets: Frumkin and others (1991), Horowitz (1992), and Neev and Emery (1995).

Rast and Schaub (2003)

The Dead Sea is a terminal lake in that there is no external drainage from the lake basin. All freshwater surface inflow from the Jordan River and the Wadis Yarmouk, Mujib and Hasa, as well as other smaller wadis draining into the lake basin, is mainly removed by evaporation. Since the Dead Sea is situated well below sea level (-410 m asl in 1999) and is surrounded by highlands in an arid climatic setting, temperatures are high and evaporation rates extreme. It is presently one of the most saline water bodies in the world (ca. more than 276 gm/liter or parts per thousand [‰] average salinity [Niemi, Ben-Avraham and Gat 1997: 3]). This is in contrast to normal ocean water which has a salinity of 35‰.

There is a direct relationship between climate, especially the amount of rainfall, and both Dead Sea level and salinity. Under more humid conditions, the elevation of the lake surface will increase while its salinity will decrease. This is well illustrated by Lake Lisan sediments where gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is found in the marl facies, but not halite (NaCl). Lake Lisan was much larger than the present Dead Sea, with lake levels reaching at least as high as -180 m asl (Neev and Emery 1967: 25; 1995: 58). Under less saline conditions, the mineral gypsum will crystallize from lake waters while halite (rock salt) will not. Rising or falling lake levels with associated high or low shoreline stands will cause significant changes not only in the Dead Sea itself, but also over the entire Dead Sea valley.

Shoreline Position. The Dead Sea water surface is the local base level for erosional processes in the Dead Sea valley. In other words, erosional down-cutting will not extend below the Dead Sea lake level. World ocean level is the base level for most erosion occurring on continents, but in the case of the Dead Sea valley, a feature some 400 m below sea level, the Dead Sea is the controlling local base level. With rising and higher lake levels, erosional rates in peripheral land areas will decrease, while with falling and lower Dead Sea levels, erosion and active down-cutting will occur. Down cutting within a tributary very often results in the migration of a knick point or erosional scarp that moves headward or up gradient along the course of the tributary.

Lake Stratification. Lake water can exist in one of two states. Monomictic or holomictic lakes are relatively uniform with no sharp changes in water temperature, density or salinity from water surface to lake bottom. The Dead Sea is presently in this condition. Meromictic lakes, in contrast, are stratified or layered with sharp changes or pycnoclines in temperature and/or density. Prior to 1979, the Dead Sea was meromictic with a shallow, less dense and less saline layer from the lake’s surface down to a depth of 40 meters (Neev and Emery 1995: 39–43). With the present day falling lake levels, an overturn and mixing of the two layers occurred in 1979, converting the Dead Sea to a monomictic condition, with mixing and loss of the less saline upper layer.

A rapid rise in Dead Sea level may well result in the development of a less saline upper level (Neev and Emery 1995: 39–43). With increasingly humid climatic conditions, the upper water mass should freshen and become a relatively stable feature unless the climate reverts to a more arid condition with falling lake levels. Another significant consequence of rising Dead Sea lake levels would be higher standing and fresher groundwater adjacent to the lake. At the present time, the only freshwater spring near Bâb edh-Dhrâ occurs slightly above the floor of Wadi Karak at the contact between the Dana Conglomerate and the overlying Lisan Formation gravels. With a more humid climate, higher Dead Sea levels and an increase in meteoric freshwater infiltration, freshwater springs would occur at higher elevations and, more importantly, become more abundant.

Salinity. Finally, there appears to be a direct relationship between lake level and degree of salinity. As noted above, with Lake Lisan levels up to at least -180 m asl, no halite was crystallizing from lake waters as it is in the Dead Sea today. In fact, the thin dark layers within the Lisan Marl sediments reflect deposition under the most humid conditions at that time. The dark laminae consist of clay minerals, quartz, diatom frustules and aragonite and calcite (CaCO3). Neev and Emery (1967: 25) also recognized a tufa or semi-consolidated calcium carbonate which they suggested may be organic deposits from calcareous algae. There are no evaporite minerals such as gypsum or halite being crystallized during these more humid times. This would suggest that Lake Lisan waters during these times were somewhat closer to normal ocean salinities.

In the opposite direction, with lake levels at or below -400 m asl, Neev and Emery (1995: 44–45) state that halite or rock salt will be crystallized. Halite crystallization is an ongoing process in the modern Dead Sea with water surface levels at -410 m asl (Gavrieli 1997: 161; Stiller and others 1997: 171).

When I joined the EDSP in 1977 and returned for a second field season in 1979, it became obvious that both Bâb edh-Dhrâ and Numeira had undergone severe erosion at some point during or after EBIII occupation. It was possible to determine that ca. 28 m of erosional down-cutting had occurred at Bâb edh-Dhrâ (Donahue 1985: 134) and about 50 m at Numeira (Donahue 1985: 138). With a difference of ca. 22 m in the amount of erosion between Bâb edh-Dhrâ and Numeira, the most likely mechanism for generating down-cutting seemed to be fault movement (Donahue 1985: 136–39).

The other mechanism that could account for rapid erosional down-cutting at Bâb edh-Dhrâ is a relatively fast drop in the level of the Dead Sea resulting in a decrease in base level for Wadi Kerak and upland areas adjacent to the wadi. The response to this change would be headward erosion, not only along the Wadi Kerak, but also along any tributaries emptying into the wadi.

Any information that can be gained on either fault movement or Dead Sea lake levels during Early Bronze time becomes critical in understanding deposition of sediments or the presence of stable conditions with possible soil development versus erosion and corresponding loss of the archaeological record.

Determination of the time and amount of fault movement that may have occurred in the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area during Early Bronze time is a daunting task. Neev and Emery (1967: 104), in their excellent work on the Dead Sea, state that vertical fault movement occurred at Mount Sedom and along northwest trending faults which now separate the Dead Sea into the North Basin, Lisan Peninsula and South Basin. Field evidence strongly suggests that this fault movement did not occur until after the time of Lake Lisan. In fact, this tectonic movement may well have caused the termination of Lake Lisan. As mentioned above, the 22-m difference in erosional downcutting between Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (28 m) and Numeira (50 m) also demonstrates a significant difference between the Lisan Peninsula and the Dead Sea’s South Basin. An exciting new research direction being taken by Niemi and associates in the northern Wadi 'Arabah will attempt to recognize fault movement within archaeological sites where such movement occurred during occupation (Niemi, personal communication, 2000).

The first attempts to document and describe lake-level changes within the Dead Sea basin were made by Klein (1961, 1982, 1986), Neev (1964), Neev and Emery (1967) and Neev and Hall (1977, 1979). Klein worked with historic records, documenting changes back to 2000 yrs. BP. In contrast, Neev, Neev and Emery, and Neev and Hall carried out extensive geologic and geophysical studies on the Dead Sea and its surroundings with a detailed examination of the last ca. 10,000 years of time.

In the last decade, as summarized by Niemi and Smith (1999), three individual and different data sets have been used to estimate changes in Dead Sea levels. Horowitz (1992), in an examination of pollen records for the Dead Sea region (fig. 2.8), suggests that a more humid climate prevailed in Chalcolithic and Early Bronze time with more arid conditions during EB III and especially EB IV time. Neev and Emery (1995: 44–72, fig. 3.2) show a high stand for the Dead Sea during EB II, III and IV time although they do not estimate the elevation of this high stand (fig. 2.8). They also have a high stand during Late Bronze time. Finally, Frumkin and others (1991) and Frumkin (1997: 340) in a fascinating study of the solution of salt caves in Mount Sedom, suggest a Dead Sea high stand in EB II and III time (fig. 2.8). In the earlier paper (Frumkin and others 1991), it is suggested that the Early Bronze high stand may have reached -280 m asl which would mean that the Wadi Kerak would become a water-filled embayment. The later paper (Frumkin 1997), on the other hand, does not attempt to give a definite elevation for the high stand. Finally, Bruins (1994), using Dead Sea level changes proposed by Frumkin and others (1991), presents a lake level curve with a high stand of -300 m asl during EB II time (fig. 2.14)

Both Neev and Emery (1995: 73–74) and Frumkin (1997: 242) cite our work on Bâb edh-Dhrâ' and Numeira (Donahue, 1985) to support their Early Bronze high stand. The depositional and erosional sequence that occurs at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see below) can best be explained by a rise and then fairly rapid drop in Dead Sea level. Unfortunately, none of the field data I have can be used to estimate accurately either the time or the elevation for the Early Bronze high stand. The small bluffs located immediately west of the site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' could conceivably be wave-cut features along the shore of a higher stand of the Dead Sea, but at the present time, with the field data available, this can only be a tenuous suggestion.

Depositional and Erosional Events Prior to Early Bronze Occupation

Pre-occupation Erosion

from Rast and Schaub (2003:41-42)

Prior to Early Bronze occupation of the Bâb edh-Dhrâ area, the waters of Lake Lisan retreated, probably caused by development of a more arid climate as well as fault movement as described above in the section on Dead Sea Levels. The result was a low stand for water in the Dead Sea Basin with resultant erosion (Neev and Emery 1995: 62, Fig. 3.6). The area around the site probably underwent a period of slow erosion from Pottery Neolithic through Chalcolithic to Early Bronze I time. The period of slow erosion produced gentle rounded slopes in the upper portion of the Wadi Kerak as well as the land surface that was going to be occupied by Early Bronze people. Figure 2.13 illustrates my estimate of both topography and pre-cultural geology when Early Bronze people began their occupation of the site.

Another important point must be made here. With the termination of Lake Lisan, the stream flowing from the Wadi Kerak eroded a gentle valley into the alluvial fan surface. Thus, in contrast to smooth or planar alluvial fan surfaces where a stream flowing across the fan will move laterally back and forth across the fan surface, both eroding and depositing sediments, the entrenchment of the Wadi Kerak stream stabilized its position in one place. This means that the Early Bronze people establishing the town site could construct buildings on a surface which was not subject to yearly flooding. The entrenched stream next to their town would contain all except the most severe flooding. They would still, however, be adjacent to a relatively reliable water supply.

Town Site Setting during Occupation (EB I, II, III, and IV)

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:43)

Field data at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' do not allow me to establish the time or the height of Dead Sea level rise. The Dead Sea lake level curve (fig. 2.14) constructed by Bruins (1994) calls for a maximum, perhaps as high as -300 m asl, during EB II with a progressive and rapid fall in level during EB III and IV time. It is useful to keep this curve in mind when discussing changes at Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Early Bronze time.

Early Bronze I [Strata V and IV]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:43-44)

Early Bronze I is divided into earlier EB IA and later EB IB. As discussed in chapter 4, an EB IA presence is represented by shaft tombs outside what became the EB III walled perimeter of the town site. There is no preservation of EB IA habitation. It seems quite likely that at this time, the Dead Sea level was at -400 m asl as a response to a very arid climate. Freshwater supplies were probably minimal at this time so that occupation consisted of temporary camps that are not well preserved. In EB IB time, year-round occupation began at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see chapter 6). This is evidenced by construction of mud-brick buildings at Fields XI, XII and XIII as well as mud-brick debris at Area F and Fields I and II. The mud-brick structures had largely collapsed by the end of EB IB time. In Area F, and Fields I, II, IV, XII, and XIII, up to 0.5 m of an ashy burn layer are also present.

Geologic information suggests that Dead Sea level was probably beginning to rise by EB IB time. The rise would be in response to improving climatic conditions and could also be one of the reasons for a change from temporary campsite occupation (EB IA) to a permanent village occupation (EB IB). Geologic data do not offer any explanation for the extensive burn layer found west of and in the western half of the town site.

Early Bronze II [Stratum III]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44)

Early Bronze II time represents a period of extensive mud-brick wall and building construction (see chapter 8). Fields XVII and XIX, located in the town interior, probably had the greatest amount of vertical mud-brick construction. This is in contrast to Fields XI and XII, located on topographically high areas. Although mud-brick construction existed at the latter two fields, it did not add significantly to elevation around the town site’s periphery. Finally, at Field XIV, where construction took place on a sloping surface, the profiles show relatively thick sequences of erosional debris intercalated with mud-brick construction. In Field XIV, a continual battle with erosion continued through EB II and EB III time.

The interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', with human construction of mud-brick walls on originally sloping surfaces, was an aggradational process with increasing elevation in the site’s interior. Human construction of vertical mud-brick walls resulted in either intentional fill or natural sedimentation between the mud-brick structures (Wain wright 1994: 199–200). The net result was to raise and flatten the interior of Bâb edh Dhrâ'.

Early Bronze II people probably became more advanced in terms of mud-brick and stone-wall construction than earlier peoples. However, the change to a more humid climate with rising Dead Sea levels and an increased availability of freshwater, both in surface runoff and increased spring activity, undoubtedly promoted the establishment of the EB II town site.

Early Bronze III [Stratum II]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44)

Early Bronze III occupation occurred over the entire area of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see chapter 10). As in EB II time, mud-brick construction continued with the greatest vertical extent being in Fields XIV, XVII, and XIX. Since these fields are located on sloping surfaces, they continued to be the areas most subject to erosion. In all three fields, mud-brick construction was oriented parallel to the natural slope in order to minimize downslope movement of sediment. Figure 2.15 shows an artist’s sketch of the area around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' after construction of the EB III town wall but before the extensive erosion that later affected the site.

Town Wall Line [ Strata III and II?]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:44-47)

Remnants of a continuous EB III stone wall are present on the east, south and west sides of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (fig. 2.11). At the northeast corner of the site the wall turns west but disappears before reaching Field XI. It has been removed by post-occupational erosion. At the northwest corner of the site the wall turns east and, again, has been removed by post-occupational erosion.

Composition of the rocks used in wall construction was determined at a number of points along its extant length. During this examination, a definite pattern of wall construction was discerned. A broad base, 3–4 m or greater in width and 1–1.5 m in height, was established for the wall by placing boulders taken from the surrounding terrace surface. Even today, the number of larger rock pieces shows a significant decrease as you approach the EB III town wall line. The wall width varies and increases to a maximum of 7 m along the south edge of the site. The subrounded to subangular boulders vary in size from 0.1 to 0.5 m in diameter, a size that allows them to be transported by one or two persons.

The base of the wall is exposed near the northeast corner of the site in a trench initially excavated by Lapp in 1965. Here, the base of the wall is placed on a flat surface that has been designated as EB II mud brick (fig. 2.16 A). Northward from Lapp’s trench, the wall is constructed on a gentle uphill slope, eroded into the Lisan Marl (Lacustrine Facies), up to the northeast corner of the site. The outer or east side of the wall exposes a series of broad steps cut into the Lisan Marl (fig. 2.16 B), a relatively soft and easily excavated material. A similar “step-like” construction can be seen on the northwest corner of the site where the wall goes uphill. At these two locations it is obvious that a flat surface was prepared before stonewall construction was started. It seems likely that a similar process was carried out for the entire wall. A flat surface would result in a more stable wall structure.

The lower 1–1.5 m of the stone wall is built with 0.1 to 0.5 m diameter, generally sub-rounded to sub-angular boulders. The boulders are composed of a number of different lithic types. Two sandstones are relatively common in the wall line. The most abundant is a tan to reddish, calcareous, weakly-lithified, fine-grained sandstone that probably consists of fragments of Kurnub Sandstone (see Natural Stratigraphy above) that have been transported some 7 to 10 km down the Wadi Kerak before reaching the terrace surface at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. A less common sandstone type in the wall line are fragments of Umm Ishrin Sandstone which is a red brown, medium to coarse grained well-lithified sandstone. With fluvial transport, it tends to break into smaller, angular fragments that are not as common as the Kurnub Sandstone on the alluvial fan surface or in the wall line. The Naur Limestone, a white, micritic to fine-grained lime stone that can be fossiliferous, is also a very common rock type used in wall construction. Less common in the wall is the Amman Silicified Limestone. Rounded basalt boulders are also less common in the wall.

The upper portion of the rock wall involves a distinct change in construction style. This is only preserved at two points along the present wall—immediately north of Lapp’s trench at the northeast corner of the site (fig. 2.16 A and B), and immediately east of Field VIII near the center of the southern wall segment. At these two points, tabular slabs of sand and gravel, weakly lithified with calcium carbonate, form an upper layer to the stone wall. These are Lisan Marl, alluvial fan facies sediments that are cemented with calcium carbonate. The blocks were probably quarried from the slopes leading down into the Wadi Kerak. The rectangular, tabular blocks, 40 to 60 cm in length and 20 to 40 cm in width, are placed to form a relatively smooth surface for the top of the stone wall base (fig. 2.16 A). The present condition of the top of the stone wall east of Field VIII shows that fine gravel and sand were used to fill the spaces between the slabs. The end result is a smooth pavement-like surface.

The complete stone wall base only has an average height of 1.5 m. Although no preserved segments remain, I am certain that a substantial mud-brick wall existed on top of the stone wall to complete a defensive structure. A continuous debris slope exists on both sides of the stone wall line. A trench placed into this slope revealed the presence of numerous weathered fragments, as well as whole mud bricks (fig. 2.17). The mud-brick debris forming this slope could only have come from the top of the stone wall line. Secondly, the stone wall line consists of straight line segments rather than curved (fig. 2.11). The stone wall was built with straight line segments so that straight line segments of mud brick could be built on top of them. Early Bronze mud brick wall lines are consistently straight rather than curved. It is easier to build mud brick wall in a straight line.

Early Bronze IV [Stratum I]

from Rast and Schaub (2003:47-48)

The preservation of Early Bronze IV occupation is quite limited (see chapter 12). Within the walled perimeter of the site, only Field XVI contains in situ structures The same is found at Field X, a short distance east-northeast of the town site, and in Field IX south of the town. A small number of EBIV sherds were found in Fields XIV, XVII and XIX in the interior of the site, but it is not clear whether these can be taken as indicating EBIV settlement within the former walled town interior. What is clear is the EBIV settlement in Field XVI on the north edge of the former town, and in Fields IX and X outside the former EBIII town.

Post-occupational Erosion

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:48-50)

Field examination of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' indicates that the site has been heavily eroded with the loss of a large amount of building structure and cultural material, especially along its northern edge and in the area of the western and eastern tributaries located within the site (fig. 2.18). The critical questions are when and where this erosion occurred at the town site. Perhaps less importantly is how long and how persistently erosional conditions have existed since Early to Middle Bronze time.

Prior to and during Early Bronze occupation, the Wadi Kerak was shallower by ca. 28 m. This can be documented at two points: with a cross section of the wadi itself, located 500 m east of the town site, and across the western tributary that drains a large portion of the interior of the site along two east–west trending branches (fig. 2.18). The western tributary as well as a much smaller eastern tributary drain into the Wadi Kerak.

A cross section of the Wadi Kerak (fig. 2.19) shows a gentle bowl shape down to an elevation of ca. -276 m asl and then vertical walls to ca. -304 m asl, the approximate elevation of the present wadi floor.

A similar relationship occurs at the interior western tributary where it drains into the Wadi Kerak. The tributary has a gentle bowl-shaped cross-section down to an elevation of ca. -265 m asl while below that elevation the tributary is a narrow, deep and rapidly eroded valley with nearly vertical walls (fig. 2.11). Since the tributary is at the same grade as the Wadi Kerak, it demonstrates the same geometry as the Wadi Kerak.

Summarizing the above relationships, we have a slow, long-continued erosion producing the gentle upper slopes of the Wadi Kerak and its tributary. During Early Bronze time, we also have the construction of both stone and mud-brick vertical walls within the area of the town site. The lower vertical valley walls for the Wadi Kerak and its western tributary represent a change to rapid erosional downcutting. The western tributary is now eroding into EB II, III and IV structures. We do have some evidence for erosion of some structures, at least in Field XIV, during EB III time. The Dead Sea level curve (fig. 2.14) constructed by Bruins (1994) appears to fit our field data reasonably well. Optimum climatic conditions would exist during EB II time with a falling Dead Sea level and increasing erosion during EB III and especially EB IV time. Figure 2.18 is an artist’s sketch of the town site after erosion of the western and eastern tributaries within the town site. The sketch is based on present topographic conditions and, at this point, I am not prepared to describe or quantify erosional rates. Suffice it to say that erosion at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is an active, ongoing process that was initiated some 3,000 to 4,000 years ago

Post-occupational Facies

Boulder Fields

from Rast and Schaub (2003:50-52)

There are numerous large cobbles to small boulders distributed either as lines up to 10 m long and 2 to 3 m wide or as patches up to 100 m long and 20 to 30 m wide (fig. 2.20). At first glance, these appear to be natural accumulations of coarse rock fragments on the land surface within the boundaries of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', somewhat similar to those seen on the alluvial fan surface peripheral to the site. Once the preoccupational natural topography and stratigraphy (fig. 2.13) within the town site are examined, however, it becomes obvious that there is no natural source for coarse rock fragments in the area of the site. The only two natural units cropping out within the town site consist of the upper portion of the Lisan Marl Alluvial Fan Facies (fig. 2.12C) at elevations below -251 m asl or the Lisan Marl Lacustrine Facies, consisting predominantly of clay to silt-sized sediments, at elevations above -251 m asl. It should be noted that the elevations along Wadi Kerak in figure 2.13 are estimated elevations before the 28 m downcutting that occurred after EB III and IV time. The areas with boulder and cobble accumulations, all above -251 m asl, represent material carried by Early Bronze people into the site for stone-wall and building construction.

Field examination reveals several types of accumulations. The boulder concentration around and downslope from Fields XI, XII, XIV and XV represents stone foundations and buildings that have been disrupted and transported downslope. In addition, the cobble and boulder patches on the hill slopes east of Field XII, south and west of Field XV and north and west of Field XIV, probably represent disrupted walls and buildings; erosion and transport have been so extensive in these cases that original wall lines are no longer detectable.

The extensive boulder field that occurs on the northwestern portion of the site, just east and northeast of Fields IV and XIII, probably represents boulders transported into the site during erosion of the former town wall, which had extended along the north edge of the site. The northeast termination of the wall is located just north of Field XI, where an extensive boulder field does not occur. Boulders from the north east portion of the former wall have been entirely removed by extensive erosion, with transport of wall material such as mud brick and boulders into the Wadi Kerak. This was a slow process, which has been ongoing to the present time, rather than a collapse caused by some catastrophic event. The dashed line in figure 2.19 shows the hypothetical position of the northern town wall.

Finally, along the east-northeast trending ridge that has Field XV at its eastern end, a number of small boulder fields have a distinct north–south lineation. Field examination shows them to be obvious stone wall foundations, although excavation in Field XV was sterile.

The boulder concentrations, especially in the eastern half of the site, must represent stone foundations and buildings that have been disrupted and transported downslope. Erosional transport has been so extensive that, in many cases, the original wall line is no longer present. In the northern portion of the site, erosion has been so extensive and deep along the western and eastern tributaries that nothing is preserved. The only exception is Field XVI

Mud-brick Detritus

from Rast and Schaub (2003:52-53)

Mud-brick detritus results from the weathering and disaggradation of mud-brick walls. This is a heterogeneous, generally non-stratified white- to cream-colored deposit consisting largely of mud-brick fragments floating in a fine-grained matrix. The amount of mud-brick fragments present depends on the age and degree of weathering for the deposit. If any secondary transport has occurred, after collapse of a mud-brick wall, further disintegration and perhaps complete disappearance of mud-brick fragments can occur. In these cases the deposit may be difficult to recognize as mud-brick detritus.

Mud-brick detritus commonly occurs in two settings. Within Bâb edh-Dhrâ', where mud-brick walls have weathered and disintegrated, mud-brick detritus can be found on one or both sides of remaining intact mud-brick walls. If the mud brick is entirely decomposed, then detritus can be found by itself. Where mud-brick walls are still intact, detritus may be found on only one side of the intact mud brick. The wall has served as a dam with buildup of detritus on only one side of the wall. The upper surface of a detrital zone typically slopes away from the originating mud brick, whereas its lower boundary can be horizontal if mud-brick collapse occurred on a living surface. Mud-brick detritus is characterized by a lack of stone, ash layers or pottery fragments, and generally consists exclusively of mud-brick fragments and disaggregated mud-brick matrix. If disaggradation has gone to completion, no fragments will be recognizable and the mud-brick collapse may be difficult to recognize. This type of deposit occurs to a greater or lesser extent in all interior fields. It is especially pronounced at Field XIV which was constructed on a slope, making erosion and weather ing of mud-brick structures more prominent.

Where excavation has been done adjacent to the EB III stone wall around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (Fields I, II, IV, VIII and XIII), a distinctive degradational facies can be seen. This consists of whole and fragmented mud bricks contained within a fine grained matrix that represents degraded mud-brick wall. Over most of the area of the extant stone wall, and especially on the outer side, a gentle slope exists; excavation into this slope reveals the existence of a degraded mud-brick facies (fig. 2.16). As discussed above (see Town Wall Line) the stone wall around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' was undoubtedly capped by mud brick to make a higher protective structure. Since abandonment of the site, erosion by intermittent rain storms and, perhaps, human destruction have resulted in removal of the mud brick from the stone wall and its redeposition as mud-brick detritus, especially on the outside of the stone wall. Since working at Bâb edh-Dhrâ', I have had the opportunity of visiting coastal Peru, where a similar type of construction was used by pre-Inca cultures (Moche and Chemu). In Peru, however, a mud-brick wall is still often in position on a stone foundation. Where the mud-brick wall is eroded, a mud-brick detrital slope is often present along the edge of the stone wall foundation.

Sheetwash

from Rast and Schaub (2003:53)

These are fine- to coarse-grained, poorly sorted and crudely stratified deposits that typically contain pottery sherds, cobbles and mud-brick fragments. They are surface deposits on top of any field situated on a slope. The layering is typically at an angle rather than horizontal with the upslope, being in the direction of the source for the sheetwash sediment. Sheetwash sediments are generated by downslope movement of sediments over degraded mud-brick building structures during intermittent rain storms. The sediments cap the intermediate and lower slopes in the interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' and result in a relatively smooth slope that covers in situ building structures at the site (fig. 2.21). The deposits are typically 10 to 100 cm thick and must be removed to begin excavation of in situ cultural material. They are, of course, absent on hilltops and tend to increase in thickness downslope except where vertical slopes exist such as in the lower parts of the western tributary.

Present Distribution of Cultural Material at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'

from Rast and Schaub (2003:53-54)

This section is an attempt to predict distribution of unexcavated in situ cultural material at Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. This should assist in planning the location of potential fields in future excavations. The prediction is based on field observations made during the 1977, 1979 and 1981 field seasons and the insight gained of the pre-cultural stratigraphy and topography as well as nature and distribution of in situ cultural material exposed by excavation of the present fields.

There are several key areas where unexcavated material still remains at Bâb edh Dhrâ' (fig. 2.21). As noted above, the northern edge of the site has suffered extensive erosion. The area around Field XI contains a thin veneer of cultural material. Moving westward, the eastern tributary is post-occupational in nature and its head is presently cutting into the north edge of the site; the erosion caused by the tributary has removed all cultural material from this small area (fig. 2.21). The ridge terminated by Field XVI at its western end contains cultural material in the vicinity of Field XVI. The western tributary has eroded and removed an extensive amount of cultural mate rial in the northwest portion of the site. The lower slopes of the western tributary are non-cultural below elevations of -265 m asl where it enters the Wadi Kerak. The upper reaches of the tributary, near Fields XI and XIV, contain a thick wash of transported cultural debris and non-cultural sediment.

Along the central and southern portions of Bâb edh-Dhrâ', the higher elevations may have thin cultural veneers (Field XII). These areas have been subject to continued erosion, both during and after Early Bronze occupation. The most likely areas for thicker in situ cultural deposits are along the slopes leading down to the western tributary and especially at lower elevations near the tributary itself. The entire slope area is covered by sheetwash deposits, but excavation on both the north and south slopes during the 1979 and 1981 seasons revealed the presence of significant in situ cultural material (Fields XVII and XIX, as well as other areas).

Finally, the depositional flats inside the east and west walls offer an excellent potential for cultural sequences. Excavation of Field IV showed the presence of 3.5 m of post-occupational sediment in the center of the western depositional flat before reaching occupational material. The eastern depositional flat is presently unexcavated.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:54-55)

Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is situated on the surface of an alluvial fan terrace located on the Lisan Peninsula just east of the present Dead Sea shoreline. The Early Bronze site was built adjacent to an entrenched or deepened valley of the Wadi Kerak. The entrenchment reduced the likelihood of flooding of the town site since most high water would be contained in the entrenched valley.

The Early Bronze site is constructed from easily obtained local resources. Stone walls (i.e., wall foundations of which the upper parts are mud brick, such as the town wall) are built from limestone, dolomite, sandstone and basalt boulders and cobbles present on the terrace surface. Mud brick is probably made from abundant Lisan Marl lacustrine deposits at or immediately adjacent to the site. Pottery is probably made from clay deposits also available from Lisan Marl lacustrine deposits. No local sources for copper or tin, used in the manufacture of bronze, were found in the eastern Dead Sea region. Early Bronze copper works are present however, in the Wadi Araba, south of the southeast Dead Sea Plain.

Occupation during EB I, II, III and IV time coincides with development of a progressively more humid climate. As a response to increased rainfall, Dead Sea levels may have risen as much as ca. 60 to 100 meters. Abundance of freshwater springs probably also increased during this time. It is not possible to determine when a climatic optimum was reached, although it seems likely it was during EB II or III time.

The Dead Sea valley and its surroundings is a region with high earthquake activity. Within the exposures of the present archaeological excavations at Bâb edh Dhrâ', however, there is no good evidence to support the idea that any severe earthquake damage affected the town site.

A climatic reversal with greatly increased aridity occurred either during or shortly after EB IV time, resulting in a rapid fall in Dead Sea level. The drop in lake level resulted in erosional downcutting both in the Wadi Kerak valley and in the east ern and especially the western tributary within the town site. At this point, erosion began to remove the northwestern portion of the interior of Bâb edh-Dhrâ'. Climatic deterioration resulted in the abandonment of the town site before Middle Bronze time.

Erosion has probably removed most of the upper levels of EB III building structures from the interior of the site. It may also have removed EB IV structures although, as noted above, the use of the town area by the EB IV people is unclear apart from the remains in Field XVI. Complete loss of Early Bronze material has occurred at the head of the eastern tributary and along the lower slopes of the western tributary where it drains into the Wadi Kerak.

Chapter 6 - The Stratum IV Village

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102)

In contrast to the temporary settlers of Stratum V, the occupants of Stratum IV put in place a new pattern of year-round settlement. The Stratum IV remains exhibit many of the characteristics usually associated with village life—scattered as well as clustered mud-brick dwellings, absence of a defensive system, and the production of a variety of foods as attested by the seeds and plant remains in the Stratum IV dwellings. The tombs from EB IB have also been noted as bearing the marks of permanent settlers, specifically with the new practice of primary burial in contrast to the preceding secondary burials of the Stratum V occupants (Schaub and Rast 1989: 204).

The following areas or fields provided the main data for Stratum IV.

Area F4 contained vestiges of demolished brick structures and a thick ashy burn layer.
In Field XII there were scanty mud-brick wall remains of various structures also with burn across the area.
Stratum IV evidence in the form of occupational layers or fragmentary architecture was also present in the lowest level of Fields I, II, IV, XI, XIII and XIV.

In addition, Stratum IV dwellings were found at some distance from the town site, in particular in Area J, so village activity covered an area not only within the later town site but also in areas outside the town site.

Stratum IV in Area F

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102)

Area F is located on a gentle slope directly west of the town site (fig. 1.4). The area is part of the marl and gravel hillocks on which the walled town was later built, except that Area F is somewhat lower in elevation than the town site (see fig. 1.3). As discussed in the previous chapter, the earliest remains here were a number of EB IA shaft tombs, which led at first to the supposition that the area was a burial ground parallel to that of Cemetery A. As clearance proceeded, however, EB IB pottery began to appear, and this was interpreted as a subsequent reuse of the shaft tombs (Rast and Schaub 1978: 5). Work in subsequent seasons showed that no such reuse had taken place but rather that an EB IB settlement had occurred above the tombs. Area F 4 contained the best preserved and most complete evidence for the stratigraphy, while Areas F 2 and F 3 were badly disturbed by the tomb robbing. The discussion here concentrates on Area F 4

Area F4

from Rast and Schaub (2003:102-107)

Apart from the shaft tombs that had been cut into its Lisan soils, the landscape of Area F was virtually free of disturbance when the Stratum IV settlers constructed their mud-brick buildings in this area. Whether the Stratum IV settlers knew of the earlier shaft tombs in the area is a problem taken up below. As they began to settle, the Stratum IV occupants leveled the marl surface in places to make it more suitable for occupation, and they also shaved down a part of the marl slope above the tombs on the south side of Area F 4 (note the vertical cutting above the tombs in fig. 4.1). Later the townsfolk of Stratum II built several structures here, as evidenced by Wall 63 of Stratum II (fig. 6.1).

The most notable feature discovered in Area F 4 was a 25 cm layer of ash that covered most of the southern part of the area (Locus 16 in fig. 6.1). Other locus numbers were assigned to this same feature (Loci 4, 5, 16–20, 43–45, 48–53, 57, 68–69, 79, 81 84, 86, 89–90, 92, 94, and 95). All of these are combined here as an extensive burn across Area F 4 (table 6.1). The ashy soil was also found under the marl ledges of the earlier Tombs F 4A, B, and C, which had collapsed by the time of the burning, and the burn trickled down among the human bones and objects of the earlier tombs.

No intact buildings were found in Area F 4, but that there were Stratum IV structures here was clear from the mud bricks strewn within the ashy debris. Mud-brick Wall 64 may originally have dated to Stratum IV, although Locus 8 abutting it contained mixed pottery. Either at the time when the burning took place or somewhat later, the Stratum IV walls fell apart or were dismantled, with the bricks settling into the soft ash. The mud bricks in these ash layers were concentrated in front of and even unexplainably under the ledges of the earlier shaft tombs, such as in the ashy debris of Locus 90 in Tomb F 4C (fig. 6.2). Displaced mud bricks were also in the ashy debris above Tomb F 4A, and various examples were placed to the side during excavation (see on the surface above the tombs in fig. 4.1). The bricks were of small to medium size, measuring on average 14 x 20 x 6 cm. Two blocking stones originally from Tomb C were also found in the ashy debris.

Whether the ashy debris in Area F 4 belonged to occupational surfaces or whether it came from destruction of the Stratum IV buildings is a problem. Two features point to the latter. First, the thickness of the ash and pell-mell scatter of mud bricks seemed to indicate destruction of the structures. Second, examination of ash layer samples showed that very few plant remains were present (see under Loci 57, 58, 60, 78–79, 81, 83, 86, 91, 102), whereas many small and larger pieces of charcoal were in these loci. The ashy debris in Area F 4 is paralleled in Area J 2 and Field XII, and the the burning of Charnel House G 1 may be related to the same event that produced it (Rast and Schaub 1981: 62–65).

Were the EB IB occupants aware of the shaft tombs below the surfaces on which they founded their structures? The condition of these earlier tombs, all of which apparently had collapsed by the time the Stratum IV settlers came to this area, may offer a solution to that problem. Of the three tombs in Area F 4, only Tomb F 4A contained a fairly complete inventory of tomb goods such as pottery. Although both the tomb goods and burials in Tomb F 4A were badly damaged, the number of burials rep resented by the skeletal remains (6 adults) was in the average range or even higher for the number of people buried in tombs of the EB IA phase. On the other hand, the number of pottery vessels in Tomb F 4A (9 pieces identified) was far below the average found in the typical EB IA tomb, especially one having as many as six burials. Thus, although the burials were not greatly disturbed, the small amount of pottery in Tomb F 4A suggests that vessels had been taken from the tomb. None of the tombs in Area F 4 had been touched by the recent tomb robbing, so the disturbances must date back to antiquity.

Tomb F 4B had a much smaller amount of pottery than usual (only 2 pieces were identified), and human skeletal material was virtually nonexistent, suggesting that the tomb had been mostly cleared out. Tomb F 4C was the most empty of all. No human skeletal remains or pottery was identified, but the construction was clearly an other shaft tomb chamber.

Tombs F 4B and C consequently point to intrusion by the Stratum IV settlers. If this were the case, it suggests that these settlers did not have compunctions about moving previously interred human remains. It should be recalled, however, that the overall results of the cemetery excavations of both Lapp and the EDSP have shown practically no disturbance by the Stratum IV settlers of previous EB IA tombs. The EDSP found only one example of an EB IA shaft tomb being reused in Stratum IV times (Tomb A 100N), and notably in this case it seems the Stratum IV occupants moved the earlier burials of Tomb A 100N into the adjacent east chamber (Rast and Schaub 1981: 58–61). Judging also from the continuity in cultural material between EB IA and EB IB, as has been indicated in the carryover of Plain Ware vessels of EB IA to the Line-Group Painted wares of EB IB (Schaub and Rast 1989: 271), it seems that the populations of the two phases were related. Consequently it would not be expected that the disturbance of earlier tombs by the later occupants would be the normal practice.

Field XII

from Rast and Schaub (2003:109, 115-116)

Field XII is located at the southwest end of the interior of the walled town site. Its elevation of -240 m makes it the second highest area of the town site, with only Field XI at -235 m being at a higher elevation. A feature of Field XII was the thick layer of natural, water-laid gravel and sand across the area (fig. 2.13). The same type of gravel was traced in the nearby Field XVIII, which did not produce any cultural remains. As will be seen, the Stratum IV and later builders had to contend with this gravel in order to make the area usable for construction.

Field XII was selected for excavation because of its high location, and also because several stone lines were visible on the surface. When these stone lines were first excavated, their function was difficult to ascertain, and they were interpreted as parts of a platform (Rast and Schaub 1978: 15–16). Further excavation produced the remains of two superimposed rectilinear buildings, apparently sanctuaries belonging to Strata III and II (chapters 8, 10). Below the phases represented by these structures were the remains of mud-brick structures from Stratum IV.

Eleven 5 x 5 m squares (XII.1–11) were plotted in Field XII. Work was carried out in ten of these, while XII.3 was not excavated. Stratum IV remains were found in all but two of the squares excavated in Field XII. The two features that characterized the Stratum IV settlement in Field XII were mud-brick walls representing remains of structures, and thick ashy layers abutting these walls (table 6.3). As can be seen in figure 6.5, the orientation of the Stratum IV structures was different from the later Stratum III and II sanctuaries which are lightly sketched in to show the difference in layout. Walls 78/51 in XII.5 and XII.4, Wall 35 in XII.4, and Wall 8 in XII.8 belonged to mud-brick dwellings below the later sanctuaries (see Section A–Au in fig. 10.58). At the corner of Wall 78/51 and Wall 35 in XII.4 was a hearth (Locus 50), made of medium to large, smooth stones formed in a circle (fig. 6.6). The hearth rested on the natural gravel, and was covered by the charcoal debris of Locus 39. From this well stratified evidence it can be concluded that this type of cooking facility was in use already in the early part of the Early Bronze Age. A similar cooking hearth dating to Stratum II was found in a building in Field XIV.6 where it was made of smooth wadi stones (Locus 43). The same type was employed at Numeira during EB III (to be published in the Numeira volume).

The corner of Wall 12 in XII.4 and Wall 33 in XII.1 belonged to another Stratum IV mud-brick building below and outside the later sanctuaries. Wall 33 was poorly preserved with only a bare line of desiccated bricks remaining. Another corner of a building was uncovered where Wall 29 in XII.9 intersected with Wall 22 in XII.10. A posthole (Locus 35) was traced at this corner (fig. 6.7), where a wooden beam apparently had been placed.

Wall 7 in XII.7 and Wall 4 in XII.11 formed the corner of a further Stratum IV structure. Wall 7 was partly uncovered during the 1977 season (Rast and Schaub 1981: 31), and excavation during a later season showed that these two walls were part of a common structure. The mass of fallen mud brick in Locus 25 (fig. 6.8) belonged to the collapsed walls of this building, while the pottery from the debris in Loci 22 and 25 had clear Stratum IV types (see under Locus 22 in figs. 7.1–3 of chapter 7). Figure 6.8 shows how the gravel on the south side of Field XII rises almost to surface level, with only the later Stratum II mud-brick pavement (see chapter 10) being placed over it. On the north the gravel was cut and Walls 7 in XII.7 and 4 in XII.11 were placed back against it (cf. Locus 10 in fig. 6.8). The ten courses of Wall 4 in XII.11 reached to nearly a full meter below the present surface. By contrast, Wall 7 was placed on the natural gravel at a much higher level, but again on the west side of Wall 7 the gravel had been cut and was retained by the stones of Locus 30 (fig. 6.5). This method of cut ting into the natural gravel or soils in order to position the walls of buildings against them was a technique observed elsewhere in the town site as well as the cemetery (Schaub and Rast 1989: 340). Such construction was effective because it prevented erosion while also strengthening the buildings.

Most buildings in Field XII had a thick ashy deposit associated with them. Loci 68 and 69 in XII.5 abutting Wall 78 was an ashy deposit of approximately 50 cm depth. The same ashy deposit was found in Locus 21 of XII. 2, and Loci 39 and 56 of XII.4, as well as in the darkened material below the steps and stone pedestal (Locus 62) of the Stratum III sanctuary (for most of these loci, see fig. 8.2). It was also found in Loci 23, 57, and 58 in XII.7, Locus 3 in XII.9, Locus 11 in XII.10, and Locus 5 in XII.11 (fig. 6.8)

Thus the ashy level belonging to Stratum IV was widespread in Field XII as in Areas F and J, and it will be found again in Fields IV and XIII discussed below. This ashy material was usually a deposit on the natural sterile layers of the site, whether marl in Area F 4 or gravel in Field XII. Only in the case of the bricky surface of Locus 22 in XII.7 was a prepared floor found in these buildings. Locus 22 was a paved surface with many sherds lying on it, whereas the ashy debris of Locus 23 embedded in the bricky debris of Locus 25 (= Locus 16) lay over this surface and its pottery sherds. Since the Stratum IV floors belonged to the first full-time settlement, they also were commonly founded on the natural surface.

In summary, Field XII contained evidence of a complex of Stratum IV mud-brick structures built on or into the sterile gravels of the area. Bricks were commonly rectangular, measuring approximately 40 x 25 x 9 cm, somewhat smaller than the rectangular bricks used in the Stratum III and II structures. The Stratum IV evidence in Field XII and the other areas shows that rectangular bricks were used during the EB IB phase as pointed out in regard to the Proto Urban B structures at Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1982: 125). The Field XII mud-brick buildings were all oriented on a northwest–southeast or northeast–southwest axis, and thus differed from the axis of the sanctuary complexes that followed them. The orientation of the Stratum IV structures suggests a degree of planning of the village site. It also indicates that the area in Stratum IV was not considered a sacred area, but was apparently a group of dwellings sharing common walls. The substantial number of animal bones suggested domestic use, as did also the hearth in Field XII.4. The pottery from various Stratum IV loci of Field XII also suggests vessels for household use (chapter 7)

Field IV

from Rast and Schaub (2003:116)

Field IV is located inside town Wall A, the Stratum II defensive system, on the west side of the town. This field was first opened in 1965 under Lapp, when a narrow trench was cut on the east side of town Wall A (see chapter 8). The EDSP plotted five new squares (Field IV.1, 3–6). The largest amount of Stratum IV material was uncovered in Locus 5A of Field IV.5 where a 1 x 2 m trench was cut in the southeast corner of the square and taken to virgin soil (Locus 9). Locus 5A was a thick layer of ash rest ing on the natural gray sand of Locus 9. Above this locus were 4 m of silted mud-brick debris and collapsed stone of town Wall A (Loci 3, 4, 5, 6 in fig. 6.9). Although no building remains were discovered in Locus 5A, the ashy material mixed with silted mud-brick debris could have come from desiccated structures of Stratum IV.

The other squares opened in Field IV (IV.1, 3, 4, and 6) produced only occasional Stratum IV sherds and most of these were from mixed contexts. No clear stratified evidence or architectural features of this phase were uncovered at these levels of the squares. It is possible that this earliest evidence had been disturbed or removed when the Stratum II wall construction took place.

Field XIII

from Rast and Schaub (2003:116-117)

Field XIII (XIII.1, 2, 2A) was located on the opposite side of town Wall A from Field IV. Although the trench in Field XIII was on a slightly different axis than the one in Field IV, it was possible to carry an excavated section through both fields (fig. 10.17). The Stratum IV evidence in Field XIII matched the lowest levels of Field IV.5 in containing evidence from Stratum IV. Burning was again attested (Loci 74, 93 95, 111, 112), and several partial remains of mud-brick walls were distinguished (table 6.4). A section of mud-brick Wall 75 was uncovered in the lowest level of Field XIII.2A (fig. 6.10). This wall was oriented approximately east–west, while Wall 38 above it followed close to the same wall line. It was not clear whether Wall 38 was a rebuild during Stratum IV or whether it was first built in the following Stratum III. Only a small part of Walls 75 and 38 were exposed, since they continued below Stratum II town Wall A and could not be excavated to make connections with other Stratum IV walls to the east. The poorly preserved remains of Walls 16 and 18 in Field XIII.1 probably belonged to Stratum IV, and they may have comprised the corner of a Stratum IV building west of the western town wall. The results in Area F and Field XIII showed that the Stratum IV village not only occupied much of the town site but also spread across the marl area west of the latter.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:125-126)

The Stratum IV data show that the first permanent settlement was an open village dating to EB IB. Judging from the evidence of the occupation and construction in Area F and Fields IV, XII, and XIII at the west end of the site, in XIV in the center, and Fields I, II and XI at the far eastern end, as well as Area J at some distance to the southwest, the EB IB village was quite large, encompassing an open area actually larger than the later walled town of Stratum II. The dwellings of Stratum IV were constructed of bricks made from marly clays at or near the site. The general absence of stone foundations, with the exception of the structures in Area J 2 that had stone foundations, indicated that erosion of the bases of mud-brick walls was not considered a serious problem. Most of the mud-brick structures had well-preserved foundations of brick, and this was true for the circular Charnel Housess of this phase as well. In contrast to the circular charnel houses of the same phase, the domestic structures were rectangular. No specialized buildings were discovered. Settlement remains on the whole pointed to a non-complex society living in dwellings adjacent to one another. Barley was the main crop grown and harvested, and wheat also began to be cultivated in this phase (chapter 14; Harlan 1981: 159). In addition to sheep and goats for dairy and meat products, other large mammals such as donkeys were used for labor and transport (Finnegan 1978: 53)

Comparison with Other Sites

from Rast and Schaub (2003:126-129)

The Stratum IV village at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' is paralleled by EB I village sites in other parts of the country. 'En Shadud in Galilee was found to have two strata, both dating to EB I, and both interpreted as remnants of farming communities (Braun and Gibson 1984: 31, 36–37). A rectilinear building with pillar support bases and gray burnished ware was reported (Braun 1985: 68–69, fig. 28B). Stratum II curvilinear buildings at Yiftahªel were dated to EB I, and based on their pottery probably should be placed very early in EB IA (Braun 1984: 193). At Tel Kinrot, an EB I house containing mostly band-slip or grain-wash ware was excavated (Yakar 1982: 256), while at Meser a settlement was thought to have existed in association with gray-burnished pottery but with no line-group painted vessels (Dothan 1957: 221). Also in the north at Kabri were oval or partly oval buildings dated by the excavators to EB IA, and a burial with associated gray-burnished sherds of a bowl, along with holemouth jar decorated with band-slip (Scheftelowitz 1992: 1, fig. 11:1–14). Farther south, near Tel Aviv, an EB I settlement at Tel Dalit was described as an open village (Gophna 1981: 23; Gophna 1996).

Further evidence of EB I villages has been documented in the hill country, along the coast, and in the Negev. ºAi has long been known for its EB IB tombs (Callaway 1964), and excavations in the settlement showed an unfortified village in Phases I and II (Callaway 1972: 69–71). An imposing EB I open settlement, perhaps having a ceremonial purpose, was excavated at Hartuv near Beth Shemesh (Mazar and Miro schedji 1986: 109), while below the south slope of the EB III city at Tel Halif an extensive EB I village occupation following upon the Late Chalcolithic period has appeared (Seger and others 1990: 9). At Gezer the EB IB phase was well represented in an unusual tomb (Callaway 1962), although settlement remains of this period were poorly represented. Whereas the Stratum IV remains at Arad were mostly natural caves that were walled up and provided with floors (Amiran 1978: 17–19), these data also fit the picture of emerging village life in EB I.

A village culture during EB I is also represented at various sites in Jordan. The caves at 'Arqub edh-Dhahr adjacent to the Jordan valley were associated with a nearby settlement of 3 to 4 dunams, referred to as a village (Parr 1956: 61). At Tell Um Hammad esh-Sharqi in the Jordan valley mud-brick walls, either straight or curved and sometimes on stone foundations, were found in the open settlement of Stage 2 (Helms 1987b: 54). Tell Iktanu produced mud-brick walls of domestic structures along with EB IB pottery, including line-group painted wares, so that it can be assumed there was a small EB IB village also at this site (Prag 1989: 39–40, fig. 5). The first occupation at Khirbet Iskander was also an open village attributed to EB IB (Richard 1990: 35).

Because all the aforementioned sites have been excavated to one degree or the other, they represent the best examples of changes occurring during EB IB. Survey has recorded many more examples that point to a similar development (Joffe 1993: 40, map). Thus it appears that during EB I, particularly in EB IB, Palestine was experiencing an emergence of new village life on a grand scale. This new development in village establishment differed in significant ways, however, from that of the preceding Late Chalcolithic, which also had open villages, some of them like Ghassul being impressive in size and function. The pattern of village life during EB IB points to a greater intensity in the development of resources that were locally available. In contrast also to the evidence from Late Chalcolithic, where many sites were little more than sherd scatters or evidence of temporary sojourns, during EB IB a greater number of sites were permanently settled. Contacts with Egypt are attested by clearly identifiable EB IB Palestinian forms found there, although the level of trade argued for the coastal area in this phase (Gophna and Liphschitz 1996) may not have occurred in hinterland sites such as Bâb edh-Dhrâ' or es-Safi, for that matter.

Apparently this new village development of EB I appeared earlier in some parts of the country than others, but more precisely where the first inclinations occurred is not yet clear. It might be concluded that the people associated with the line-group painted wares were involved in some of the earliest villages of the EB IB phase, which would point to the southern regions of the country such as the lower Jordan valley or even around Bâb edh-Dhrâ' as the area where this shift first occurred (Schaub 1982). But it is also possible that those groups who produced predominantly red-slipped wares had begun the village expansion somewhat earlier and in the northern parts of the country

The Burning of EB IB Villages

from Rast and Schaub (2003:129-130)

The extensive burning of the Stratum IV buildings at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' has to be dealt with in explaining this phase. It was seen that in most of the areas where Stratum IV structures were found, the remains of these structures were accompanied by a thick layer of dark ash. As discussed above, the burned debris in the Stratum IV structures appears not to have been occupational, since plant remains were absent in the examination of many samples taken from the ash. Nor is it likely that such diverse areas of the site would have been used for burning garbage, which should have produced plant remains if this had been the case. The clean loci of burned debris and charcoal from these buildings thus point to some sort of disturbance. The upper layers of EB IB Charnel Houses G 1 are also interesting to consider in this regard, since these layers were filled with burned material. That this burning was due to cremation or even a different funerary practice seems questionable, given the fact that no other EB IB tombs had such evidence (Schaub and Rast 1984: 325–26). Thus it seems plausible that this tomb may have suffered from the same disturbance as that experienced by the Stratum IV village.

A similar kind of evidence may have been present at Jericho in Phase L in Squares III and IV. Phase L was described by Hennessy as “an enormous midden deposit,” and later by Kenyon as “a rubbish dump,” although no flotation evidence was presented to support this interpretation (Hennessy 1967: 10; Kenyon 1981: 325). According to the excavators no buildings were in use during this phase, but the following should be noted. An eroded wall stump ZN belonging to Phase L suggests that buildings had been present, although they were found in extremely poor condition, much like at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in Stratum IV. In addition, this small amount of wall had ashy layers on both sides (Kenyon 1981: 321, see Section C–D of Squares E III–IV), regarding which Kenyon drew the inference that these ashy layers belonged to a midden fill of Phase L (Kenyon 1981: 324). This conclusion could be questioned on the grounds that the ashy layers abutted the wall stump on both sides, while it would seem that a midden would more likely be outside a wall unless it had been deposited after the wall had gone out of use, which does not seem to have been the case here. In the second place, it would again be expected that plant remains would have come from the supposed midden none of which was recorded for this locus, although it is possible no efforts were made to retrieve plant information by sieving or flotation.

Recent excavations at Tel Yaqush have uncovered in many parts of the site a thick, ashy destruction dating to the end of the EB I village (Esse 1990: 223). Not far from Tel Yaqush on the west side of the Jordan River, Tel Kitan similarly contained the remains of an EB IB village that was completely destroyed (Eisenberg 1993: 880). Earlier excavations at Rosh Hanniqra along the coast of the Mediterranean had also shown that the Stratum II structures were all covered by 30 cm of ash (Tadmor and Prausnitz 1959: 77). Examples of this phenomenon are appearing at other EB I sites, and it appears that at least the southern Ghor and Jordan valley were involved in whatever events were the cause of this destruction.

The question is whether this evidence for burning at the EB I sites of Jericho, Tel Yaqush, Tel Kitan, and Rosh Hanniqra may also reflect some sort of disjuncture at the end of EB I, parallel to that found in Bâb edh-Dhrâ' Stratum IV. Phase L at Jericho apparently has to be put at the very end of Proto Urban B or EB IB (Hennessy 1967: 10–12; Esse 1984: 325–26), while Phase K is most likely EB II and from a new tradition. If Phase L at Jericho is contemporary with Stratum IV at Bâb edh-Dhrâ', and if the ash at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' suggests a disruptive event at the end of EB IB, it might be assumed that Jericho experienced something similar.

The phenomenon of disturbance at the end of EB IB at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' affects the conclusions about the termination of this phase. However they are to be interpreted, the data from various sites in addition to Bâb edh-Dhrâ' suggest some type of disturbance bringing the EB I phase to an end. An Egyptian attack is possible, and seems preferable to other explanations such as a natural calamity or local conflict. Egyptian “colonial” or imperial motives could have been behind efforts to secure a product or two from the southern Ghor (cf. Joffe 1993: 56–58) such as bitumen from the Dead Sea, although no evidence to substantiate this kind of activity was found by the EDSP. Following EB I, the artifactual and architectural data speak for some measure of continuity in the population. If an Egyptian attack against the Stratum IV village had been carried out, the former left no evidence of having taken over the site, which seems to have been resettled in Stratum III, at least in part, by people from the previous village

Chapter 7 - The Pottery of Stratum IV

Absolute Chronology

from Rast and Schaub (2003:152,155)

The extensive ceramic parallels with similar EB IB sites firmly position the Stratum IV cultural material of Bâb edh-Dhrâ' in the latter part of the fourth millennium B.C. The three Stratum IV C 14 dates (see chapter 22) offer a broad range extending from the mid–fourth millennium to the early third millennium. A suggested range for Stratum IV at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' between 3200 and 3100 B.C. does not seem to be out of line with the C 14 dates.

Chapter 10 - The Stratum II Town

Plans

Site Plans

Normal Size

Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.1 - Site Map

Fig. 10.1

Map of the town site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ during Stratum II, showing excavation fields and the main activities for which they were used.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

during Stratum II from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field Plans

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII

Normal Size

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.12 - Plan of the

Fig. 10.12

Plan of the Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII; with the exception of Field IV.2 excavated in 1965, Field XIII of the EDSP was on the west side of Wall A while Field IV was on the east; both fields are represented in the section cut through Wall A; mud-brick facing Locus 26 actually spanned the entire opening of the blocked gateway although the section does not indicate this.

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Stratum II West Gate and Wall A in Fields IV and XIII from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Field XIV

Normal Size

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Magnified

Fig. 10.67 - Composite

Fig. 10.67

Composite Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV

Rast and Schaub (2003)

Plan of Stratum IIB in Field XIV from Rast and Schaub (2003)

Discussion

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:251)

Settlement at Bâb edh-Dhrâ reached its peak about 2550 B.C., the approximate date for the midpoint of Stratum II (see chapter 22 for radiocarbon dates). New buildings were constructed on unused areas and others were built incorporating parts of walls of the previous stratum. Engineering during Stratum II explored new uses of construction techniques to meet the challenges of the natural marl and gravel. A certain amount of town planning apparently also occurred during this stratum, because certain areas were marked out for special activities while others were set aside for domestic or industrial purposes (fig. 10.1). A new sanctuary was built over the remains of the previous one, and a defensive system with town wall and gate was constructed, again evidencing special planning. Occupation spilled over to areas beyond the walled town with suburbs coming into being on all three sides except the north. It is in this context that the EB III town of Numeira must be understood, for it was undoubtedly the growth in population along with the need for more foodstuffs, particularly grain, the specialty at Numeira, that accounted for the founding of this sister site 13 km south of Bâb edh-Dhrâ. Cemetery evidence along with that from the town also indicates that population numbers during this stratum reached the highest point attained during the Early Bronze Age. Pottery was abundant and many remnants from the daily life of the Stratum II occupants were recovered in the excavations. In all, the extent of the data for this stratum presents a challenge for understanding the occupation and occupants of this time of growth. Since Stratum II represented the apex of urban life at Bâb edh-Dhrâ, this part of the archaeological record has special significance for the Early Bronze Age culture east of the Jordan River. ...

Stratum II Defenses in Fields XI, XIII, IV, VIII, II, I, and XVI

The Northeast Towers in Field XI

from Rast and Schaub (2003:262-263)

... The space between the two towers was found to be empty in that neither the rows of foundation stones nor the bricks of the superstructures reached beyond the ill-defined interior edges of the towers. Although the evidence was so close to the surface as to make it difficult to trace, the empty space between the towers had a number of surfaces suggesting a floor or passageway. Loci 22, 45 and 56 in Field XI.2 were surfaces across the vacant space and they abutted the inner edges of both towers. Locus 22 was ashy occupational debris that appeared below mud-brick debris of the superstructure (Locus 21), while Loci 45 and 56 also were directly below the bricky debris of the superstructure. The presence of a number of animal bones in Locus 45 may have been caused by an occupant leaving behind parts of an animal, or perhaps an animal or two were killed when the town was destroyed — by earthquake or attack (chaps. 2, 22).

In addition to the Stratum II cultural material found on and within surfaces between the towers, pottery also came from the stone and cobblestone rows, as well as occasionally from the mud-brick superstructure and its collapsed parts. Pottery from the collapsed brick belonged stratigraphically to the latest use of the towers. This included Loci 4, 8, 12 and 16 in Field I.1 (pl. 45:1–6); Loci 7, 21, 22, 23, 24, 43, and 44 in Field XI.2 (pl. 45:7–20; pl. 47:10–19); Loci 2, 3, 7, and 8 in Field XI.3 (pl. 48:4–21); Loci 2, 5, and 11 in Field XI.4 (pl. 48:22–33); Loci 6, 10, and 11 in Field XI.5 (pl. 49:1 18); and Loci 2, 9, 10, and 12 in Field XI.6 (pl. 49:19–43; pl. 50:1–46; pl. 51:1–38).

The Stratum II Town Wall (Wall A)

Fields XIII and IV

from Rast and Schaub (2003:264-272)

Fields XIII and IV at the west end of the site were devoted to examining the main fortifications throughout Stratum II, most importantly the town wall, Wall A (for Primary Loci see table 10.2). Wall A was still visible at many points on the surface along the entire west end when excavation began in 1975. Earlier its estimated width of 10 to 12 m was emphasized by Lapp who investigated the west side in 1965 (figs. 10.11; 1.3; P. Lapp 1968: 5). This side of the town faced out to an open plain below it, and since a natural depression also existed here the builders added special strength to Wall A along its western line. The earlier work under Lapp was limited to small trenches in Field IV.1, where the inner face of Wall A was traced, and Field IV.2, where an exterior face was not firmly identified. The EDSP expanded Field IV by placing five squares against the interior of Wall A (Fields IV.1, 3, 4, 5, and 6) and by opening Field XIII outside Wall A on the west (fig. 1.4). The stratification on this west end was deeper than that next to Wall A on the south and east sides, providing a fuller picture. The outer and inner faces of the wall were exposed, a possible blocked-up gate and passageway were uncovered, and seven drawn sections were completed for the stratigraphy and architecture, including two through the gateway and areas beyond (fig. 10.12; sections A–A' and B–B').

Excavation in Field XIII.2 and 2A exposed the exterior face of Wall A, which was constructed here of boulders and medium-sized stones. Many of the round and smooth stones were undoubtedly from the Wadi Kerak, and were rounded and smoothed before they were carried up to the site by workers. The interior face of Wall A was first exposed in a small trench in Field IV.1 during the excavations directed by Lapp. An enlarged area in this square was cleared by the EDSP (fig. 8.8). The interior face of Wall A also appeared in Field IV.6 as the wall curved to the southwest (fig. 10.13).

The upper part of Wall A, or the superstructure, consisted of mud bricks such as those found in the boulder and stone rubble of Fields XIII and IV (fig. 10.14). Many of the bricks had been fired to a concrete-like hardness with a pink to orange color, while the unfired bricks were reddish, green or brown color. The whole or partly whole bricks preserved in the debris were more often those that had been fired. Unfired bricks had often crumbled into desiccated piles. Some fired bricks were square-shaped, measuring about 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.09 m; others were rectangular, measuring about 0.40 x 0.30 x 0.09 m. Many of the fired bricks had markings made with the finger or a tool (fig. 10.15). Field IV.1 evidence showed that such markings were made already during Stratum III, although the patterns in the two strata were sometimes different from each other. In figure 10.16 the unfired brick seen on the left came from Stratum III Wall 14 in Field IV.1 (see p. 172 and fig. 8.8), while the fired brick on the right came from a locus of fallen brick in Stratum II (Locus 3 in Field IV.3). Markings of the same type were found on the mud bricks of the EB II and EB III Charnel Housess (Schaub and Rast 1989: 385, figs. 239, 240). The differences in design on the cemetery examples as over against those from the town wall might again indicate that the masons were not the same at these two sites.

On the problem of the firing of the bricks, the geological investigation concluded that oxidation of the bricks occurred secondarily, and that exposure to fire concretized them with the pink to reddish color. The basis for this conclusion was the localized burning, in which a fire had climbed up part of the wall while other parts were untouched. Thus the original brick was unfired, while those that were fired had apparently not been prepared that way by the builders. A parallel case of burned bricks was discovered in Charnel Houses 22, which had experienced fire in the latter part of EB III, around the time the west end of Wall A was burned (Rast and Schaub 1980 34–39). Bricks from the walls of this Charnel Houses like those in Fields XIII and IV were fired to a pink or orange hue by the burning that took place in this tomb.

It was not clear whether the great amount of stone and mud-brick fall at the west end had occurred over time with successive erosion, or whether an intentional effort had been made during antiquity to topple parts of the wall at the time the burning took place. Such effacement apparently did occur in the case of Charnel Houses 22, where the walls gave evidence of having been pushed over intentionally when the charnel house was burned. The extensive burning at Numeira late in EB III has to be taken into account as another part of the broader context

Stratum II Structures in Fields XVII and XIX

Field XIX

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:305-306)

The challenges of the steep slope in Field XIX were some of the greatest in the town interior as noted already in connection with Stratum III (for Primary Loci see table 10.6). Despite the difficulties, the structures built here represented a sequence of creative efforts to adapt the slope for occupational and, perhaps, public use. Understanding the erosional processes (see chap. 2) is critical in interpreting the sequences in the area. Most of the walls built successively during Stratum II were east–west cross walls, intended to counter the continual erosion. Erosion affected the cultural remains in Fields XIX.1 and XIX.2 in different ways. In Field XIX.1 the cross-walls helped preserve the succession of surfaces so that it was possible to reconstruct a cultural sequence of occupational phases. In Field XIX.2 a stratigraphic sequence of walls was present but the occupational surfaces related to these walls were preserved only in patches, due to the severe erosion.

Stratum IID

from Rast and Schaub (2003:306,314,316)

A major reorientation of structures in this field took place in Stratum IID (fig. 10.48). In Field XIX.2 this phase was represented by mud-brick Wall 91, a rebuild along different lines of Stratum III Wall 108. The rebuild may have taken place in two stages. A four- to five-course wall of wadi stones was built directly over Wall 108. In the elevation drawing of Walls 108 and 91 (fig. 10.49) this stone segment is shown between the two mud-brick walls. On top of this stone repair, mud-brick Wall 91 was constructed with a different orientation to the northeast. Wall 91 was pre served 10 courses high and two rows wide. The wall was built of bricks 50 x 25 x 10 cm in alternating rows of headers and stretchers, and it cut across the surviving higher levels of buttress Walls 48/105 and 97/110 (see chap. 8). It thus appears to have filled the same role that Wall 108 did earlier, as a terrace cross-wall against which fill was used to level the area. The top courses of Wall 91 were heavily eroded and cut into by the stone foundation layer of later Wall 88.

The original rebuild of Wall 108 may have been occasioned by a collapse of its upper levels or by an erosional event. Such an incident may be suggested by the uneven height of this wall (fig. 10.49). The wadi stones, in fact, may have been used in an emergency repair of Wall 108.

Only a small area of surface connected with the use of Wall 91 was uncovered in the lowest part of trial trench Locus 89. Locus 107 was the lowest level reached in Locus 89. In Field XIX.1 a similar reorientation of walls took place with the construction of Wall 96 in a northwesterly direction, perpendicular to that of Wall 91 in Field XIX.2. Wall 96 was a mud-brick wall preserved two to four courses high for a 2 m stretch. The bricks were light yellowish brown, measuring 50 x 25 x 10 cm, and laid in rows of headers and stretchers with alternating position in successive rows. The wall was built on a stone foundation two courses high. It was laid on top of surfaces Loci 100/41 and at its northern end it was oblique to and across the upper levels of Stratum III buttress Wall 97. During its use a buildup of occupation occurred in surfaces Loci 98/40.

A secondary wall, Wall 108 in Field XIX.1, parallel to Wall 91 in Field XIX.2 and perpendicular to Wall 96, was located just east of Wall 10 (fig. 10.48). This wall may have been part of the reorientation during this phase, but the wall was not excavated to lower levels.

The southern extension of buttress Wall 48/105, Wall 10, continued in use with Wall 96 and its surface Locus 98/40, since Loci 98/40 abutted Wall 10. It seems likely that extension Wall 99 (figs. 8.36; 10.5) also continued in use, although the connection with Loci 98/40 was not established. Another east–west mud-brick feature, Locus 82, only one course high, appeared in the south balk (fig. 10.50) at approximately the same level as Wall 96.

Taken together, the complex of Walls 10, 96 and 82, and possibly Wall 108, appear to have been domestic structures, but the connection between the walls remained undefined. There may have been an enclosure or courtyard area within the area bordered by Walls 10, 96 and 82. The mortar (Locus 44) in surface Locus 40/98 supported this possibility, although evidence of cooking and other work-related activities was not found.

Stratum IIC

from Rast and Schaub (2003:316-319)

Considerable building activity took place during Stratum IIC, particularly in Field XIX.2. The sequence of walls in Field XIX.2 was clear but the connection of these walls with the occupational layers up the slope in Field XIX.1 was not as clear. The first stage of rebuilding in Stratum IIC was the construction of secondary Wall 84 north of earlier Wall 91in Field XIX.2 (fig. 10.51). Wall 84 was associated with surface Locus 87 which extended over the area to the north. This wall, with stone base and mud-brick superstructure, was built against the north side of Wall 91, probably to strengthen Wall 91. The stone foundation of Wall 84 was three to four courses high, with three rows of stones. The stones were wadi stones similar to those in the foundational course of Wall 91 over Wall 108. The mud-brick superstructure was mostly eroded. Bricks sizes were 50 x 25 x 10 cm. Wall 84 had a northern extension at the east end, as did many of the walls in Field XIX.2. Wall 84 was oriented east–west, thus reverting to the direction of earlier walls.

A similar direction was followed by mud-brick wall fragment, Wall 103, south of Wall 91 and east of the Wall 48 extension. This wall was not completely excavated. It survived four courses high and appears to have closed off Wall 48 in an L-shape. A foundation trench excavated on the south side of Wall 103 (Locus 99A) had cut through Stratum III occupational surfaces Loci 100, 101, 102, 105 and 106. Wall 103 was built against the south side of Wall 91 and provided a base for later Wall 88. The relation ship between Walls 103 and 91 can be seen in the East Balk Section (fig. 8.38).

The basic layout of Stratum IID structures in Field XIX.2 was followed during Stratum IIC, with Walls 96 and 10 continuing with the buildup of Loci 40/98. A thick ash layer mixed with mud-brick debris, Locus 50, belonged to the same or a similar buildup at the northern edge of Field XIX.1. East–west mud-brick Wall 46 was constructed on top of this layer. The photo (fig. 10.52) shows the relationship of Wall 46 to the underlying ash and bricky material of Locus 50. Wall 46 was the only new wall built in the area during Stratum IIC. It was also the only wall during this stratum to be built without a stone foundation.

Although eroded on its northern face and upper courses, Wall 46 was well preserved. It was built across Stratum III buttress Wall 48/105, separated from the latter by Locus 50. It also cut across and into Wall 10, the southern extension of Wall 48/105 (fig. 10.53). Wall 46 was 85 cm wide and 4.10 m long, and did not extend across the entire area. At its western end there appeared to be a possible edge but this was not certain. It was in this same area that a north–south erosional trench did severe damage to the whole area.

Six courses of Wall 46 survived, with two rows laid in header and stretcher alignment. Brick sizes were 55–60 x 23–25 x 10–12 cm. The bricks were white in color, and some contained two thick grooves, 2 to 3 cm wide and 4 to 5 cm apart in the center (fig. 10.54). The grooves were perpendicular to the long axis, which most likely served to give a better seat for the mortar between the bricks. Wall 46 inclined approximately 80 degrees to the south. Since this was the opposite inclination of the ordinary northern slump of most of the walls, it seems that the inclination of the wall was intentional in order to give better support against the predominant downward slope erosion.

Stratum IIB

from Rast and Schaub (2003:319-321)

This phase was marked by the construction of Wall 88 (fig. 10.55). A foundation trench, Locus 85 (Locus 95A in the East Balk; fig. 8.38) on the south side of Wall 91 was dug down to the upper mud-brick courses of Wall 91 on the south side, with the lower mud-brick courses of Wall 88 being laid into heavy mortar across Wall 91 in an east–west direction. At the east end it was provided with a foundation of stones above Wall 91, and as it veered south of Wall 91 it was built across earlier Wall 103. The easternmost section of Wall 88 was uncovered as Wall 16 during the 1979 season; its northern extension was designated Locus 19. The ash layer (Locus 92) in the east balk (see fig. 8.38) represented occupation connected with the first phase of Wall 88.

Wall 88 extended across the entire area of 5 m. It had 5–6 courses of bricks with stones used to level the eroded Wall 91 on the east. Wall 88 was 80 cm wide. The surviving courses were very irregular, with much slumping and cracking. The bricks were of two types in color and textures and were made in several sizes. Some bricks were square, measuring 24 x 24 x 10 cm. Others varied from 25 x 50 x 10 to 30 x 60 x 10 cm. The layout of the wall was not systematic. In some rows the wall was 3 square bricks across; in others a system of stretchers and headers was used. The irregularities in brick size, color and construction technique were similar to those found in Wall 5 of Field XIX.1

The Stratum IIB phase in Field XIX.1 included the building of a new east–west mud-brick cross-wall, Wall 5, parallel to Wall 46. Prior to the construction of the cross wall, a deep pit (Locus 97; fig. 10.51) was cut through earlier surfaces, exposing Wall 46 to the north and Wall 96 to the west. The pit sloped down to the north, with a series of black ash layers interspersed with mud-brick debris. It was 60 cm deep against Wall 46. A cylinder seal (reg. no. 2860) depicting a stick figure with a background of geometric design was found (fig. 18.16). A later buildup of mud-brick detritus and fill was represented by Loci 37/95 and 47. The foundation trench for Wall 5 cut through the debris layers, and the wall itself was built just inside the line of Wall 46. Wall 5 also cut through the upper courses of Wall 10 (fig. 10.56). A surface (Locus 36) with several closely connected layers (Loci 34, 33, 32, 31) was in use with Wall 5.

The construction of Wall 5 contained several anomalies similar to those described above for Wall 88 in Field XIX.2. Three brick sizes were noted, each associated with a different color. The largest bricks were 50 x 25 x 12 cm. A second range included half bricks varying in size from 28 x 25–32 x 30 cm, but also in different thicknesses. One group was 12 cm thick and a second group 8 cm. The long bricks were laid as stretches in some rows, with the rest of the row composed of square bricks. In the next course the long bricks were laid as headers and again were associated with the square bricks. In the lower courses some bricks were laid on end over the wider stone foundation. The varying sizes and colors of the bricks suggested that the builders may have reused bricks from an earlier phase.

The close positioning of Wall 5 to Wall 46 seems odd. Layers of fill and ash were found between the two walls. Wall 46 was still in good condition while Wall 5 was built only at a slightly higher level, so the purpose of Wall 5 was not clear. Perhaps the area was affected by serious erosion and Wall 5 was a rebuild to stop that process. Some of the largest bricks in Wall 5 were similar in color and size to the predominant bricks of Wall 46.

It was difficult to establish a stratified connection between Fields XIX.1 and XIX.2 because of the unexplained nature of the mud-brick segment, Locus 26 in Field XIX.2 (fig. 8.38). The mud-brick lines of this possible wall remnant were not clearly defined but they lay across Locus 92, from which the foundation trench, Locus 85 for Wall 88 was cut. Locus 26 appears to have been a collapsed section of a wall from above, from Wall 46 or Wall 108. The upper courses of the buttress Wall 48 were still visible to the west and separated from Locus 26 at a lower level by ash layers and a clayish surface (Loci 33, 35). Since the upper layers of Locus 48 had some square bricks it is possible the wall was repaired during this phase by the builders of Walls 5 and 88.

Stratum IIA

from Rast and Schaub (2003:321)

The latest phase in this area was connected with surface Locus 24 and an east–west mud-brick wall, Wall 80, which appeared clearly only in the south balk of Field XIX.1. Above this wall throughout the entire area was a series of slope and wash erosional layers (figs. 8.38, 10.50).

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:321)

The occupational history in Field XIX during Stratum II consisted of repeated attempts to counteract erosion. The cross-walls, especially those on the lower slope of Field XIX.2 attested to these efforts as well as to some lack of success. The original cross-wall of Stratum III, Wall 108, which closed off the area of the buttress walls, was rebuilt as Wall 91 with stone and mud-brick superstructure. Wall 91 was subsequently fortified by a heavy stone-wall structure on its northern side, Wall 84, and a mud-brick extension on the southeast with Wall 103. The top of the latest surviving cross-wall, Wall 88, built on top of Wall 91, was fairly close to the present surface. Later walls may have eroded downslope.

The builders were more successful in creating stable areas on the upper slope to the south in Field XIX.1. North–south Walls 10 and 96 continued in use over a considerable period and were supplemented by the well-built cross-wall, Wall 46. This wall, inclined against the slope, apparently worked well, preserving some of the best levels of earlier occupation in the town site, but it also was strengthened by the addition of Wall 5 to its south side.

The pottery of Stratum II from Field XIX is found in plates 76–80.

Stratum II Structures in Field XIV

Introduction

from Rast and Schaub (2003:341-342)

Familiarity with the topography in Field XIV is a necessary prelude to understanding the Stratum II building activities in this part of the interior of the town site (for Primary Loci see table 10.8). Field XIV was plotted on the lower slope of an east–west ridge. Only meager occupation evidence appeared on the upper part of this ridge, where excavations in Fields XV and XVIII quickly encountered sterile levels. Above Field XIV the crest of the ridge is at -244 m. Downslope from the crest the earliest occupation level was at -255 m in Field XIV.3, while the latest occupation levels were at approximately -249.50 m. These differences in levels forced inhabitants to build revetment and terrace walls to counteract the movement of sediment by erosion. Excavation uncovered evidence of these efforts but also revealed that they were less than successful.

Although Stratum II material was found in all three squares opened in Field XIV, the deepest levels reached were in Field XIV.4 and 6. In the deep trench of Field XIV.3 Stratum II levels appeared in the upper three meters of cultural deposit.

The differentiation between Stratum III and Stratum II in Field XIV proved to be problematic since the exposure of Stratum III loci was too limited to establish a clear transition. The only approach to solving the problem was to define the relationship of Wall 239 to Wall 230/237 to the south and Wall 269 to the west, both of the latter belonging to Stratum II. Wall 239, founded at -251.75 m (fig. 10.66), was the earliest of these three walls. The lower level of Wall 239 could allow it to be placed in Stratum III but the fact that it continues in use with Walls 230/237 and 269 supports the interpretation that all three walls belong to Stratum II. The ongoing use of Wall 239 is thus the major reason for placing the division between Strata III and II in connection with this wall’s founding.

The Stratum II material in Field XIV divides into two phases, Stratum IIB and IIA. A major erosional event consisting of up to one m of debris occurred between the two phases separating them stratigraphically. Severe tilting of several walls also belonged to the erosional event. Stratum IIB and IIA had several sub-phases.

Stratum IIB5

from Rast and Schaub (2003:342-343)

Belonging to the earliest sub-phase, Stratum IIB5, was Wall 239. A floor associated with this wall was more evident in the Excavated Loci than in the Section Loci (for an explanation of Excavated Loci [EL] and Section Loci [SL] see under Field XIV.3 in chapter 6). EL 259 was a fine-grained, compact light-brown material laid over the earlier occupational levels of Stratum III. EL 256 was a thicker band of detritus with some charcoal and ash over EL 259 (fig. 8.18). During the excavation of the upper levels of EL 256 at the south end of the trench, the bottom course of Wall 239 appeared (fig. 10.66). SL 333, a compact light brown layer with charcoal, pebbles, stones and mud-brick fragments shows this level as sloping downward from south to north and abutting the lower course of Wall 239 (fig. 8.18). Although a foundation trench for Wall 239 is not indicated in the East Balk Section it is clear that Wall 239 was cut into the upper levels of SL 333 and belonged to the earliest phase of Stratum II. The first occupational level associated with Wall 239 was Locus 255.

A second stage in the history of Wall 239, Stratum IIB4, was contemporary with a series of occupational surfaces exposed to the north. The occupational surfaces were related to the installation of a pottery bowl, SL 335, set into SL 329, a compact light brown layer, as well as into SL 327, a layer of loose gray burned material with charcoal, and into floor SL 328 (fig. 8.18). Continued access to this bowl was assured by constructing a hard white plaster surface, SL 352, around and above the bowl’s mouth. The pottery bowl installation continued in use with seven successive floors, several of which were plastered and separated by ash layers. The floors and ash layers together are represented in SL 326. Although the East Balk Section does not show SL 326 extending to Wall 239, it is clear from the plan made during the excavation of EL 251 that these surfaces were in use with Wall 239.

The relationship of Walls 269 and 272 to Stratum IIB4 is uncertain (fig. 10.67). The bottom level of Wall 269 on the north side was exposed in connection with plaster sur face Locus 274 (figs. 10.67, 10.68). This level corresponds to the third course of Wall 239 to the east (fig. 8.18). Both walls line up and were likely contemporary, perhaps as a terrace wall. Wall 272 is also associated with Stratum IIB4. The bottom level of Wall 272 was not reached, but the part exposed was preserved 10 courses to a height of 90 cm. The lowest level reached at -251.56 m was slightly below the plaster surfaces of SL 326 discussed above. Wall 272 in Field XIV.3 projected from the west balk on a different orientation from that of the other walls in this area (fig. 10.68). It did not continue to the east but could possibly have cornered to the north. Its relationship to the other walls and surfaces in the deep trench remains problematical.

Stratum IIB3

from Rast and Schaub (2003:343)

The major new element in this sub-phase was the construction of Wall 230/237, a thirteen-course wall exposed in the north end of the deep trench (fig. 8.18). The lower courses of Wall 230/237 were placed in a trench cut into Stratum IIB4 surfaces SL 326. Wall 230/237 rested on SL 350, a silt layer overlying the floors, suggesting there may have been a period during which the area was not used. The plan of the deep trench at this level in the composite map of Stratum IIB (fig. 10.67) illustrates the surfaces connected to Wall 230/237 and Wall 239. The line of Wall 230/237 was broken by an opening for a door in which appeared a green, plastered surface, EL 245. A door socket, EL 240, rested on a brown plaster surface, EL 246, on the south side of Wall 230/237. EL 246 and another plaster surface, EL 248, were covered in spots by ashy layer EL 247. Wall 239 continued in use as evidenced by the relationship of plaster surface EL 248 to Wall 239.

In the west half of Field XIV.3 Stratum IIB3 is represented by Walls 269 and 272, stone Wall 276, and several surfaces (fig. 10.68). Wall 276 was preserved two courses high. It rested on plaster surface Locus 274 which abutted mud-brick Wall 269 (fig. 10.67). To the north Locus 298 was a similar surface in use with Wall 272. The occupational debris of Locus 278 above Locus 298 is also associated with this sub-phase.

Stratum IIB2

from Rast and Schaub (2003:343-346)

This sub-phase is the first level at which it becomes feasible to correlate the structures from all the excavated areas of Field XIV. The correlation rests on two interpretations of the evidence. One is that the different levels of occupation encountered in Fields XIV.4, XIV.6 and XIV.3 represent adaptation to the natural slope in this area. The difference in the occupation levels in these areas is due to terracing and leveling. A similar adaptation to a steep slope with terracing and contemporary walls on different levels was found above in Field XIX. The second interpretation is that the two wall complexes in the southern area (Walls 10, 36) and northern area (Walls 269 and 281) were linked. The similar, severe tilts of the upper courses of the east–west walls (Wall 10 in Field XIV.4 and Wall 269 in Field XIV.3) were apparently caused by the same event that produced the downward tilt of the north–south walls (Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 and Wall 281 in Field XIV.3; figs. 10.69, 10.70). Although Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 and Wall 281 in Field XIV.3 were not connected in the course of the excavation, they are on the same direct line and manifest an exactly similar downward slope. The east–west walls on both the south (Wall 10) and the north (Wall 269) were bonded into the north–south walls (Walls 36 and 281, respectively) so that the tilt of the upper courses resulted from the downward tilt of Walls 36 and 281 (fig. 10.71).

Based on these interpretations, Stratum IIB2 would have included the following structures and features:

The extensive retaining wall consisting of mud bricks packed against the natural slope on the south (Wall 14 in Field XIV.3 and Wall 18 in Field XIV.6) was in use during this phase (fig. 10.67). At least 18 to 20 courses were still surviving when excavation uncovered them (fig. 10.72). Wall 14/18 may have been in use in an earlier phase but the lowest level exposed was associated with Stratum IIB2.

Wall 36 in Field XIV.6 was built against the retaining wall, and may have played the role of a buttress stepped down the slope and continuing in Wall 281 of Field XIV.3.

The east–west Wall 10 joined with Wall 36 to form a courtyard.

At the corner of these two walls was a cooking area (Locus 63 in Field XIV.4 and Locus 43 in Field XIV.6) constructed of medium-sized, rounded wadi stones. The stones were blackened from use (fig. 10.69). A similar cooking feature dating to approximately the same time was found at Numeira (see forthcoming volume on this site).

On the lower part of the slope, Wall 269/289 in Field XIV.3 was an east–west terrace wall, while Walls 230/237 and 272 were partial remains of a building on the terrace.

Due to major erosion during Stratum IIB1, the only occupational surfaces related to Stratum IIB2, apart from the cooking area in Fields XIV.4 and XIV.6, were north of Wall 230/237 in Field XIV.3. Locus 41 contained occupational debris, while EL 181 and 183 were ashy layers over lying EL 198, a surface abutting Wall 230/237. EL 198 is equivalent to SL 341 in the East Balk Section.

Stratum IIB1

from Rast and Schaub (2003:346-349)

The end of Stratum IIB in Field XIV was brought about by the collapse of a section of retaining Wall 18 in Field XIV.6. A large section of the retaining wall (Locus 23) either slipped or fell into a horizontal position in XIV.6, exposing the natural gravel and Lisan marl of the hillock to the south (figs. 10.67, 10.73). The collapse of the retaining wall along with massive erosion resulted in downslope transport and deposition of over one m of detrital sediment over the entire area from south to north. In Field XIV.6 the damage was so thorough that no later attempts were made to utilize this area. Key loci related to the collapse in Field XIV.6 included Locus 41, a soft mud-brick wash with rock rubble and boulders below the collapsed revetment Wall 23; Locus 42, mud-brick collapse at the juncture of Walls 36 and 45 above cooking area Locus 43; and Locus 29, mud-brick and mortar remnants between the collapse of the revetment wall and the natural Lisan Marl.

Evidence for the massive downslope transport is present in the East Balk Section in Field XIV.3 (fig. 8.18a). A mass of mud-brick detritus and occupational debris extends for one m from -250 m to -251 m (SL 312–321). Related debris representing possible ongoing erosion are found in SL 306–310 which spilled over Wall 237 (SL 70 and 75). Similar erosion is evident in 50 to 75 cm of cultural debris (Locus 234) that extended over the entire west half of Field XIV.3 (fig. 10.70).

The collapsed structures in Field XIV raise the question whether an earthquake may have caused these buildings to slump. The region is subject to earthquake and major fault lines exist in the immediate vicinity (see chap. 2). Specialists in earthquake damage who have examined photos of the walls in Field XIV have suggested that the tilt in the walls was more likely caused by slumping in connection with erosion rather than earthquake. Walls 10 and 69 were probably no more than 3 m high, and no wood supports or beams suggesting a second floor were found, the remains of which might suggest collapse by earthquake. The combined header and stretcher method of construction of the mud-brick walls remained in place and showed no signs of radical displacement. Thus the kind of damage earthquakes leave traces of on mud brick walls was not evident in the Field XIV structures.

Stratum IIA3

from Rast and Schaub (2003:349-350)

Although evidence exists for subsequent occupation, the ongoing problems with erosion during occupation and post-occupation create problems for correlating later phasing in Field XIV. Excavation of upper levels in Fields XIV.3 and XIV.4 encountered thick mud-brick detritus. Walls were exposed but surfaces connecting the walls were spotty. The earliest levels of Stratum IIA are visible in the East Balk Section (fig. 8.18). Wall 37/63, a mud-brick wall surviving two to three courses and built on a slightly downward slope, had been cut into earlier debris levels. A foundation trench was exposed in SL 67/68. The surfaces associated with this wall included localized areas of plaster.

A similar pattern is evident in the west half of Field XIV.3. Mud-brick walls were built on slopes with fragmentary plastered surfaces that cut into or overlay the debris of Stratum IIB1. East–west Wall 242, eight courses high, was associated with a brownish clay surface, Locus 287, which had traces of plaster and patches of black ash (figs. 10.70, 10.71). Locus 287 lay directly over the massive debris of Locus 234 of Stratum IIB1. A north–south wall, Wall 266, was exposed in the east balk of the west half of Field XIV.3. This wall stood five courses high and was also built over the debris of Locus 234.

No new architecture could be related to Stratum IIA3 in Field XIV.4, although it is possible that Wall 10 and the revetment Wall 14 were used for renewed occupation (fig. 10.67).

Stratum IIA2

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

Remains of Stratum IIA2 were found throughout Field XIV.3 and Field XIV.4. In Field XIV.3 a group of flat pavement stones (Locus 33) was associated with surfaces Loci 177 and 206. The latter appeared over most of Field XIV.3, and in an area also seen in the East Balk Section as the bottom level of SL 300 with flat-lying sherds. Remnants of mud-brick walls, including Walls 134, 207 and 225, were also related to this surface. In Field XIV.4, north–south mud-brick Wall 33 was built up against Wall 10. Wall 33 rested on top of a clay wash layer (Locus 59) and was related to a surface with flat-lying sherds that may be seen in the East Balk Section of Field XIV.4 (fig. 10.74, locus number not provided). Wall 33 had collapsed onto the surface to the north. Its relation to an underlying mass of mud-brick (Locus 61) was not determined. At some point during Stratum IIA2 an attempt was made to buttress revetment Wall 14 with a cross-wall between Walls 10 and 14. Square impressions on the south side of Wall 10 suggest that the cross-wall may have included wooden beams (fig. 10.75).

Stratum IIA1

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

This sub-phase is represented by several walls with stone foundation. Only one wall with stone foundation was recorded for the previous sub-phases of Stratum II, namely, Wall 276 in Field XIV.3 (figs. 10.66, 10.67). A long east–west stone wall in Field XIV.4, Wall 4/11, was built over the upper mud-brick courses of Wall 10 (fig. 10.67, 10.72). A second east–west wall with stone foundation and three upper courses of mud brick, Wall 26/32, was excavated north of Wall 10. It appears in the East Balk Section of Field XIV.4 (fig. 10.74). In Field XIV.3 a third east–west wall with stone foundation, Wall 34, is seen in the East Balk Section, with collapsed mud brick to the south. No surfaces related to these walls survived due to the later erosion in this area. Stratum II pottery from Field XIV is found in plates 101–8.

Summary

from Rast and Schaub (2003:350)

Although there are problems in interpreting the stratigraphy of Field XIV, it is evident that this area of the town interior was extensively occupied through out the Early Bronze Age. Occupation in Strata IV and III, although limited to the deep trench, was clear, as seen in earlier chapters. Subsequently, the two phases of Stratum II dealt with here were clearly separated by a major erosional occurrence. Both Stratum II phases contained substantial architecture, and both reflected the ongoing efforts of inhabitants to adapt to the slopes in this area.

Pottery Production in Late Phases of Early Bronze 1 in the Southern Levant - Braun (2023)

Abstract

from Braun (2023)

Pottery in the Early Bronze 1 (EB1) (For numerous reasons I eschew the use of the terms EB IA and EB IB and their sub-periods purportedly representing the lengthy time span of ca 3700–3000 BCE (Braun E, Forging a link: evidence for a ‘Lost Horizon’ In: H Goldfus, MI Gruber, S Yona, P Fabian (eds) The Late Chalcolithic to EB 1 Transition in the Southern Levant. ‘Isaac went out to the field’: studies in Archaeology Ancient Cultures in Honor of Isaac Gilead. Archeopress, Oxford, pp 66–95, 2019). That is because of the extreme regionality of EB 1 material culture and the revealed archaeological record that has failed to yield a single sequence for the entire southern Levant, thus making chronological correlations between ceramic groups entirely dependent on the degree of validity of archaeological deposits’ associations with radiocarbon determinations (Regev et al., Radiocarbon 54(3–4):525–566, 2012: 528; Braun E, Early Megiddo on the East Slope (The “Megiddo Stages”). A Report on the Early Occupation of the East Slope of Megiddo–Results of the Oriental Institute’s Excavations, 1925 – 1933 (Oriental Institute Publications 139). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2013: 30–31). Our knowledge is too incomplete and regional differences too pronounced for such simplistic periodizations) was produced in two basic “modes,” in limited quantities by semi-skilled individuals or small groups, or on larger scales by numerous skilled potters. The former type of activity, known as Domestic Mode of Production or DMP indicates part-time potters plying their craft for local consumption, possibly on a household level. Although there is some limited evidence for DMP in early phases of EB 1, most pottery during this lengthy period appears to have been made by potters of greater skills and was disseminated through trade or in some instances by itinerant practitioners of the craft. This latter activity accounts for very significant degrees of standardization of ceramic types found at numerous sites. Those levels of standardization argue for regional centers of production from which wares were dispersed. This paper discusses some of the outstanding evidence for those modes of pottery production in the archaeological record, and their implications for trade and other types of social intercourse in diverse regions of the southern Levant. The time span is the late to very early third millennia (ca 3700–3000).

Chronology of the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant: New Analysis for a High Chronology - Regev et al. (2012)

Abstract

from Regev et al. (2012)

The chronology of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) in the southern Levant and the synchronization between the sites, considering seriation and radiocarbon dates, have shown large inconsistencies and disagreement. We have assembled 420 14C dates, most of them previously published and a few provided directly by the excavators. The dates have been re-evaluated on the basis of their archaeological context and using analytical criteria. Bayesian modeling has been applied to the selected dates in relation to the given seriation of the EBA subperiods (EB I, II III, IV). Sites with 2 or more sequential subphases were individually modeled in order to define the transitions between the subperiods. The new chronology indicates that the EB I-II transition occurred site-dependently between 3200-2900 BC, with EB II—III around 2900 BC, and EB III— IV -2500 BC.

Raphael and Agnon (2018)

from Raphael and Agnon (2018:774)

EB III (2700-2200 BCE)

mudbrick walls tilting at 45° probably caused by an earthquake. (Field XIV). Defensive wall built in sections with transverse faces at 7-15 m intervals , a possible earthquake protection device (Schaub 1993:134).

Stratum IV Destruction - Early Bronze IB - 3200-3100 BCE

Effect	Location	Image (s)	Comments
Collapsed Walls Fire	Area F Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003)	Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.2 Stratum IV ash layers (Loci 4, 16) below later Stratum II Wall 63 with its posthole; fallen mud bricks of Stratum IV structures lie in the burn; corner of the fallen ledge of Tomb F 4C is on left and Tomb F 4B is below the ash layers; the west balk section (fig. 6.1) is on right looking south. Rast and Schaub (2003)	Area F4 contained vestiges of demolished brick structures and a thick ashy burn layer. - Rast and Schaub (2003:102) Area F4 - The most notable feature discovered in Area F 4 was a 25 cm layer of ash that covered most of the southern part of the area (Locus 16 in fig. 6.1). Other locus numbers were assigned to this same feature (Loci 4, 5, 16–20, 43–45, 48–53, 57, 68–69, 79, 81 84, 86, 89–90, 92, 94, and 95). All of these are combined here as an extensive burn across Area F 4 (table 6.1). The ashy soil was also found under the marl ledges of the earlier Tombs F 4A, B, and C, which had collapsed by the time of the burning, and the burn trickled down among the human bones and objects of the earlier tombs. No intact buildings were found in Area F 4, but that there were Stratum IV structures here was clear from the mud bricks strewn within the ashy debris. Mud-brick Wall 64 may originally have dated to Stratum IV, although Locus 8 abutting it contained mixed pottery. Either at the time when the burning took place or somewhat later, the Stratum IV walls fell apart or were dismantled, with the bricks settling into the soft ash. The mud bricks in these ash layers were concentrated in front of and even unexplainably under the ledges of the earlier shaft tombs, such as in the ashy debris of Locus 90 in Tomb F 4C (fig. 6.2). Displaced mud bricks were also in the ashy debris above Tomb F 4A, and various examples were placed to the side during excavation (see on the surface above the tombs in fig. 4.1). The bricks were of small to medium size, measuring on average 14 x 20 x 6 cm. Two blocking stones originally from Tomb C were also found in the ashy debris. Whether the ashy debris in Area F 4 belonged to occupational surfaces or whether it came from destruction of the Stratum IV buildings is a problem. Two features point to the latter. First, the thickness of the ash and pell-mell scatter of mud bricks seemed to indicate destruction of the structures. Second, examination of ash layer samples showed that very few plant remains were present (see under Loci 57, 58, 60, 78–79, 81, 83, 86, 91, 102), whereas many small and larger pieces of charcoal were in these loci. The ashy debris in Area F 4 is paralleled in Area J 2 and Field XII, and the the burning of Charnel Houses G 1 may be related to the same event that produced it (Rast and Schaub 1981: 62–65). - Rast and Schaub (2003:102-107)
Collapsed Walls Fire	Field XII Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003) Fig. 6.5 Stratum IV mud-brick walls and hearth (Locus 50 in Field XII.4); later sanctuary wall lines of Strata III and II are shadowed in. Rast and Schaub (2003)		In Field XII there were scanty mud-brick wall remains of various structures also with burn across the area. - Rast and Schaub (2003:102) Most buildings in Field XII had a thick ashy deposit associated with them. Loci 68 and 69 in XII.5 abutting Wall 78 was an ashy deposit of approximately 50 cm depth. The same ashy deposit was found in Locus 21 of XII. 2, and Loci 39 and 56 of XII.4, as well as in the darkened material below the steps and stone pedestal (Locus 62) of the Stratum III sanctuary (for most of these loci, see fig. 8.2). It was also found in Loci 23, 57, and 58 in XII.7, Locus 3 in XII.9, Locus 11 in XII.10, and Locus 5 in XII.11 (fig. 6.8) Thus the ashy level belonging to Stratum IV was widespread in Field XII as in Areas F and J, and it will be found again in Fields IV and XIII discussed below. This ashy material was usually a deposit on the natural sterile layers of the site, whether marl in Area F 4 or gravel in Field XII. Only in the case of the bricky surface of Locus 22 in XII.7 was a prepared floor found in these buildings. Locus 22 was a paved surface with many sherds lying on it, whereas the ashy debris of Locus 23 embedded in the bricky debris of Locus 25 (= Locus 16) lay over this surface and its pottery sherds. Since the Stratum IV floors belonged to the first full-time settlement, they also were commonly founded on the natural surface. - Rast and Schaub (2003:115-116)
Collapsed Walls Fire	Fields IV and XIII - On either side of town Wall A Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003)		Field IV is located inside town Wall A, the Stratum II defensive system, on the west side of the town. ... Locus 5A was a thick layer of ash resting on the natural gray sand of Locus 9. Above this locus were 4 m of silted mud-brick debris and collapsed stone of town Wall A (Loci 3, 4, 5, 6 in fig. 6.9). Although no building remains were discovered in Locus 5A, the ashy material mixed with silted mud-brick debris could have come from desiccated structures of Stratum IV. - Rast and Schaub (2003:116) Field XIII (XIII.1, 2, 2A) was located on the opposite side of town Wall A from Field IV. ... The Stratum IV evidence in Field XIII matched the lowest levels of Field IV.5 in containing evidence from Stratum IV. Burning was again attested (Loci 74, 93 95, 111, 112), and several partial remains of mud-brick walls were distinguished (table 6.4). - Rast and Schaub (2003:116-118)
Fire	site Wide Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003)	Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.2 Stratum IV ash layers (Loci 4, 16) below later Stratum II Wall 63 with its posthole; fallen mud bricks of Stratum IV structures lie in the burn; corner of the fallen ledge of Tomb F 4C is on left and Tomb F 4B is below the ash layers; the west balk section (fig. 6.1) is on right looking south. Rast and Schaub (2003)	The extensive burning of the Stratum IV buildings at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' has to be dealt with in explaining this phase. It was seen that in most of the areas where Stratum IV structures were found, the remains of these structures were accompanied by a thick layer of dark ash. As discussed above, the burned debris in the Stratum IV structures appears not to have been occupational, since plant remains were absent in the examination of many samples taken from the ash. Nor is it likely that such diverse areas of the site would have been used for burning garbage, which should have produced plant remains if this had been the case. The clean loci of burned debris and charcoal from these buildings thus point to some sort of disturbance. The upper layers of EB IB Charnel Houses G 1 are also interesting to consider in this regard, since these layers were filled with burned material. That this burning was due to cremation or even a different funerary practice seems questionable, given the fact that no other EB IB tombs had such evidence (Schaub and Rast 1984: 325–26). Thus it seems plausible that this tomb may have suffered from the same disturbance as that experienced by the Stratum IV village. - Rast and Schaub (2003:129-130) In EB IB time, year-round occupation began at Bâb edh-Dhrâ' (see chapter 6). This is evidenced by construction of mud-brick buildings at Fields XI, XII and XIII as well as mud-brick debris at Area F and Fields I and II. The mud-brick structures had largely collapsed by the end of EB IB time. In Area F, and Fields I, II, IV, XII, and XIII, up to 0.5 m of an ashy burn layer are also present. - Rast and Schaub (2003:43-44)

Stratum IV Destruction - Early Bronze IB - 3200-3100 BCE

Earthquake Archeological Effects chart

Earthquake Archeological Effects (EAE)

Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224)

Effect	Location	Image (s)	Comments	Intensity
Collapsed Walls Fire	Area F Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003)	Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.2 Stratum IV ash layers (Loci 4, 16) below later Stratum II Wall 63 with its posthole; fallen mud bricks of Stratum IV structures lie in the burn; corner of the fallen ledge of Tomb F 4C is on left and Tomb F 4B is below the ash layers; the west balk section (fig. 6.1) is on right looking south. Rast and Schaub (2003)	Area F4 contained vestiges of demolished brick structures and a thick ashy burn layer. - Rast and Schaub (2003:102) Area F4 - The most notable feature discovered in Area F 4 was a 25 cm layer of ash that covered most of the southern part of the area (Locus 16 in fig. 6.1). Other locus numbers were assigned to this same feature (Loci 4, 5, 16–20, 43–45, 48–53, 57, 68–69, 79, 81 84, 86, 89–90, 92, 94, and 95). All of these are combined here as an extensive burn across Area F 4 (table 6.1). The ashy soil was also found under the marl ledges of the earlier Tombs F 4A, B, and C, which had collapsed by the time of the burning, and the burn trickled down among the human bones and objects of the earlier tombs. No intact buildings were found in Area F 4, but that there were Stratum IV structures here was clear from the mud bricks strewn within the ashy debris. Mud-brick Wall 64 may originally have dated to Stratum IV, although Locus 8 abutting it contained mixed pottery. Either at the time when the burning took place or somewhat later, the Stratum IV walls fell apart or were dismantled, with the bricks settling into the soft ash. The mud bricks in these ash layers were concentrated in front of and even unexplainably under the ledges of the earlier shaft tombs, such as in the ashy debris of Locus 90 in Tomb F 4C (fig. 6.2). Displaced mud bricks were also in the ashy debris above Tomb F 4A, and various examples were placed to the side during excavation (see on the surface above the tombs in fig. 4.1). The bricks were of small to medium size, measuring on average 14 x 20 x 6 cm. Two blocking stones originally from Tomb C were also found in the ashy debris. Whether the ashy debris in Area F 4 belonged to occupational surfaces or whether it came from destruction of the Stratum IV buildings is a problem. Two features point to the latter. First, the thickness of the ash and pell-mell scatter of mud bricks seemed to indicate destruction of the structures. Second, examination of ash layer samples showed that very few plant remains were present (see under Loci 57, 58, 60, 78–79, 81, 83, 86, 91, 102), whereas many small and larger pieces of charcoal were in these loci. The ashy debris in Area F 4 is paralleled in Area J 2 and Field XII, and the the burning of Charnel Houses G 1 may be related to the same event that produced it (Rast and Schaub 1981: 62–65). - Rast and Schaub (2003:102-107)	VIII+ ?
Collapsed Walls Fire	Field XII Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003) Fig. 6.5 Stratum IV mud-brick walls and hearth (Locus 50 in Field XII.4); later sanctuary wall lines of Strata III and II are shadowed in. Rast and Schaub (2003)		In Field XII there were scanty mud-brick wall remains of various structures also with burn across the area. - Rast and Schaub (2003:102) Most buildings in Field XII had a thick ashy deposit associated with them. Loci 68 and 69 in XII.5 abutting Wall 78 was an ashy deposit of approximately 50 cm depth. The same ashy deposit was found in Locus 21 of XII. 2, and Loci 39 and 56 of XII.4, as well as in the darkened material below the steps and stone pedestal (Locus 62) of the Stratum III sanctuary (for most of these loci, see fig. 8.2). It was also found in Loci 23, 57, and 58 in XII.7, Locus 3 in XII.9, Locus 11 in XII.10, and Locus 5 in XII.11 (fig. 6.8) Thus the ashy level belonging to Stratum IV was widespread in Field XII as in Areas F and J, and it will be found again in Fields IV and XIII discussed below. This ashy material was usually a deposit on the natural sterile layers of the site, whether marl in Area F 4 or gravel in Field XII. Only in the case of the bricky surface of Locus 22 in XII.7 was a prepared floor found in these buildings. Locus 22 was a paved surface with many sherds lying on it, whereas the ashy debris of Locus 23 embedded in the bricky debris of Locus 25 (= Locus 16) lay over this surface and its pottery sherds. Since the Stratum IV floors belonged to the first full-time settlement, they also were commonly founded on the natural surface. - Rast and Schaub (2003:115-116)	VIII+ ?
Collapsed Walls Fire	Fields IV and XIII - On either side of town Wall A Fig. 1.4 Map of Bâb edh-Dhrâ town site and surroundings, with excavation areas Rast and Schaub (2003)		Field IV is located inside town Wall A, the Stratum II defensive system, on the west side of the town. ... Locus 5A was a thick layer of ash resting on the natural gray sand of Locus 9. Above this locus were 4 m of silted mud-brick debris and collapsed stone of town Wall A (Loci 3, 4, 5, 6 in fig. 6.9). Although no building remains were discovered in Locus 5A, the ashy material mixed with silted mud-brick debris could have come from desiccated structures of Stratum IV. - Rast and Schaub (2003:116) Field XIII (XIII.1, 2, 2A) was located on the opposite side of town Wall A from Field IV. ... The Stratum IV evidence in Field XIII matched the lowest levels of Field IV.5 in containing evidence from Stratum IV. Burning was again attested (Loci 74, 93 95, 111, 112), and several partial remains of mud-brick walls were distinguished (table 6.4). - Rast and Schaub (2003:116-118)	VIII+ ?

The archeoseismic evidence requires a minimum Intensity of VIII (8) when using the Earthquake Archeological Effects chart of Rodríguez-Pascua et al (2013: 221-224). This site may be subject to a construction related site effect in this stratum due to mudbrick construction.

References

Articles and Books

Braun, E. (2023). Pottery Production in Late Phases of Early Bronze 1 in the Southern Levant: 359-387. in Ben-Yosef, Erez and Jones, Ian W.N. (2023) “And in Length of Days Understanding” (Job 12:12): Essays on Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond in Honor of Thomas E. Levy. (2023). Germany: Springer International Publishing.

Ben-Yosef, Erez and Jones, Ian W.N. (2023) “And in Length of Days Understanding” (Job 12:12): Essays on Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond in Honor of Thomas E. Levy. . Germany: Springer International Publishing. - google books - 210 pages can be previewed

Fall, P., Ridder, Elizabeth, Birch, Suzanne, and Falconer, Steven (2023). "BAYESIAN MODELING OF A PERIPHERAL MIDDLE BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT AT ZAHRAT ADH-DHRA‘ 1, JORDAN." Radiocarbon 65: 1-16. - open access

Regev, J., De Miroschedji, P., Greenberg, R., Braun, E., Greenhut, Z., & Boaretto, E. (2012). Chronology of the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant: New Analysis for a High Chronology. Radiocarbon, 54(3–4), 525–566. - open access

Excavation Reports

Rast, W. E., Schaub, R. Thomas, and Lapp, Paul W., (1989). Bāb edh-Dhrāʻ : excavations in the cemetery directed by Paul W. Lapp (1965-67). Winona Lake, Ind., Published for the American Schools of Oriental Research by Eisenbrauns Winona Lake, Ind. - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Rast, W. E., Schaub, R. T. (2003). Bab Edh-Dhra': Excavations at the Town Site - 2 Parts. United States: Eisenbrauns. - google books - 210 pages can be previewed

Rast, W. E., Schaub, R. T. (2003). Bab Edh-Dhra': Excavations at the Town Site - 2 Parts. United States: Eisenbrauns. - JSTOR

Rast, W. E., Schaub, R. T. (2003). Bab Edh-Dhra': Excavations at the Town Site - Part 1. United States: Eisenbrauns. - can be borrowed with a free account from archive.org

Ortner, D. and B. Fröhlich (2008). The Early Bronze Age I Tombs and Burials of Bab edh-Dhra`, Jordan. Reports of the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan Volume 3. New York: AltaMira Press. - google books - 72 pages can be previewed

Websites

Expedition Dead Sea Plain (EDSP) website

APAAME photostream for Bab edh-Dhra at flickr

Bab edh-Dhra at Loyola Marymount University

Bab edh-Dhra Bioarchaeology at Notre Dame University

Feifa - Landscapes of the Dead Research Project [LOD] at Follow the Pots Project

Bab edh-Dhra cemetery (Khirbet Qazone), Jordan by Dr. David E. Graves at Deus Artefacta (apologist website)

Sodom Research by Dr. David E. Graves at Deus Artefacta (apologist website)

Photos of Bab ed-Drah at ACOR

Bibliography from EDSP website

from Expedition Dead Sea Plain (EDSP) website

Recent Publications

2018:

Chesson, M.S., M M. Kersel, S. Beramun, D. Phillips, and T.K.Y. Kim. 2018. Expedition to the Dead Sea Plains in Archaeology in Jordan Newsletter, pp. 65-66. Amman: American Center for Oriental Research (DOI: https://www.acorjordan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/AIJ-2016-2017-Hi-Res.pdf?v=7516fd43adaa)

2017:

Kersel, M.M. (2017) At issue: Should the antiquities trade be legalized in more countries? Glazer, S. (2017, November 10). Stolen antiquities. CQ researcher 27: 961.

Kersel, M.M. (2017) Myths and Facts About Looting in M. Baror (ed.) The Book of Plunder. Pp. 196-198. Tel Aviv: The Center for Contemporary Art.

Kersel, M.M. (2017) Object Movement: UNESCO, Language and the Exchange of Middle Eastern Artifacts in J. Anderson and H. Geismar (eds.) The Routledge Companion to Cultural Property. Pp. 277-294. London: Routledge.

2016:

Chesson, M.S. (2016) Risky Business: A Life Full of Obligations to the Dead and the Living on the Early Bronze Age Southeastern Dead Sea Plain, Jordan, in The Archaeology of Anxiety, edited by Jeffrey Fleischer and Neil Norman, pp. 41-65. New York: Springer.

Kersel, M.M. and A.C. Hill (2016) Landscapes of the Dead: Mapping, Surveying, and Site Monitoring at Fifa. American Journal of Archaeology 120(4): 654.

Kersel, M.M. (2016) Go, Do Good! Responsibility and the Future of Cultural Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 21st Century. AIA Heritage, Conservation, and Archaeology Series. https://www.archaeological.org/news/sitepreservationhcaspecialpubs/21700#sthash.eFXP5Ub2.92bBBeGX.dpuf

2015:

Chesson, M.S. (2015) Reconceptualizing the Early Bronze Age Southern Levant without Cities: Local Histories and Walled Communities of EBA II-III Society. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 28.1: 21-79.

Kersel, M.M. (2015) Storage Wars. Solving the Archaeological Curation Crisis? Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 3(1): 42-55.

Kersel, M.M. (2015) An Issue of Ethics? Curation and the Obligations of Archaeology. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 3(1): 77-80.

Kersel, M.M. (2015) Fractured Oversight: The ABCs of Cultural Heritage in Palestine After the Oslo Accords. Journal of Social Archaeology 15 (1): 24-44.

Ullinger, J. and S.G. Sheridan (2015) Bone Color Changes in a Burned Burial Structure from Early Bronze Age Bab adh-Dhra’, Jordan. In: The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, edited by Christopher Schmidt and Steven Symes, p. 403-413. New York: Academic Press (Elsevier).

Ullinger J.M., S.G Sheridan, and D.Guatelli-Steinberg D. (2015) Fruits of their labour: Urbanisation, orchard crops, and dental health in Early Bronze Age Jordan. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 25(5): 753-764.

2014:

Chesson, M.S. and N. Goodale (2014) Population Aggregation, Residential Storage, and Socioeconomic Inequality at Early Bronze Age Numayra, Jordan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35: 117-134.

Kersel, M.M. (2014) The Lure of the Artefact? The Effects of Acquiring Eastern Mediterranean Material Culture. In A.B. Knapp and P. van Dommelen (eds.) The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean. Pp. 367-378. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kersel, M.M., A.C. Hill, M.S. Chesson (2014) Follow the Pots: Mapping, Surveying, and Site Monitoring at Fifa. American Journal of Archaeology 118(4): 652-653.

Sheridan, S.G., J. Ullinger, L. Gregoricka, and M.S. Chesson (2014) Bioarchaeological Reconstruction of Group Identity at Early Bronze Age Bab edh-Dhra`, Jordan. In Remembering the Dead in the Ancient Near East: Recent Contributions from Bioarchaeology and Mortuary Archaeology, edited by Benjamin W. Porter and Alexis T. Boutin, pp. 133-184. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Press.

White, C.E., M.S. Chesson, and R.T. Schaub (2014) A Recipe for Disaster: Emerging Urbanism and Unsustainable Plant Economies at Early Bronze Age Ras an-Numayra, Jordan. Antiquity 88: 363-377.

2013:

Kersel, M.M. and M.S. Chesson (2013) Looting Matters Early Bronze Age Cemeteries of Jordan’s southeast Dead Sea Plain in the Past and Present. In S. Tarlow and L. Nilsson Stutz (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial, pp. 677-694. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kersel, M.M. and M.S. Chesson (2013) Tomato Season in the Ghor es-Safi: A Lesson in Community Archaeology. Near Eastern Archaeology 76(3): 159-165.

2012:

Chesson, M.S. (2012) Homemaking in the Early Bronze Age. In New Perspectives in Household Archaeology, edited by Bradley J. Parker and Catherine P. Foster, pp. 45-79. Winona Lake, IL: Eisenbrauns.

Kersel, M.M. (2012) The Value of a Looted Object – Stakeholder Perceptions in the Antiquities Trade. In J. Carman, C. McDavid and R. Skeates (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Public Archaeology, pp. 253-274. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kersel, M.M. (2012) The Power of the Press: The Effects of Press Releases and Popular Magazines on the Antiquities Trade. In Carol Meyers and Eric Meyers (eds.) Archaeology, Politics and the Media, pp. 72-82. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Kersel, M.M. and N.L. Brodie (2012) The Social and Political Consequences of Devotion to Biblical Artifacts. In P.K. Lazrus and A.W. Barker (eds.) All the Kings Horses: Looting, Antiquities Trafficking and the Integrity of the Archaeological Record, pp. 109-125. Washington DC: Society for American Archaeology.

2011:

Kersel, M.M. and M.S. Chesson (2011) Not the Usual Suspects: New Directions in Community Archaeology. SAA Archaeological Record 11(4): 43-46.

Kersel, M.M. (2011) When Communities Collide: Competing Claims for Archaeological Objects in the Market Place. Archaeologies. Journal of the World Archaeological Congress 7(3): 518-537.

Published volumes (in order of publication):

Schaub, R. T. and W. E. Rast (1989). Bab edh-Dhra’: Excavations in the Cemetery Directed By Paul W. Lapp (1965-1967). Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. (with contributions by specialists W.M. Krogman, T. Ludwig, A. Wilkinson, N.Luffman Yedlowski, and J.M. Adovasio)

Rast, W. E, and R. T. Schaub (2003) Bab edh-Dhra’: Excavations at the Town Site (1975-1981). Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. (with contributions by specialists J. Donahue; J.R. Harlan; D.W. McCreery; S.K. Short; M.A. McConaughy, R. Maddin, J.D. Muhly, and T. Stech; N. Lapp; N.H. Broeder and H.C.W. Skinner; J.M. Adovasio, R.L. Andrews, J.S. Illingsworth, C.A. Pappas, and E.A. Oliver; J.R. Lee; and J.M. Weinstein)

Ortner, D. and B. Fröhlich (2008). The Early Bronze Age I Tombs and Burials of Bab edh-Dhra`, Jordan. Reports of the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan Volume 3. New York: AltaMira Press.

Publications in Peer-reviewed Journals, Edited Books, Ph.D. Dissertations, and Newsletters:

Adovasio, J.M. and R.L. Andrews (1983) Selected Perishable Artifacts from Bab edh-Dhra’. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 247: 59-70.

Adovasio, J.M., R.L. Andrews, and R.C. Carlisle (1978) Textile Remains and Basketry Impresions from Bab edh-Dhra’, 1975. In Preliminary Excavation Reports: Bab edh-Dhra’, Sardis, Meiron, Tell el-Hesi, Carthage (Punic), ed by D.N. Freedman, pp. 57-60. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 43. Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental Research.

Alexander R. E. and Johnston, Robert H. (1982) “Xeroradiography of Ancient Objects; A New Imaging Modality,” in Archaeological Ceramics, ed. by J. Olin and Alan D. Franklin, Smithsonian Institution Press, 145-154.

Bentley, G. R. (1987). Kinship and Social Structure at Early Bronze Age IA Bab edh-Dhra’, Jordan: A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Mortuary and Dental Data. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago.

Bentley, G. R. (1991). A Bioarchaeological Reconstruction of the Social and Kinship Systems at Early Bronze Age Bab edh-Dhra’, Jordan. Between Bands and States. Carbondale, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University. 5-34.

Benyon, D., Donahue, J. Schaub, R.T. and Johnston, R.H. (1986) Tempering Types and Sources for Early Bronze Age Ceramics from Bab edh-Dhra’ and Numeira, Jordan. Journal of Field Archaeology 13: 297-305.

Chesson, M.S. (1999) Libraries of the Dead: Early Bronze Age Charnel Houses and Social Identity at Urban Bab edh-Dhra’, Jordan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18: 137-164.

Chesson, M.S. (2001) Embodied Memories of Place and People: Death and Society in an Early Urban Community, in Social Memory, Identity and Death: Ethnographic and Archaeological Perspectives on Mortuary Rituals, Meredith S. Chesson (ed.), pp. 100-113. Archaeological Publications of the American Anthropological Association Publication Series, Vol. 10. Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association.

Chesson, M. S. (2007) House, Town, Field, and Wadi: Economic, Political and Social Landscapes in Early Bronze Age Walled Communities of the Southern Levant. In The Durable House: House Society Models in Archaeology, edited by Robin A. Beck, Jr., pp. 317-343. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 35. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University.

Chesson, M. S. (2007) Remembering and Forgetting in Early Bronze Age Mortuary Practices on the southeastern Dead Sea Plain, Jordan. In Performing Death: Social Analyses of Funerary Traditions in the Ancient Mediterranean, ed. Nicola Laneri., pp. 109-123. Chicago: Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.

Chesson, Meredith S. 2011* ‘the depth of their impression’: Honoring Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub’s Scholarship and Contributions to Early Bronze Age Studies in the Southern Levant, in Daily Life, Materiality and Complexity in Early Urban Communities of the Southern Levant: Papers in Honor of Walter Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Edited by Meredith S. Chesson with Associate Editors Ian Kuijt and Walter Aufrecht, pp. vii – xii. Winona Lake, IN: Eisebrauns Publishing.

Chesson, Meredith S. (ed.) 2011. Daily Life, Materiality and Complexity in Early Urban Communities of the Southern Levant: Papers in Honor of Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Edited by Meredith S. Chesson with Associate Editors Ian Kuijt and Walter Aufrecht. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns Publishing.

Chesson, Meredith S. 2012 Homemaking in the Early Bronze Age. In New Perspectives in Household Archaeology, edited by Bradley J. Parker and Catherine P. Foster, pp. 45-79. Winona Lake, IL: Eisenbrauns.

Chesson, M.S. (2016) Risky Business: A Life Full of Obligations to the Dead and the Living on the Early Bronze Age Southeastern Dead Sea Plain, Jordan, in The Archaeology of Anxiety, edited by Jeffrey Fleischer and Neil Norman, pp. 41-65. New York: Springer.

Chesson, M.S. (2015) Reconceptualizing the Early Bronze Age Southern Levant without Cities: Local Histories and Walled Communities of EBA II-III Society. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 28.1: 21-79.

Chesson, M.S. (2012) Homemaking in the Early Bronze Age. In New Perspectives in Household Archaeology, edited by Bradley J. Parker and Catherine P. Foster, pp. 45-79. Winona Lake, IL: Eisenbrauns.

Chesson, M.S. and N. Goodale (2014) Population Aggregation, Residential Storage, and Socioeconomic Inequality at Early Bronze Age Numayra, Jordan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35: 117-134.

Chesson, M.S. and R.T. Schaub (2007) Death and Dying on the Dead Sea Plain: Fifa, al-Khanazir and Bab adh-Dhra` Cemeteries. In Crossing Jordan: North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan, edited by Thomas E. Levy, P.M. Michele Daviau, Randall W. Younker, and May Shaer, pp. 253-260. London: Equinox Press.

Coogan, M.D. (1984) Numeira 1981. Bulletin of the American Schools or Oriental Research 255: 75-81.

Donahue, J. (1980) Preliminary Report on the 1979 Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain Jordan: Geology. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 240: 47-52.

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